CHAPTER 2 Modeling Theory Model based smut ea method for mathematically approximating he behavior (treal water cision tems, To flectvely lie te capi of dstibton ‘ster simulation aotware and interettheresils produce, de easier or mod ‘ler mst understand the material peicpios ive. This eapter reviews he Principles of ydaulie and water gusty analysis ha are equely employed in tte itbuton network modeling stare. 2.1, FLUID PROPERTIES Fis canbe catepoied gases or Hide, The most noble dilzences between the bo sates are tat iis are far dome hen gases, and guses ae highly com presse compared ols (gui or relatively ineompresibi). Thermos! impor fant lid properties taken into consideration in & water dsbuton sialation are specie weigh id vison and (0 lser degre) compres. Density and Specific Weight The density fai is the mas ofthe id pr uit volume. The deny of wate it 19d eg? (100 gin a toda presi fT ty (11 Sha) an nad en erature of 32.07 (MFC), A change in temperature esse wl ae the dens, khogh the ef of aoe changes ae generally inigfcat for water model purposes ‘Tae propenty tat describes the weight of Mid per unit volume sealed spe ‘weight and irate to density by gravitational aecceationModeling Theory Chapter ope ey where y= Mid spect weigh (LT) = lid dos (W/L) {8 ~ grevilatonalseelention comin (L/P) ‘The specific weight of wae, y, at standard pressure and temperate is 624 a? (0806 Nin’. cosity Fi ico ithe praperty that describes the silty fi to eit efmation ie tosh sess For many Maid, most notably wae, viscosity isa propotonaliy ‘coe eating the velocity gradient th shea ares, dese by Newion ae of acon o 23) Where + = aheastess OUL/T, = absolut (dja) visoosy (WL Y * ‘The physical meaning ofthis equation usb hte by considering the two pal ei plates shown in Figure 2.1. The space ecween the plas filled with uid nd ‘hearen ofthe pas is re cough at edge ets can be melee. The plates separated by distance and the op pate moving a cote yoy seating ‘othe bottom plate. Liquids exibit an tribute known as the no-lip conn mean ing that they aere co surfices they contac. Therefor, if he magnitude of andy ‘not to lag, hen the velocity stribton tween the tno ples see tine ate of sin (1/7) From Newton's srcond law of moto, fr an objet to mae ta content velo, he et exeral force acing onthe abject mit equal zo. Thos the id mam be seer ing force equal and oposite to the force onthe topple. This fore we the Mid sce of the shear tess between the fi and the pla. The voy at hich these forces Eatane isa faction ofthe velositygraent eral the pate ‘nd the fd viscosity, as desrbed by Newton's nw of wos ‘Thick Mids, sch 8 syrup and molasses, hve high viscosities, Thin Misch te and psig, have low vicases. For mot fais, the viscosity esos com sant epaces ofthe mageitode ofthe erste fa aid iit Retuing to Figure 1, th velecity othe top plat increases, the shear steses in ‘he Did incense at the sme rte. Fis that ext thispropey conform to New ‘on’ ln of viscosity and are ealed Newton ids. Water ad i ae exaees of Nemlnian fis. Some types of ide, such as nk an sage, undergo charac viscosity whe th sear tess changes. Fluids exhibing this type of behave me fale pcudo plate is,section 2.1 Pid Properies 21 Rettonshis between he eases athe velit gradient fr typical Newiosian {nd nor Nevtnien fds ae sown in Figure 22. Sle mest sition sytem mods are ined osm wae, aay ofthe equations wsed conser Newt inn id ony if e oe ‘Viscosity i fncton of temperate, but his lationship diferent for igus ac pes In generic deereaeetampeatr erase fo lig, nd viscos- Fy increases as tempers ierenses for pases. The Temperature variation within Figure 2.2el A TT ES, ‘Modeling Theory ‘Chaper2 water distribution systems, however, uly gut sal ths changes in water ‘ecsty are considered negligible fo this apication, Genel, wale tution Systm modeling sofvate teas viscosity as constant assuming a temperate of SF OO), ‘The viscosity derived in Equation 22 {x refered toa the abot viscosity or manic ieosip) Pr hydric formas tlt hid