Topographic Surveying

Lecture 2
GE 12: General Surveying II

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry GE 12 General Surveying II
Objectives
At the end of the lecture the students should be able to:
Identify the use and applications of topographic mapping.
Represent topography in different methods.
Enumerate the different characteristics of contours.
Specify different field methods in topographic surveying
and contour interpolation.
Perform a topographic survey.

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry GE 12 General Surveying II
Outline
Topography, Topographic Surveying and Maps
Methods of Representing Relief
Characteristics and Types of Contours
Selection of Contour Interval
Application of Contour
Basic Field Methods for Locating Topographic Details
Locating Contour Lines by Interpolation
Standards for Accuracy of Maps and Map Data
*Determining Slope*

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry GE 12 General Surveying II
 Topography
Topographia greek for a description of a place
Topographos greek for describing a place
Topos + Graphein greek for place + write

The configuration or shape and roughness of the

ground.

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry GE 12 General Surveying II
 Topographic Survey
A process of determining the positions, on the
earths surface, of the natural and man-made
features of a given locality and in determining the
configuration of the terrain.
A survey of selected natural and artificial
features of a part of the earths surface to
determine horizontal and vertical spatial
relations.
Associated Surveys: Control and As-built.
Department of Geodetic Engineering
Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry GE 12 General Surveying II
Department of Geodetic Engineering
Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry GE 12 General Surveying II
 Topographic Map
A topographic map shows, through the use of
suitable symbols, (1) the spatial characteristics of the
earths surface, with such features as hills and valleys,
vegetation and rivers, and (2) constructed features
such as buildings, roads, canals, and cultivation. The
distinguishing characteristic of a topographic map, as
compared with other maps, is the representation of
the terrain relief.
(Anderson, et.al.)

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry GE 12 General Surveying II
 Topographic Map
A graphical portrayal of topography.
Shows both the horizontal distances between
features and their elevations above a given
datum.
Provides much definite and exact information that
are usually produced by means of aerial or
satellite photogrammetry.
Planimetric Map vs Topographic Map

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry GE 12 General Surveying II
 Purpose of Topographic Surveying
To gather data necessary for the construction of a graphical
portrayal of planimetric and topographic features
To produce ordinary medium size maps for publication and
general use.
To record all the features of the landscape which can be shown
on the scale of the map.
To prepare highly detailed site plan maps (and digital
databases) of a project site, facilities, or utility infrastructure,
for future design, on going construction, or as-built condition.

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry GE 12 General Surveying II
Considerations in Topographic Surveys
1. Purpose of detailed topographic surveys
2. Map scales and contour intervals
3. Accuracy and degree of detail
4. Horizontal control
5. Vertical control
6. Reference datum

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry GE 12 General Surveying II
Department of Geodetic Engineering
Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry GE 12 General Surveying II
 Project Control for Topographic Surveys

The reference
framework should
consist of two or more
permanent control
points and/or
benchmarks located in
the vicinity of the
project.
These project control
points can then be
used to perform
supplemental
topographic surveys of
the project.
Representation of Relief
Spot Heights
Hachures
Contour Lines and Subaquaeous Contours
Form Lines
Layer Tints
Shading
Illuminated Contours
Ridge and Stream Lining
Block Diagram/Relief Models
Spot Heights
Indicate the elevations at particular points.
- Location: physically documented benchmarks,
unmonumented but important locations (hilltops, bottoms
of depressions, and road intersections)
- Advantage: simple, very accurate for chosen point.
- Disadvantage: does not give the graphic effect of shape, nor
provide any indication of the elevations that exist at
locations between certain points.
- Use: to supplement contours.
Hachures
- Consists of rows of short, nearly parallel lines whose
spacing, weight and direction produce an effect
similar to shading.
- Characteristics of Lines (Lehmann System)
- thick and short on steep slopes
- thin and long on flat slopes
- drawn in the direction of the slope
- Use: when relief cannot be sufficiently expressed by
contours (especially for features like steep slopes,
embankments, and low hills in extremely flat areas).
Hachures
- Advantage: provides 3D effect, and represents the
surface very well especially in areas with considerable
undulation.
- Disadvantage:
- exact elevations or slopes cannot be determined.
- mass of lines conflict with other map details.
- process is difficult and time-consuming.
- requires workers to have considerable training and
practice.
Contour Lines
- A line joining points of equal elevation on the map.
- Reference Datum: Mean Sea Level.
- Color: brown; blue for areas below sea level or
glaciers.
- Advantage: accurate (depending on the survey
method, contour interval, and variability of surface),
and indicates elevations directly and quantitatively
- Disadvantage: not legible to the layman.
 Subaquaeous Contours
Depth curves used to portray the ground
underwater.
Usually shown in blue lines to identify it to
other contour lines.
Primarily used to show bottom contours of
lakes, seas, oceans and other bodies of
water.
 Ridge and Stream Lining

