Psychology 101
physical
Chapter 1: Understanding the Science of Psychology
Psychology
Scientific study of behavior
o Behavior: outward, overt actions and
reactions
o Mental Processes: internal, covert activity
in our minds
A science
o Prevent possible biases from leading to
faulty observations
o Precise and careful measurement
4 goals
o Description
o Explanation
o Prediction
o Control
Roots of Psychology
Philosophers, Medical doctors, Physiologists
o Medical Doctors & Physiologists
(interested in physical connection of mind
and body)
Gustav Fechner (staring at the
sun: mind and body are
connected)
Hermann von Helmholtz
(perceptions, sensations,
emotions; how it affects us)
o Wilhelm Wundt
Interested in studying the
structure of the mind
What is the mind made
up of?
o Thoughts,
Experiences,
Emotions, and
other basic
elements
o Physical
sensations
Objective introspection
(examining and measuring ones
own thoughts and mental
activities)
Father of Psychology
o Titchener and Structuralism
Student of Wundt
Structuralism: structure of the
mind
Every experience can be broken
down into its individual emotions
and sensations (thoughts,
imaginings, ideas, etc.)
o William James and Functionalism
Anatomy -> Physiology ->
Psychology
Focus is on how the mind allows
people to function in daily life
Instead of examining content
of consciousness
Influenced by Charles Darwins
idea of natural selection
Natural selection:
attributes/behavior/emot
ions passed down
Influenced:
Educational psychology
Industrial/organizational
psychology
Evolutionary
psychology
o Max Wertheimer and Gestalt Psychology
Perceiving and sensing could not
be broken down into smaller
elements and still be understood
Perception can only be
understood as a whole, entire
event
The whole is greater than the
sum of its parts
As people, we naturally seek out
patterns or wholes in the things
we perceive
o Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt: an organized whole
(German)
Cognitive Psychology: learning,
memory, problem solving
Gestalt Therapy (assist clients
into accepting unwanted parts of
themselves)
----- Early trends -------
o Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis
Neurologist; Proposed that there
is an unconscious into which
werepressout threatening urges
and desires
Importance of childhood
experiences
Personality is formed in
first 6 years of life
Ego Movement: Anna Freud,
Alfred Adler, Carl Jung
Basis for Psychotherapy (work
with client to explore
unconscious)
o Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
Russian physiologist ->dogs
(worked with around 40 dogs)
A reflex (involuntary reaction)
could be caused to occur un
response to a formerly unrelated
stimulus
Reflex: Salivation
Unrelated stimulus:
Sound of ticking
metronome
Dog: bell -> food ->
salivate; bell -> salivate
o John B. Watson and Behaviorism
Science of behavior; Watson:
Little Albert (taught babies to
fear white rat -> afraid of
anything white and fuzzy;
stimulus-response relationship)
 Wanted to focus on observable
behavior (vs. Freud
unconscious)
Read Pavlovs work and used it
as bases
Used Pavlovs
observations on people
(infants)
o Freud vs. Watson
Behavior
Freud: from
unconscious motivation
Watson: learned
Phobia
Freud: a symptom of a
repressed conflict and
psychoanalysis is
needed to uncover it
Watson: learned through
conditioning
o Mary Cover Jones and Little Peter
Little Peter: white rabbit
Counter-conditioning
Old conditioning (fear
of rabbit) would be
replaced
White rabbit + desired
food
Jones: Key pioneer of behavior
therapy
Which in turn
influenced cognitive
therapy
The 7 Modern Perspectives
1. Psychodynamic Perspective
Unconscious mind influence conscious
behavior
Childhood experiences are important
More emphasis on development of self and
relationships
Exploring unconscious motivations
2. Behavioral Perspective
John B. Watson moved on to advertising
New Leader: B.F. Skinner
o Operational conditioning
o Behavioral response + Pleasurable
consequence = reinforced
3. Humanistic Perspective
Third force in Psychology
Reaction to both psychoanalytic and
behavioral perspectives
People have the ability to direct their own
lives
Free will and self-actualization
Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers
The curious paradox is when I accept myself
just as I am, then I can change
4. Cognitive Perspective
Focuses on how people think, remember,
store, and use information
Development of computers, work with
children, discovery of biological psychology
o Cognitive neuroscience
Memory, intelligence, perception, though
processes, problem solving, language, and
learning
5. Sociocultural Perspective
Social + Cultural Psychology
o Social: study of groups, social roles,
and social rules
o Cultural: cultural norms, values and
expectations
The way we behave and think is affected by
who we are with and the culture we belong to
Cross-cultural research
6. Biopsychological Perspective
Human and animal behavior are direct results
of biological processes
o Hormones, Heredity, Brain chemicals,
Tumors, Diseases
7. Evolutionary Perspective
Focuses on the universal biological basis for
mental characteristics
Why we lie, how we select mates, why are
some fears very common, why people like
music
The mind has been designed through natural
selection
Using the Scientific Method in Psychology
A system of reducing bias and error in
measurement
Prevents against confirmation bias
Guides you to actively look for information
o Even those that might contradict your
assumptions
Steps:
o Perceiving the Question
o Forming a Hypothesis
o Testing the Hypothesis
o Drawing Conclusions
o Reporting Results
Methods:
o Descriptive
Naturalistic Observation
Laboratory Observation
Case Studies
Surveys
o Relational
Correlations
The Experiment
Descriptive Methods
1. Naturalistic Observation
Observer effect
Participant Observation
Observer bias (Blind observers)
Hard to generalize; conditions will not be
similar
2. Laboratory Observation
Allows control
Might cause artificial behavior (person might
act differently)
3. Case Studies
A single individual is studied in-depth
Cannot be generalized
Prone to bias
 4. Surveys Building blocks of the nervous system
Can gain insight into personal information Receives and sends messages
Interviews, phone, Internet, questionnaire Makes up only 10% of brain
Representative sample = should be random Parts:
Courtesy bias o Nucleus: keeps cell alive
Issues in wording (misinterpretations) o Soma: cell body, protects nucleus
o Dendrites: branches, receives messages
Relational Methods o Axon: cable-like terminal
1. Correlations o Axon terminals: send messages
Measure of relationship between two or more o Myelin Sheaths: protect axon, insulation
variables
Correlation coefficient = r Glial Cells
o The direction of relationship and its Makes up 90% of the brain
strength Has different types with various functions (mom)
Positive or negative o Structural support for growing neurons