mtn, the telatonship beewecn id viscosity and Bld density i often expressed aa sage variable This reltionthip, called the Herat vcoa ie exes as flows vet ay where v= kinematic visas (77) ast as thera scar stesesbetwean te plat andthe Mid in Figure 21, ter are Sear sess between th wall of pipe an th Mud moving trooh he pipe, The higher te fu viscosity, the greater the bear rests that wl develop within the ‘id, and, consequent the geste the Fcsion loses slong the pipe, Dison ‘tem modeling sofware packages used vices fctor in estimating the ‘ton losses along apes length, Packages that can bale sty fd equi the viscosity ad density to input bythe dele, while models tat ae developed only ‘or water tually accoust orthe approprate ve won. Fluid Compressibility Compress a physical propery of Fis tha elses the volun ocupied by & Axed ras offi its pressure In general, gases ace much more compressible tht Tus An ae compressor a simple dvi tat lize th copresbity ofa to Hore energy The compressor esr punp tat irmitenty foces at ole ales ino the fed volume nk tached ot Each ie the conpesor tans on, he mas ofa, and therefore the pressure within he tank, creases, Ts tlaonstip st between Hid mass, volume, and presse, ‘This eltonship can be simpiiad by considering fred mast of Mid, Compre Ty is the denied by defining thes lh mad of ley ay where = bulkimaduon of atity (LT) P = presse (LIT) = Yome ofl (L) All ids are compressible some extent. The fet of competion na woter tibaton system are very smal, and thus the eats sed in Bydaulie simulations abused en he assumption that the igs nvelved ae incor With ble ‘moduli of elatiity of $10.00 psi 2.83 x 1" KPa 4 65 COT), wae ean safely be treated a incompressle, Fr instine, a presse change of ove 2000 ps (£379 10°F resin only 0 percent change in volumeection 22 id Statics ni Dynamos ‘Atongh the sasumpsion of incompresblisy ix jstifable under met conditions ‘rin yds phenomena or cable of aenetting presses igh enough tt the ‘Siesety of water becomes iota. Dusig ed operations, «phenomenon own st water hammer can develop due o extremely api changes info (hen, fe instance, valve sudenly closes, ora power failure oceus and pangs top op inp, The momentum ofthe moving id can generate resis lar enough hat {uid compression and pipe wall expansion can occur, wh a tr cases destctve Tangent frase Fotustons 0 propagate troughou the network Spesaized ne (Te tmeltion wfhnre i necerary to aly these transient presse els For Tompete coves of taser flow, sce Chap 3. Vapor Pressure Consider closed container tat spr ed with wate. The pesure inthe on {cio meamured when te wotr Is fit aed, and agaln afer sme cine hs “Snptds There readings show tat he press inthe onsier itercases ing his ‘alo. Th icra in posure is ef the evaporation of th wae, nd the esut- fg increare in vapor pressure above the gu Assuming tht emperatareremsine constant the presse wil evetully reac a on ‘ant vue that coresponds fo the elu of saruaton vapor pressure of wate oat temperate. A ths poi teas evaporation ané condensation ae equ “The sation vor psu ineresbes wits nreasng temperate. This renionsip ‘Gomonsaten, fr example, why thea in hui climates tpl fees moister in ‘Kine than winter and wy the boing temperature of water is over a higher ‘a samle of water at res of at and oom temperate i heated to 212 (Lovee water al begin bol sine the vapor pes of water that tempers forest cyan fo 1 atm, 2 sir ven, if water is held at a temperature of 68F (GO), and he pensar is deresed wo 0.023 am, the water wil ab i “This concep an be applied o water dsbuton in cases in which the ambient pro fhe dopa vey low. Pomp ciation oveus when the fd being pumped fuses int vapor pocket nd then quik collapses. Portis te happen, he pes in he ‘itinerant be egal oor es tha th apa pressure othe Hi When aviation ‘eu, sounds a f gravels Being pumped, and severe drags to pipe walls and np Proponent ones For complete coverage of cavitation, se Chater 13. 