- Used to emphasize the location of high and

low ground, usually used as an overlay in
aerial photographs and topographic maps.
- Main streams and tributaries are drawn in
blue solid lines.
- Main ridges are drawn as brown dashed
lines
Form Lines
- Resemble contours, but are not drawn with the
same degree of accuracy.
- Representation: dashed lines.
- Disadvantage: dont portray actual elevations.
- Uses:
- when not enough vertical control is available.
- when the surface is too irregular or intricate to
contour.
- to outline elevation zones in layer-tinted maps.
Layer Tints
- Each elevation zone is indicated by printing a
distinctive color or tone between the bounding
contours.
- Assumption: elevation within a given zone all fall
within the limits established by the contours.
- Tints:
- Gray values(black and white):
lighter tones higher elevations
darker tones lower elevations
Layer Tints
- Color:
cool green lower elevations
warm oranges, browns, reds upper elevations
white highest elevations
- Disadvantage:
- do not differentiate internal variations within
each layer.
- has potential for misinterpretation.
- Use: for small-scale maps.
Shading
- An assumed light source from the northwest is
imagined as creating areas of light and shadow in
a mountainous area.

- Advantage: provides 3D effect.

- Disadvantage: not quantifiable.
- Use: to show the general features where the relief
are high and the slopes are steep, and to enhance
the readability of contours.
Illuminated Contours

- The contours are drawn as if they were illuminated by

a light source from the upper-left corner of the map.

- Advantage: provides 3D effect, and elevations can be

read in a usual manner.
- Disadvantage: gives the unrealistic impression that the
surface is divided into layers, rather than being made
up into continuous slopes.
Block Diagram

- A pictorial representation of the surface, drawn from a

viewpoint in space.
- Advantage: provides 3D effect.
- Disadvantage:
- introduces planimetric displacement of the features.
- elevated features on the diagram hide from view
portions of the area located behind them.
- Note: usually produced by computer methods.
Relief Model
- A representation of the terrain done in 3D to suitable
horizontal and vertical scales.
- A miniature of the terrain it represents.
- Advantage: most legible of all relief methods
- Disadvantage: use is limited because of cost and bulk.
- Uses:
- for instruction
- for public exhibit
- aid in the special studies of geologists, geographers and
engineers.
Methods of Making Relief Models
1. simplest method
a. draw a map on a board
b. drive a nail of proper length proportional to the
elevation at every important point.
c. build up the map with sand, cement, plaster, paper,
mache, or any local available material.
d. when hardened, paint the model.
e. spray with liquid plastic for added protection.
Methods of Making Relief Models
2. cardboard-cutting method
a. copy each contour line on the map on a separate
cardboard.
b. cut them starting with the lowest contour.
c. paste or nail cut-outs over each other.
d. smooth the model.
e. cast the model on a frame.
Contours
- Topographic maps are particularly useful
for terrain analysis projects.

- Contour lines are the fundamental source

of terrain information on such maps.
Contour Lines
The most widely used method of quantitatively
representing ground terrain and surface on a
two-dimensional sheet of paper.
Also called: isohyps
Characteristics of Contours
1. the horizontal distance between contours is
inversely related to the slope. Closely-spaced
contours signify steep slope.

2. on uniform slopes, the contours are

uniformly spaced.

3. contours are straight and parallel on a plane

surface.
Characteristics of Contours
5. all contours must close upon themselves
either within or outside the map borders.

6. contours cannot merge or cross one another

on the map, except on an overhanging cliff or
walls.

7. irregular contours signify rough, rugged

terrain.
Characteristics of Contours

7. on rivers, contours point upstream.

8. all points on any contour have the same

elevation.

9. a single contour cannot lie between two contours

of higher or lower elevation.