Strong (close to 1) or weak (close o Influence generation of neurons during
to 0) early development
Positive: both increase/decrease; o Insulate neurons with myelin
Negative: opposite o Deliver nutrients to neurons
Does not prove causation (which variable is o Clean up waste and remains of dead
the cause/effect) neurons
2. The Experiment o Communicate with neurons and other glial
Only method that will allow determination of cells
cause 2 types of Glial Cells
Operational definition: defining exactly what o Oligodendrocytes: give myelin sheaths to
you want to measure neurons; structure; produce myelin of
Independent variable CNS
Dependent variable o Schwann cells: produce myelin for PNS
Experimental group: exposed to IV o Covering:
Control group: not exposed to IV Myelin Sheath: speeds up travel
Confounding variables of neural impulsive (an electrical
o May interfere with the effect of the IV impulsive)
on the DV Neurilemma (Schwanns
membrane): a tunnel through
Experimental Hazards which damaged nerves can repair
Data you want to see; expectations themselves; only in peripheral
Placebo Effect nervous system
o The expectations and biases of participants Nerves: bundles of myelin-coated
in the study influence their behavior axons (nerve neurilemma)
Experimenter Effect
o The behavior of the experimenter caused How messages are sent (happens 1/1000 second)
the participant to change his/her own Nodes of Ranvier
response pattern o Spaces between myelin (entrance)
How to control: Axon terminals
o Single-blind study o Branches at the end of axon
Participants are blind to the Dendrites
condition they are assigned to o Branches attached to cell body
o Double-blind study Neurotransmitters
Both participants and o Transmits message (released)
experimenters are blind to the Receptor Sites
conditions o Holes (key), where neurotransmitters
fit/binds
Chapter 2: The Biological Perspective
Neurotransmitters
Neuroscience Acetylcholine
Structure and functioning of brain o Stimulates skeletal muscles to contract
Neurons, nerves, and nervous tissues of the nervous o Slows down heart muscles
system o Curare: Antagonist; paralysis (blocks
receptors)
Biological Psychology o Black widow bite: Agonist; convulsions
Behavioral Neuroscience (behavior + neuroscience) (enhances effect of acetylcholine)
Biological bases of psychological processes, o Forming new memories
behavior, and learning o Low levels: Alzheimers disease
Glutamate
Neurons
 o Brains major excitatory neurotransmitter Sympathetic Division (stressed)
o Learning, memory, development of NS, Flight-or-flight system
and brain plasticity (brain reforms to adapt Emotions
to new knowledge) Pupil gets bigger, heart
o High: Over activation and neuronal pumps faster, lungs
damage work faster
GABA Parasympathetic division
o Brains major inhibitory neurotransmitter (recovering from stress)
o Relaxation, calming, prevents anxiety Eat-drink-and-rest
o Alcohol: Agonist (stimulates more system
GABA) Ordinary, day-to-day
Serotonin bodily activities
o Sleep, mood, appetite Restore the body to
o Low: Depression normal functioning after
Dopamine stressful event
o Control of movement Body normalizes itself
o Sensations of pleasure
o Rewarding feeling Endocrine Glands and the Endocrine System
o Low: Parkinsons disease (shaking) Secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream
o High: Schizophrenia (numbness: want Blood carries it to target organ
Slower compared to synaptic communication
more)
Glands:
Neural regulators
o Pituitary Glands
o Neural peptides
Controls and influences other
o Control the release of other
glands
neurotransmitters
Pregnancy: milk, labor
Endorphins
Levels of salt and water
o Endogenous Morphine
Growth
o Control sensation of pain Stimulates glands
o Morphine, Heroin and other opium- o Pineal Gland
derived drugs Melatonin; sleep-wake cycle
Body neglects to produce Animals: breeding; molting
endorphins o Thyroid Gland
Growth
The Central Nervous System Thyroxin: metabolism
The Brain Body and brain development
o Processes info from all senses o Pancreas
o Makes decisions Insulin and glucagon
o Sends commands to different body parts Too little insulin: diabetes
The Spinal Cord Too much insulin: hypoglycemia
o Long bundle of neurons o Gonads
The Reflex Arc Ovaries and testes
o Connection of nerves in the body to nerves Regulate sexual behavior and
in the spinal cord reproduction
o Allows quicker reaction time o Adrenal Glands
Afferent (sensory) neurons Adrenal medulla: epinephrine
Efferent (motor) neurons and norepinephrine when under
Interneurons stress
Adrenal cortex
The Peripheral Nervous System Corticoids: regulate salt
All nerves and neurons that are not in the brain and intake
spinal cord o Initiate and
Allows CNS to communicate with sense organs control stress
Can be divided into 2 parts: reactions
o Somatic NS Cortisol: physical and
Anything voluntary psychological stress
(movement/actions)
Sensory pathway: nerves Chapter 5: A Look at Learning
containing afferent neurons
Motor pathway: nerves Learning
containing efferent neurons Any relatively permanent change in behavior
o Autonomic NS brought about by experience or practice
Involuntary Not all changes in behavior are due to learning
Control organs, glands, and o Maturation = change due to biology, not
involuntary muscles experience

Classical Conditioning
Reflex
o An unlearned, involuntary response that is
not under personal choice/control
Ex. Salivation
o Manipulated through classical
conditioning
Stimulus Response
o Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): any
object/event/experience that causes a
response, leads to reflex
o Unconditioned Response (UCR):
reaction to stimulus
o Neutral Stimulus (NS): stimulus that
does not elicit a response, no effect
o Conditioned Stimulus (CS): through
constant pairing of NS with UCS, NS
becomes CS because it elicits the same
response, learned
o Conditioned Response (CR): The
response produced by CS, not as strong as
UCR
Rules:
o CS must come before UCS
Bell Food Salivate, not
Food Salivate Bell
o NS and UCS must come together
The shorter, the better
o NS must be paired with UCS several
times
o Chosen NS must be distinctive
Stimulus Generalization
o Tendency to respond to a stimulus that is
similar to the original conditioned
stimulus
Stimulus Discrimination
o When one is able to discriminate between
similar stimuli and respond differently
Extinction
o The dying out of the conditioned
response when CS is no longer paired with
UCS
o But nothing really goes away
Spontaneous Recovery
o Conditioned response briefly reappears
when CS returns
o Short-lived and weak
Our emotional responses are conditioned
o Day-to-day things (commercials, brands)
are able to manipulate people because of
this
Vicarious Conditioning
o We can become conditioned simply by
watching other people
Conditioned Taste Aversion
o Even one instance of pairing is enough,
when the reflex is nausea
Survival mechanism
Why does Classical Conditioning Work?
o Pavlov
Through Stimulus Substitution
The two stimuli become
associated so closely that they
come to activate the same area
in the brain
o Rescorla
From the cognitive perspective
CS provides an information about
the UCS
Allows one to expect the coming
of the UCS
~~~ Classical Conditioning: Learning reflexive involuntary
behavior (Pavlov, Watson)~~~
Operant Conditioning
Learning voluntary behavior
Edward Thorndike
o Not yet called operant conditioning
o Cat and the puzzle box (how cats could
escape; reward food outside)
Change of behavior due to
consequences/rewards
o Law of effect
Action pleasant consequence
= action will tend to be
repeated
Action unpleasant
consequence = action will tend
not to be repeated
B.F. Skinner
o B.F. = Burrhus Frederic
o Coined the name Operant Conditioning
Conditioning how people operate
the world
Voluntary behavior = operant
behavior
Reinforcement
o Anything that follows a response and
makes it more likely to be repeated
o The key to learning
o Getting something good = positive
reinforcement
Addition of stimulus to increase
behavior
o Avoiding something bad = negative
reinforcement
NOT a punishment, negative =
take away something (still
rewarding)
Removal of stimulus to increase
behavior (should be something
that the person doesnt like)
Two basic kinds of reinforcers:
o Primary Reinforcer
Fulfills a basic need (hunger,
thirst, pleasure)
Or removal of pain and
discomfort
More effective for younger kids
o Secondary Reinforcer
Money, tokens
Involves classical conditioning
Schedules of Reinforcement
o Timing
o Partial reinforcement effect
 Giving reinforcement after an Variable Interval
accumulated number of correct o Reinforcement
responses is given at a
Schedules: varying time
Which is important? interval
o Interval o Regardless of
Schedule the # of
Rewar responses; but
d is there should be
given at least be one
on response
TIME Fixed Ratio
o Ratio o Reinforce will
Schedule be given after
Rewar a fixed
d is number of
given responses
accord o Regardless of
ing to time interval
the Variable Ratio
NUM o Reinforcement
BER is given after a
OF variable
RESP number of
ONSE responses
S o Regardless of
Is schedule constant or time interval
not? o Most effective,
o Fixed = time addictive
interval or o Continuous reinforcement
number of Giving reinforcement after every
required response
responses is Tends to be slower but more
the same in long-lasting
each case Punishment
o Variable= time o Punishment weakens a response/makes
interval or a response less likely to happen
number of o Punishment by application
required
Adding something unpleasant
responses
o Punishment by removal
changes in
Remove something pleasurable
each case
Issues with Punishment
4 types:
o Reducing a response is harder than
Fixed Interval
strengthening a response
o Reinforce is
o Bad behavior is not completely
given after a
eliminated; temporary
fixed time
o May lead to a wrong response
interval has
passed How to make punishment more effective:
o Regardless of o Punishment should immediately follow
the # of behavior it is meant to weaken
responses; but o Punishment should be consistent or
there should at increasing incrementally
least be one o Punishment of the wrong behavior should
response be paired with reinforcement of the right
o Scalloping behavior
effect = Other concepts
response rate o Shaping
goes up just Reinforcement of simple steps in
before behavior that lead to a desired,
reinforce is more complex behavior
given, and then Done using a series of successive
goes down after approximations
reinforce is Small consecutive steps
given that lead to a particular
behavior
 o Behavior modification
Use of operant conditioning to
bring about changes in behavior
Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Learning reflexive
Learning Voluntary Behavior
involuntary behavior
Pavlov, Watson Thorndike, Skinner
Leaning a reflex depends on Learning a voluntary
what happened before (the behavior depends on what
antecedent CS and UCS) happens after (consequence)
If I do this, what till happen
This happened, so I reacted
to me? Whats in it for
like this
me?
Cognitive Learning Theory
Edward Tolman
o Rats puzzle
3 groups:
1-food, able to figure
out maze
2-just wandering, food
after 10 days [knew
where the exit was]
Retaining mental maps in our
minds
o Latent Learning
Learning could happen without
reinforcement
Learning will manifest later on
when it becomes beneficial to use
what was learned
Wolfgang Khler
o Insight (sudden flash of answer)
Studied chimpanzees
Behavior = not trial and
error
No
reinforcement/shaming
The aha moment
The sudden coming together of
relationships among various parts
of the problem, making the
solution come quickly
Experiment with Sultan the
Chimp
Martin Seligman
o Studied dogs and voltages (classical
conditioning)
o Learned helplessness
Learned to be helpless
Tendency to fail to act during a
situation because of previous
experience of repeated failures
Albert Bandura and Observational Learning
Learning new behavior by watching others (model)
do it
Discovered observational learning
o Leaning voluntary behavior (different
from vicarious conditioning reflexes)
Bobo doll: showed children a video of a man
aggressively punching a bobo doll
o Modeling of Aggression observed the
children when left alone with the bobo
doll imitated aggression
o Increased attraction to guns and hostile
language
o No punishment seen
Chapter 6: Examining Memory
Memory
An active system that receives information from
the senses, puts that info into usable form,
organizes and stores it, and retrieves that info from
storage
3 processes:
o Putting it in
Encoding
Converting information from the
senses into a form that is useable
by the brains storage system
There are different ways into how
people encode information
o Keeping it in
Storage
Holding on to info for a period of
time
Varying length of time the info
stays
o Getting it out
Retrieval
Getting info out of storage
How Does Memory Work?