10. contours cross curbs and a sloping road in

typical U-shaped curves.
Types of Contours: INDEX
- Defined as every fifth contour (usually) in which the
line thickness is made heavier than the rest.
- It contains the number to designate the elevation.
- On some maps, numbers are placed so that the top
of the number denotes uphill.
- The contour is broken to leave a space for the
number.
- Contours must be frequently numbered, especially
for long ones.
Types of Contours: INTERMEDIATE
- Defined as lighter weight contours found in
between index contours.
- Not usually labeled except where the terrain is
relatively flat and the elevations are not relatively
obvious.
- In portions of the map where the intermediate
contours are so closely spaced as to nearly merge
in to a single line, they are not drawn (called
feathering).
Types of Contours: SUPPLEMENTAL
- Used in areas that are so flat that the contours are
far apart (to better depict the relief).

- Drawn as dotted lines or dashed lines that begin

and end when they approach the areas where the
regular contours close on each other.

- Usually drawn at the specified contour interval.

Types of Contours: DEPRESSION
- Used to show low spots (i.e. excavations
around which contours close in).

- Ticks are drawn perpendicular to the

contours on the downhill side.
Types of Contours: APPROXIMATE
- For areas where the elevations are not
accurately determined.
Contour Intervals
- difference in elevation between two
adjoining contours.
- the scale by which the vertical distance or
elevations are measured on a map.
- on smaller scale maps, the contour interval
is not constant.
Factors Affecting the Choice of Contour
Intervals:
1. accuracy
2. features
3. legibility
4. cost
5. use of the map

Contour Interval Map Scale Relationship:

SMALLER scale, LARGER contour interval
Applications of Contours

1. Elevation Estimation linear interpolation

2. Reservoir Capacity Estimation - volume
3. Flood-zone Maps - overflows
4. Intervisibility Between Points - profiles

Among others.
Profiles
- Profiles are simply the cross-sectional view
through a particular piece of terrain.
- They provide a relatively quick and accurate
means of such useful information as:
- relative steepness of slope of terrain at given locations,
- form of hills,
- relationships of hilltops to depressions,
- intervisibility of points, and
- determination of hidden areas.
Profiles
- Also used in the planning of construction projects involving
earth movements like road, railroad, pipeline construction.

-
 Field Methods for Locating Topographic
Details

Factors to consider in choosing the method:

Nature of the project
Scale of the map
Contour interval
Type of terrain
Required accuracy
Equipment available
Type of existing control
Extent of the area to be mapped
Experience of the survey personnel
Field Methods for Locating Topographic
Details
Detailing is the process of tying mapping details to the
control network.
Location of contours and planimetric features can be
accomplished by one of the following field procedures:
1. Radiation by total station
2. Radiation by stadia
3. Coordinate squares/grid method
4. Offsets from a reference line/cross-profile
5. Topographic Detailing with GPS
 (1) Radiation by Total Station

The total station is set up at a control point where distances and directions to
points of interest are observed, in order to calculate their positions and
elevations.
Locate instrument at a good vantage point (e.g. hill or ridge) that overlooks a
large part, or all of the area to be surveyed.
All topographic details and critical points are considered sideshots.
This method is dependent on the scale of the map and size of the objects.
Advantages: rapid, efficient, accurate
Disadvantages: some features/objects may be displaced
 (2) Radiation by Stadia
The process is similar to radiation by total station
except that stadia determine horizontal distances to
pints and their elevations.
Applies the principle of tacheometry (i.e. comparing
similar triangles) in obtaining topographic details.
 (3) Coordinate Squares/Grid Method

Similar to borrow-pit leveling

Better adapted in locating contours than planimetric features, but can be used for both.
The area to be surveyed is staked in squares 5, 10, 20 or 40 meters on a side, the size
depending on the terrain (e.g. for gentle slope, wide spacing; rolling to rugged terrain,
denser grids) and accuracy required.
The elevations of the corners are determined by total station or stadia, and the contour
lines are interpolated by estimation or by proportional distances.
Disadvantage: time-consuming, critical points are not always observed
(4) Offsets from a Reference Line
Usually applied for long linear features like railways,
roads streams, fences, and pipelines.
A reference/center line is staked and stationed, and
planimetric features are located by observing
perpendicular offsets from it and noting the stations
from which the offsets were taken (similar to profile
leveling).
Total stations are better to be used to maintain
accuracy since long lengths will be observed.
(5) Topographic Detailing with GPS