Parallel Distributed Processing Model
o Memory is stored in a large network of
neural connection
Memories are tied to something
else (stream of memories)
o Experience changes the strength of
connection between memories
Levels-of-processing Model
o Craik and Tulving (1975)
o The duration of memory in storage
depends on how deeply it was processed
or understood
Information Processing Model
o Sensory memory (selective attention)
Short-term memory (maintenance
rehearsal, consolidation) Long-term
memory (retrieval)
Sensory Memory all
information lost within a second
or so
Short-term Memory
unrehearsed information is lost in
about 15 to 30 seconds
Long-term Memory
information is retained
indefinitely although
o Sensory Memory
Iconic Sensory Memory
Visual
 Capacity: everything in
your field of vision
Duration: very brief
o Masking: new
information
pushes away
old information
Unites one scene to
another, so the
surrounding appears
continuous
Eidetic Imagery: aka
photographic memory
Echoic Sensory Memory
Auditory
Capacity: what can be
heard at a given moment
Duration: 2-4 seconds;
longer than iconic
sensory memory
o Short-Term Memory
Sensory info enters through
short-term memory through
Selective Attention
Focusing on one
stimulus among other
sensory inputs
Original Filter Theory
(Broadbent): Bottleneck
o Only important Kinds of Memories (inside LTM)
stimuli reach
STM, others
are filtered out
o All-or-nothing
Two-stage Filtering
(Treisman)
o Attenuation
(lessening) of
the strength of
unattended
information
o Only stimuli
who meet a
certain
threshold of
importance is
processed
Primarily encoded in auditory
form
But some are stored in
image form
o Working Memory What Affects Retrieval of Info from LTM?
An active system within short-
term memory that processes
information
A central executive that controls
visual sketchpad and
phonological loop
o Capacity of Short-term Memory
Miller: 5-9
Chunking
o Duration of Short-term Memory
12-30 seconds without rehearsal
Memories in the STM decay
Maintenance Rehearsal:
repeating an info over and over in
ones head to help in
remembering
o Long-term Memory
Duration: more or less permanent
Capacity: unlimited
But not all memories are stored
forever
How does info enter Long-term
Memory?
Rote Learning:
repeating maintenance
rehearsal; not the most
effective
Primarily encoded in
conceptual form
o Memories in
the LTM are
organized
according to
their meaning
Elaborative Rehearsal:
transferring info from
STM to LTM by making
it meaningful; related to
levels-of-processing
model
Procedural (non-declarative) Memory
o Involves steps/procedures
o Rarely forgotten
Declarative Memory
o Facts, information, details, concepts
o 2 types:
Semantic Memory
General knowledge and
facts
Enables you to answer
game show questions
Episodic Memory
Personal,
autobiographical
memory
Important episodes of a
persons life
Very meaningful, but
not as accurate
Through Retrieval Cue
o A stimulus for remembering (ex.
Highlighting, writing in a different color,
etc.)
Encoding Specificity
o Tendency for the environment to cue
memories
State-dependent learning
o Memories developed during a certain
emotional state will be easily remembered
when you are in the same state (Amygdala
Hippocampus)
Two Forms of Memory Retrieval
Recall
o Issues
Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon
Error in the working
memory system (visual
sketchpad
phonological loop)
Serial Position Effect
Info at the beginning or
end of list tends to be
remembered more
Primacy Effect (start);
Recency Effect (end)
Recognition
o Issues
False Positives
An individual thinks
he/she have recognized
a person/object
correctly, but was not
able to
Misinformation Effect
o What people
see and hear
about the event
after the fact
can easily
affect the
accuracy of
their memories
of that event
Automatic Encoding
Tendency of certain information to enter LTM with
little or no effortful encoding
o Ex. Traumatic experiences
Flashbulb Memories
Type of automatic encoding, where strongly
emotional events are remembered vividly because
of emotional associations
o Ex. Embarrassing experiences
How Reliable Are Memories?
Memory: broken down into conceptual forms
(LTM); pieced together when trying to remember
(may be different)
Constructive Processing
o The process in memory retrieval wherein
new memory alters, influences, and
revises the retrieval of old memories
o Hindsight Bias
Tendency to believe that one has
accurately predicted the outcome
of the event
I knew it all along
False-Memory Syndrome
o Creation of inaccurate or false memories
through the suggestion of others, often
while person is under hypnosis
o Event must be as plausible/realistic as
possible
o Individuals should be given suggestions
and info to make them believe that these
events could have happened to them
Forgetting
Necessary to keep people sane
Ebbinghaus (first to study about forgetting)
o Memorized a list of nonsense syllables
o Waited for a specified amount of time
before he recalled the items
o He plotted his score, and called it the
forgetting curve
As the delay increases, you
remember less
o Distributed Practice
Spacing out ones study sessions
evenly (30 minutes to 1 hour)
VS. Cramming
Why do People Forget?
o Encoding Failure
It did not get encoding, because
of lack of attention
Failure to process information
into memory
o Memory Trace Decay Theory
Memory trace: a physical change
in the brain corresponding to a
memory (neurons, neural
activity)
Decay: Loss of memory trace
over time when it is no longer
used
o Interference Theory
The memories are there, but it is
hard to retrieve it because other
information interferes
Can come from two directions:
Proactive: Tendency for
previous learning to
interfere with the new
Retroactive: Tendency
for new learning to
interfere when trying to
remember previous
learning
Amnesia
Retrograde Amnesia
o Loss of memory from the past
After accidents
Anterograde Amnesia
o Cannot form new memories
Ex. 50 First Dates
Infantile Amnesia
o Inability to retrieve memories before age 3
Chapter 8: Development Across the Lifespan
Human Development
The scientific study of the changes that occur in
people as they age
Changes in:
o Personality
o Cognition
o Biological Processes
 o Social Interactions
Research Designs
o Longitudinal Design
Same group of people are
assessed as they age
Advantages: real age-related
changes can be seen
Disadvantages: lengthy,
expensive, difficult, high attrition
rate
o Cross-sectional Design
People from different age groups
are studied at one point in time
Advantages: quick, relatively
inexpensive and easier
Disadvantages: cannot conclude
that changes is because of age
o Cross-sequential Design
Combination of longitudinal and
cross-sectional
Nature vs. Nurture
Nature
o Heredity
o The influence of inherited characteristics
Nurture
o The influence of the environment
o Parenting style, physical surroundings,
economic factors, etc.
Feral Children (feral = wild)
All that people are and all that people become is
the product of an interaction between nature and
nurture
The Basic Building Blocks of Development
Chromosomes
o Rod-shaped structures inside the nucleus
of the cell
o Carries the DNA (hence, also carries the
genes)
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
o Contains the genetic codes that control
how protein is built
o Genes: a particular order of amines
Genetic and Chromosome Problems
o Down Syndrome
Almond-shaped, wide-set eyes
Intellectual disability
o Klinefelters Syndrome
Extra 23rd set of sex
chromosomes
XXY: Male with reduced
masculine characteristics
o Turners Syndrome
23rd pair is missing one
chromosome
Web of skin, under-developed
ovaries, poor breast development
X0: short, infertile, and sexually
underdeveloped females
Prenatal Development
Stage 0. Zygote and Twinning
o Sperm fertilizes egg, forming a zygote
Egg separates: identical twins;
two eggs: fraternal twins
Embryonic twin absorption: twin
is absorbed by living twin
Stage 1. Germinal Period
o Zygote begins to divide and move down
the uterus
o This period ends when zygote attaches
itself to the wall of the uterus (source of
nutrients, life)
Stage 2. Embryonic Period
o Cells continue to specialize and become
primitive organs
o Critical Periods:
Times during embryonic period
in which environmental
influences can have an impact on
infant development
Teratogen: any substance, drug,
chemical, virus, or other factor
that can cause a birth defect
Stage 3. Fetal Period
o Organs continue to develop and become
functional
o Presence of teratogens will affect function
of organs
Infancy and Childhood Development
Physical Development
o Reflexes
Innate involuntary behavior
patterns that help the infant
survive
Helps determine if infants
nervous system is working
properly
o Primitive reflexes must resolve prior to
attaining voluntary control over motor
movements (ex. Curling of foot)
o Development is influenced by experience
Sensory Development
o Sense of touch, smell, and taste are highly
developed
o Hearing is functional (even before birth)
but takes longer to reach full potential
o Sense of sight takes 6 months to fully
develop
Cognitive Development
o Development of thinking, problem
solving, and memory
o Piagets Theory
Children form mental concepts or
schemes (schemas) as they
experience new situations
Assimilation: process of
understanding new things in
terms of existing schemes
Anything red apple
Accommodation: process of
altering or adjusting old schemes
to fit new experiences
Short hair Girl
Stages
Sensorimotor Stage
(birth to 2)
 o Use of sense does not
and motor change its
abilities to amount,
learn about the volume, or
world mass
o Changes is Concrete Operations (7
from to 12)
involuntary o Capable of
behavior to conservation
more deliberate and reversible
actions thinking
o At the end of o Becomes more
this stage, logical and
children rational
develop object o Can understand
permanence concrete
Knowl concepts:
edge objects, written
that an rules, tangible
object things
exists o Difficulty with
even abstract
when concepts
not in Formal Operations (12
sight to adult)
Preoperational Stage (2 o Able to engage
to 7) in hypothetical
o Capable of thinking
symbolic o Not everyone
thinking reaches this
(pretending and stage
make-believe Criticisms of Piagets Theory
play) Changes are more
o But is not fully gradual and continuous,
rational or not abrupt
logical Preschoolers are not as
o Believes what egocentric as Piaget
they see is believed
literally true Object permanence is
o Animism: present much earlier
belief that Piagets theory did not
anything that take social interactions
moves is alive into consideration
o Egocentrism: o Vygotskys Theory
inability to see Emphasized the importance of
the world social interactions, in the
through the cognitive development of
POV of others children
o Centration: Skilled children and adults
focusing only Scaffolding: A skilled person
on one feature, helps learner, and withdraws help
rather than as the learners skills improve
taking all The difference between what a
features in child can do alone vs. what he
consideration can do with help of skilled person
o Irreversibility: (The Zone of Proximal
inability to Development)
mentally Learn more in a class vs.
reverse the reading a book/learning
action alone
o Difficulty with Language Development
Conservation: o The Still-Face Experiment
understanding o Chomsky: Language Acquisition Device
that changing in the brain that contains a schema for
the appearance human language
 o Child-directed speech
o Use of gestures and signs
o Receptive-productive lag
o Stages:
Cooing: 2 months, vowel-like
Babbling: 6 months, consonant +
vowel
One-word speech: 1 year old,
holophrases
Telegraphic speech: 1 and
years old, string simple words
Whole sentences: fluent as adult
by 6 years old
Psychosocial Development
o Temperament
Attitude or behavior of child
Behavioral and emotional
characteristics that are well-
established at birth
Easy (happy, care-free,
regular sleeping and
eating schedules)
Difficult (cranky,
irregular sleeping and
eating schedules, hard to
calm)
Slow to warm up (in
between, not as cranky
as difficult babies)
Temperament styles carry on into
adulthood
o Attachment
Emotional bond between infant
and primary caregiver
Styles:
Secure: easily soothed
when mom comes back
Avoidant: avoids
connecting with mom
when she comes back
Ambivalent: wants mom
when she returns, but
also angry at her
Disorganized-
disoriented: unsure how
to act when mom returns
o Eriksons Psychosocial Stages of
Development
Infant (Birth to 1)
Trust vs. Mistrust
Drive and hope
Needs not met
(worthlessness, mistrust,
withdrawn, protects self)
Toddler (1 to 3)
Autonomy vs. Doubt
Decide/do for
themselves
Resolve when parents
provide suitable
guidance and reasonable
choices
Goal: self-control,
courage, and will
(autonomy)
Failure: shame and
doubt
Preschool Age (3 to 5)
Initiative vs. Guilt
New sense of purpose;
experimenting and
creating
Play is important,
mastering new skills
Fail: guilt (approach
world with timidity and
fear)
Elementary School Age (5 to 12)
Industry vs. Inferiority
Adult expectations and
ones drive towards
mastery
Developing self-esteem
and competency
Fail: inferiority
(believing that they will
never be good at
anything)
Adolescence (13 to early 20s)
Identity vs. Role
Confusion
Finding oneself; what
we do
Discover who we are
separate from family
Questioning of values
and ideals (period of
exploration)
Early Adulthood (20s to 30s)
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Partners & friends;
seeking companions and
love
Experiencing intimacy
on a deep level
Middle Adulthood (40s to 50s)
Generativity vs.