Kinematic GPS survey is usually employed to acquire

real-time data stored in files and readily downloadable for
processing.
It is important to transform GPS-derived ellipsoidal heights
to orthometric values.
Advantage: fast (1-5 sec interval), reliable, simple, requires
a single person to operate.
Disadvantage: features cannot be readily tagged
 New: Laser Scanning
High definition surveying
Reflectorless, laser EDM is used to automate digital angle
observation that can quickly produce grids of 3D coordinates
for user-defined scenes.
Produces a point cloud (dense 3D points) that forms a visual
image of the scene.
The points can be assigned to have ground coordinates by
using targets (controls).
Advantage: produces detailed data, fast
Disadvantage: costly instrument, large files
New: Laser Scanning
Locating Contour Lines by Estimation
- Assume first that between each pair of control points
a constant uniform slope exists. Then, follow these
steps:

1. Draw straight lines connecting each control point to its

nearest neighbors.
2. After noting the contour interval, estimate the locations of
points that will lie on the contours to be drawn.
3. Connect estimated points with known elevation.
Locating Contour Lines by Analytical Method
of Interpolation
Linear interpolation
Assume that slope between two adjacent points is uniform
Principle: the ratio of horizontal length of a line to the
difference in elevation in its extremities is the same ratio
of the horizontal distance between either extremity and
any intermediate point in the line (similar triangles).
C
c
AB = Ab
BC bc
A
b B **BC corresponds to CI
Locating Contour Lines by Analytical Method
of Interpolation
Tips:
- contours are fine, smooth, freehand lines of uniform width.
- draw the index contours first to facilitate the location of the
intermediate contours.
- draw ridge and valley lines first.
- draw spot heights at important points.
LAB EXERCISE
SURFER 8.0
DEM CREATION USING
CONTOUR/TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS
Test for Accuracy of Maps and Map Data

Test points/Checkpoints
points readily identifiable on a map and on the ground, whose
position have been determined by higher-order survey.

ASPRS (1989) Accuracy Standards

the conventional rectangular topographic map must be field-checked
with a minimum of 20 checkpoints, where 20 % of these points,
located in each quadrant of the map sheet, are spaced at intervals of
at least 10% of the map sheet diagonal.
checkpoints should be concentrated in critical areas containing
structures and drainage facilities.
less dense concentration in areas where no construction is to occur.
Test for Accuracy of Maps and Map Data

Field Checks for Planimetric Accuracy

this can be conducted using differential GPS surveys for
single-point coordinate observation; by using the result of a
field survey.
Field Checks for Vertical Accuracy
can be assessed by running levels or profiles to determine
heights; use of GPS.

Other Approaches
compare map features of one map to a map of the same
area but at a larger scale.
Standards for Accuracy of Maps
and Map Data
With regards to horizontal accuracy, no more than 10% of
well-defined points shall be in error by more than 0.80 mm
(1:20,000 or larger).

With regards to vertical accuracy, no more than 10% of the

elevations tested shall be in error by more than 1/2 of the
used contour interval.

Note: These standards are not applicable to large-scale maps

due to the techniques employed to compile the maps and the
uses to which these large- scale maps are applied.
ASPRS Specifications and Standards (1989)

RMSE (m) Typical Map Scale

0.0125 1:50
0.025 1:100
0.050 1:200
0.125 1:500
0.25 1:1000
0.50 1:2000
1.00 1:4000
1.25 1:5000
2.50 1:10000
5.00 1:20000
 Determining Slope from
Contour Lines
Study: Illustrative Problem No. 2 on Higher
Surveying book by La Putt (pages 150-151 ).
Familiarize yourselves with the different
symbols used in topographic maps.
 References
Anderson, James & E. Mikhail (1998), Surveying: Theory
and Practice 7th Edition, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Davis, Raymond E., et.al. (1981), Surveying: Theory and Practice
6th Edition, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
DENR Administrative Order 98-12. Revised Manual of Land
Surveying Regulations in the Philippines.
La Putt, Juny P. (1987), Higher Surveying 2nd Edition, Cacho
Hermanos Inc.
US Army Corps of Engineers. (2007), Engineering and
Design: Control and Topographic Surveying (EM 1110-1-1005).
CECW-CE, Washington, DC.
Thank you for listening!