Stagnation
o Individual must
be creative and
nurturing of the
next generation
o Generativity:
making your
mark on the
world, giving
back,
productivity
o Stagnation:
failure to
contribute
Workplace, community,
& family
Mid-life crisis: finding
new meanings &
purposes
Late Adulthood (60s and beyond)
Ego Integrity vs.
Despair
 o Whether a
person will
reach wisdom,
spiritual
tranquility,
sense of
wholeness,
acceptance
Looking back on
contributions to life
Adolescence
Between 13 years old to early 20s
No longer a child
Not yet a self-supporting adult
How person deals with life issues (work, family,
relationships)
Physical development
o Puberty
Physical changes in both primary
and secondary sex characteristics
Thyroid gland stimulates growth
Adrenal gland stimulates growth
of body hair, muscles in boys,
menstruation in girls
Cognitive development
o Adolescents move into formal operations
stage (Piagets theory)
o Development in the frontal lobe
(organizing, understanding, decision-
making)
o Egocentrism: preoccupation with their
own thoughts
o 2 manifestations:
Personal Fable: thoughts and
feelings are very special
Imaginary Audience: everyone
looking at them
o Kohlbergs Theory of Moral Development
Pre conventional morality
Very young children
Consequences of action
determine the morality
of the behavior
Conventional morality
Older children,
adolescents, adults
Behavior is moral when
it conforms to social
norms
Post conventional morality
About 20% of
population
Moral principles depend
on the person, and it
may disagree with
societal norms
Criticisms:
Male-oriented, female
morality is more
relational
Its a hypothetical
situation
Psychosocial development
o Identity vs. Role confusion
Goal is to create a consistent
identity
Peer pressure: wanting to fit in
o Parent-teen conflict
Necessary for teen to be able to
break away from childhood
dependence on parents
Adulthood
Early 20s, until old age and death
Different cultures have different standards of when
a person becomes an adult
3 parts:
o Young Adulthood
Physical changes
Peak of physical health
Signs of aging are
beginning
Psychological Development
Intimacy vs. Isolation
o Middle Adulthood
Physical changes
Wrinkles,
graying/falling out hair
Vision, hearing, and
strength declines
Sexual functioning does
not decline
Menopause (end of
womans reproductive
capability; cessation of
ovulation and menstrual
cycles) and andropause
(gradual changes in
sexual hormones and
reproductive system of
males, decline in
testosterone)
Cognitive development
IQ does not decline
Processing speed and
reaction time declines,
but is balanced by the
greater experience they
have
Memory starts to decline
Psychological Development
Generativity vs.
Stagnation
Parenting
o Late Adulthood
Psychological Development
Integrity vs. Despair
Parenting Types
o Authoritarian
Rules, rigid, controlling
o Permissive-neglectful
Not involved until it interferes
with what parent wants
o Permissive-indulgent
Too involved
Children: immature, lack
independence
o Authoritative
 Balance of control and love,
democratic
Authoritarian + love, willing to
compromise
Theories of Physical and Psychological Aging
o Cellular-Clock theory
Cells have a limited number of
times they can repair damage
Telomeres (structures on ends of
chromosomes) shorten and
cannot reproduce cell walls
o Wear-and-Tear Theory
Organ and cells wear out because
of use and abuse
Collagen wears out and becomes
less flexible
o Free-Radical Theory
Free radicals damage cells
o Activity Theory
An elderly person adjusts more
positively to aging when the
become active in some way
Stages of Death and Dying (Idea of dying)
o Kbler-Ross Theory
5 stages of reaction when faced
with death
Denial, Anger,
Bargaining, Depression,
Acceptance
Chapter 12: A Look at Social Psychology
Social Psychology
The study of how a persons behavior, thoughts,
and feelings are affected by the real, imagined, or
implied presence of others
Social Influence: how behavior can be affected by
others
Social Cognition: how thoughts can be affected by
others
Social Interaction: the positive and negative effects
of interactions
Social Influence
- How behavior is affected by others
Conformity
o Changing ones own behavior to match the
actions of others
o Groupthink: when a group feels that it is
better for them to remain cohesive in
making decisions, than to look at facts
realistically
When members dont want to
argue to keep the group cohesive
bad decisions
Compliance
o When people change behavior because
another group asked/directed them
o Techniques
Foot-in-the-door technique:
making a small request followed
by a bigger request
Door-in-the-face technique:
bigger request is refused, follow
it up with smaller request
Lowball technique: cost of task is
increased, after committing to it
Thats-not-all technique: giving
something extra
Obedience
o Changing ones behavior because of a
direct order from an authority
o Milgrams experiment
Obey authority, acts conflicting
with their personal conscience,
pretending to shock another
person
Group Behavior
o Group Polarization: people in a group take
more extreme positions and propose
riskier actions
o Social Facilitation: when a task is
perceived as easy, the presence of others
have a positive influence on performance
o Social Impairment: when a task is
perceived as hard, the presence of others
have a negative influence on performance
o Social Loafing: decrease in ones
performance when working with group vs.
when working alone
Social Cognition
- How thoughts can be affected by others
Attitudes
o The tendency to respond positively or
negatively toward a certain idea, person,
object, or situation
The ABC Model of Attitudes
o Affective Component: the way a person
feels toward the object, person, or
situation (emotions, feelings)
o Behavior Component: the action that a
person takes
o Cognitive Component: the way a person
thinks about himself, an object, or a
situation (thought or idea)
Attitude Formation
o Direct contact
o Direct Instruction (forming attitude
because of what someone said)
o Interaction with others (attitude: people
around you)
o Vicarious conditioning (observational
learning)
Attitude Change
o Persuasion: the process by which one
person tries to change the belief, opinion,
position, or course of action of another
through argument, pleading, or
explanation
o Factors:
Source
Person trying to
persuade
Attractive, expert,
trustworthy, similar to
audience
Message
Nature of message
 More fear-provoking
more
effective/persuasive
Target Audience
Type of people listening
Early adulthood: easiest
to persuade
o Method of understanding message:
Central-route processing
Audience listens to
details/facts/content
Peripheral-route processing
Audience focuses on
source (tone,
expressions, does not
focus on message)
Cognitive Dissonance
o An emotional discomfort that arises when
people realize that their actions do not
match with their cognitions
o Ways to deal with this:
Change conflicting behavior
Change conflicting cognition
(thought)
Form new cognitions to justify
behavior
Impression Formation
o Initial evaluations or judgments about
other people
o Primacy effect: initial judgments persist
even when contradictory information is
seen
First impressions matter
Social Categorization
o Automatic and unconscious assignment of
categorizing a new person based on
common characteristics with previously
me people/groups
o Stereotyping: belief that everyone in that
category have the same set of
characteristics
Implicit Personality Theories
o Set of assumptions that one has about
different types of people, personality
traits, and actions
o Forms during childhood
Attribution
o The process of explaining own behavior
and the behavior of other people
o When we explain behavior, we either
assume that the cause is
External (situational)
Attribute to situation:
something came up,
accidents, etc.
Internal (dispositional)
Attribute to personality:
forgetful, hate, etc.
o Attribution can lead to emotions (worry,
anger, etc.) quality of relationship
o Fundamental attribution error: tendency to
overemphasize internal causes when
explaining behaviors of others
o Actor-observer bias: tendency to
overemphasize situational causes when
explaining own behavior
Social Interaction
- The positive and negative effects of interactions
Prejudice and Discrimination
o Prejudice: unsupported and often negative
stereotyped attitude about member of a
social group (attitude)
Kinds of Prejudice:
Ageism
Racism
Sexism
Towards people with
different religions
Different social
socioeconomic status
Different weight
o Discrimination: when prejudice leads to
different treatment (the behavior)
o In-group vs. Out-group / Realistic Conflict
Theory: when two groups are seeking a
common resource:
o Scapegoating: typically a
member/members of the out-group that
serves as the target of frustrations of the
in-group (the ones with the least power)
o Social Identity Theory
Why people are prejudiced:
Social categorization,
Identification (of
oneself), Social
Comparison (believing
that your group is better)
o Effects of Prejudice
Stereotype Vulnerability /
Stereotype Threat: effect of
stereotype on stereotyped
persons behavior
Self-fulfilling prophecy
o Overcoming prejudice
Intergroup contact (putting
together different groups)
Equal status contact (ex.
Amazing race with same
resources for 2 different groups
realization that the other group
is not as bad as you thought)
Liking and Loving
o The Rules of Attraction
Physical attractiveness
Proximity (how frequent you see
each other, how similar your
circles are)
Similarity (or complementarity)
important, prolongs relationships
Reciprocity of Liking (liking
people who like you)
o Three Components of Love
Intimacy: the feeling of
emotional closeness
 Passion: physical aspect; The younger the child, the greater
emotional and sexual arousal the impact
(holding hands, hugs) If home does not tolerate
Commitment: the long-term aggression and if punishment is
decisions one makes about the not physical, the effect of
relationship aggressive media is lessened
- Rare for all three to be o Prosocial Behavior
present Bystander Effect: tendency to
o Liking help more when there are less
intimacy only people
o Romantic love
intimacy +
passion
o Infatuation
passion only
o Fatuous love
passion +
commitment
o Empty love
commitment
only
o Companionate
love intimacy
+ commitment
o Consummate
love intimacy
+ passion +
commitment
Aggression and Prosocial Behavior
o Aggression
When one person tries to
deliberately hurt another
physically or through words
Frustration-aggression
hypothesis: frustration leads to
aggression
o Aggression and Biology
Genetic basis = twin studies
Charles Whitman (abused by
father when he was young,
marine killed his mother, wife,
and other people tumor in
amygdala)
Testosterone
Decrease in serotonin: alcohol
o The Power of Social Roles
Social Role: the pattern of
behaviors that is expected of a
person who is in a particular
social position
Zimbardos Prison Experiment
(1970s): college students as
guards and prisoners (social
experiment)
Guards started to deviate
and add tasks for the
prisoners (abuse of
power)
o Violence in the Media and Aggression
Children exposed to high levels
of violent media are more violent
(violence becomes a norm,
rewarded)
Aggressive children prefer
aggressive media
Chapter 13: Theories of Personality Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development
o Oral Stage
Personality Erogenous zone: Mouth
Each individuals unique way of thinking, acting, Birth until 1 and years
and feeling Dominated by id
Four traditional perspectives: Psychodynamic, Conflict: Weaning (too late or too
Behaviorist, Humanistic, Trait soon)
Too late: over-eating, talkative,
chain-smoking, nail biting
Psychodynamic Perspective Too soon: aggressive, pessimistic
Freud Fixation can happen whether a
o Victorian Age, repression of sexual desire person is under stimulated or
o Only son over stimulated in that erogenous
Three Levels of the Mind zone
o Conscious: things in present awareness o Anal Stage
o Preconscious: memories and info that one Erogenous zone: Anus
can easily become aware of Toddler, 1-3 years old
o Subconscious: hidden, symbolic, Development of ego
important to determinant of behavior Conflict: Toilet training (too
Divisions of Personality harsh)
o Id: largely unconscious, amoral, contains Anal expulsive: messiness is a
all basic biological drives, illogical sign of personal control,
(governed by pleasure principle) destructive, hostile
o Ego: rational, logical (governed by reality Anal retentive: terrified of
principle) making a mess, stingy, stubborn,
Balance id and superego excessively neat
(horseman) o Phallic Stage
o Superego: imbibes the rules, customs, and Erogenous zone: Genitals
expectations of society (contains the 3 to 6 years old
conscience) Girls have no penis
Psychological Defense Mechanisms Boy: castration anxiety
o Denial (fear that someone will
Refusing to recognize/admit a cut off your penis)
situation Girl: penis envy
o Repression Conflict: awakening of sexual
Pushing threatening feelings of the child [towards
memories/emotions out of parents]
memory Oedipus complex
o Rationalization 1. Sexual
Making up acceptable excuses curiosity and
for unacceptable behavior love towards
o Projection mom
2. Jealousy
Placing ones unacceptable
towards father
thoughts onto others
3. Castration
o Reaction Formulation
anxiety
Showing a reaction or attitude
4. Repress
that is opposite of the actual
feelings for
thought/feeling
mom
o Displacement
5. Identify with
Directing feelings to a less father
threatening target
Electra complex
o Regression
1. Penis envy
Falling back to childlike patterns 2. Attraction for
to cope with stress dad
o Identification 3. Mother is rival
Trying to become someone else 4. Slow
to deal with anxiety realization that
o Compensation fantasy is
Trying to make up for lacking impossible
areas by becoming superior in 5. Give up fantasy
other areas and identify
o Sublimation with mom
Turning social unacceptable Superego is formed
urges into socially acceptable
behavior
 o Superego of
girls are not as
strong as boys
o Girls do not
completely let
go of Electra
Complex
Fixation
There is no same-sex
parent
If opposite-sex parent
encourages attraction
Qualities of fixated
people: promiscuous,
vain, mamas boy/
attracted to older men
o Latency Stage
6 years old until puberty
Children have repressed sexual
feelings (hidden)
Children develop intellectually,
socially, and physically
o Genital Stage
Sexual curiosity awakens, but no
longer directed to parents
The Neo-Freudians
o Carl Jung
Collective Unconscious (passed
on to generations)
Archetypes (images/characters
that everyone has in their
unconscious)
Ex. Persona/role,
Shadow,
Anima/Animus, Hero,
Wise Old Man, etc.
o Alfred Adler
People are born with weak
bodies, and we seek for
superiority
Feelings of inferiority,
dependence on others
superiority or success
Birth order theory (position in the
family predisposes the
development of certain
characteristics)
o Karen Horney
Womb envy
Women: power given to
men instead of the
actual penis
Men: womb envy
We all feel basic anxiety
Competitive basic
hostility (angry at the
world, feel weak,
hopeless) basic
anxiety (feelings of
isolation) intensified
needs for affection
genuine love/desperate
need for love (repeat
cycle)
o Erik Erikson
Emphasized importance of social
relationships
Criticisms of the Psychodynamic Perspective
o Did no experiments
o Basis of his theory were his own
interpretations
o Patients were from a particular niche
Behavioral Perspective
Albert Bandura
o Social Cognitive View
Behavior is not only dependent
on external stimuli
But also on internal cognitive
processes (anticipation,
judgment, memory)
o Model of Reciprocal Determinism
- Environment can affect how
a person achieves his/her
goals
Environment Reinforcers
Behavior
Personal/Cognitive Factors
(Beliefs Expectancies, Personal
Dispositions)
Self-efficacy
o Persons
expectancy of
how effective
his efforts will
be in
accomplishing
a particular
goal
o Affected by
past events,
feedback from
others, and own
assessment of
abilities
o May vary
depending on
tasks (not
generalized)
Julian Rotter
o Social Learning Theory
Concept of locus of control
Internal: own actions
and decisions affect
events
External: events are
controlled by others,
luck, or fate
o More likely to
be depressed
Have control or no control over
events in life
Humanistic Perspective
Carl Rogers
o Self: Ideal Self and Real Self
Match = Harmony
Mismatch = Anxiety
 Love and acceptance can lead o Rating scales and frequency counts
you to your ideal self o Problems: Observer bias, environment is
o Becoming a person not accounted for
Interaction with others Personality Inventories
(relationship may be positive or o Standard items with choices
negative) 16PF, NEO-PI (Ocean), MBTI,
Need for positive regard KTS, MMPI-2
If other people are able to give
you positive regard (acceptance)
Positive self-regard (learn to
accept self)
May also be negative
regard negative self
regard

Trait Theory
Describing personality and predicting behavior
Trait: A consistent and enduring way of thinking,
feeling, and behaving
o Several traits personality
Gordon Allport
o Used a dictionary and managed to gather
18000 traits, which he reduced to 200
Raymond Cattell
o Surface Traits: characteristics easily seen
by other people (ex. Shyness, quiet,
reserved)
o Source Traits: basic traits that underlie
surface traits (ex. Introversion)
o The Sixteen Personality Factor
Questionnaire (16PF)
o Five Factors (OCEAN):
- By McCrae and Costa
Openness: willingness to try new
things/experiences
Conscientiousness: organization
and motivation; achievement
Extraversion: outgoing, sociable
Agreeableness: easy-going,
friendly, pleasant
Neuroticism: emotional
instability, anxious, worrier,
moody

Assessment of Personality
Interviews
o Clients may lie, distort truth, or
misremember details
o Halo Effect: interviewer makes
conclusions based on first impressions
(positive)
o Horn Effect: negative impressions
Projective
o Projective assumption: in trying to
understand a vague stimuli, we project
ourselves to the picture or drawing
o Thematic Apperception Test (creating a
story based on a picture)
o Rorschach (describe symmetrical ink
blots)
o Difficulties: interpretation requires
training
Behavioral Assessment
o Direct observation