2.2 FLUID STATICS AND DYNAMICS Static Pressure ‘Precspe cn be thoueht of 8 force applied noemal or erpendalr, 0 aboy hat erie act th aid Inthe English system of units presto is expres in ours po sae foot IB bt the wate inusry generally wes Ii ically perv tpl he S system, pressure has is of Nn locale Pesca.24 Modeling Tecry Chapter 2 rere ims of he magi of presses cessing in dation sens, resi ypclly reported in le-Pscls (AP, or 1.006 sree with depths lsd in Fig 23, Fortis at th ition of resare over depth stner ais caled the hyhastanc osc aera Poh ey whnee P= pres (LIT) 4 = depth of ud above datum (2) 1 = id specie weigh (ws) Figure 2.3 Pres = Den) porno ln even onthe ight of column of aera esp ore by a pve pres: f 29) Je aly Py callin press hood, which sth enery resting fom water ‘re Recognising the specie weigh of ein nglnhunes chao Ores ae ameson tor an be nbs fr wr pl 231 naka 0.102) of presure eaduid Stics nd Dynamics 25 Sestion22 Example —PresureCaeulaion. Coser sop ke gue 24 ini be vei ecu ae we et ned lon axa raw # Po sap ‘Absolute Pressure and Gage Pressure. Presuc sta given point is duet the weight ofthe fd above that poet. The weight ofthe eath's atmosphere pro thces a peout, refered to as fmoyplerle presse, Altough te ata atmo Sphere presure depends on elevation and weather, standard atmosphere pressre a aleve i 1a (14 plo 101 KPa). “Two types of pressure ae commonly wed in hydraulics: solute pressure and gage pest live presi Kt pes reared with absolute zero (a pete “rcwun as its dat, and gage presare isthe pressure mesured wih ater ‘rset dat The wo related to one soter sown in Equation 2.7 and Eillstated in Figure 2:5, Note that whew a pesure gage located at the at's su fice is opr to he atmosper,epstere exo ons al Ith gage presi is cg ve iat i the pret ia elow atmosphere), then the negative pressure i clled aFigure 2.5 en _,, = abpolute pressure (MILT) Po, gage eae OP) BL = atmospheric prestare (WALT) where ‘in mont hytle applications, nclang water dstibton sates emabas, nae do ane ced nog abst pesue hs ile vas, since doing 0 would Snty a i ge bconres big creme Uy aospheds peur Aon ae rue i oe ore nv esse people do ot pili cane dteoapece fects when thinking aboa pressure ‘Velocity and Flow Regime “The velit pole ofa fd at Rows hough pipe is at coast ass the Toe ee he velocity ofa flid price depends on where the i parle is ar i reapnt the pipe wal mit eats, hyulc mols de! with ie rie vin in eos seton of pipeline, wich cn be found by wig the towing fonmae: red ee 8 whore ~ average tid velocity (1) = pipeline fw rte 77) 4 ~ eens-sectiona eof pipeline) “rhe crmseaconal rea of Gel pipe ca be del compute rom she deter Dro the velocity eqation can be rewrites a: 2 9 = dameter(L) whereSection 22 ld Statics an Dynami For water distitaion syste in which dameter is mensued in inches and flow s ‘ned in gallons ye int, he equation simplifies v= ond Q. o oad where Y= average td weloity (8) 2 = pipeline flow te (apm). Da Gamer (in) Reynolds Number. th ne 1800s, an English scieist named Osbome Rey- re conde expense id pasig though a gas tbe, His experimental ‘up looked mick like the one in Figue 2.6 (Seeker, Wylie, and Bedford, 1998), The experimental apparaes ws designed 1 exablishthe low ae throug ong ‘Bs te (cant t simulta pio) and allow dye (om w mali nk) © ow into the guid Me ote tt at wery Low low aes, the dye stream remained Inact with dnt interface betwetn the dye seam and the fui rounding i Reynolds refed oi condn a lainar flow. AL lightly higher Now ates, the “Dros began to waves ait andthe we ste Bing betveen te dye seam. Ri the suroumding fd. He ello hs contn ranstonl flow. At even ihe Tvs th dye sara was completly broken op, ad he dye mixed complealy with the verouning id. Reynols reflected to this egies cle flow ‘When Reynolds conducted te same expeinent sing eiient Mids, ated that the conan under whieh the dye sean remained Int not ony varied with the fh ate cg the tbe, but also wh the fad ast, id viscosity, andthe iamte ofthe ak. Figure 2.6 Sota ele n28 Modeling Theory Chaper2 ‘Based on experimental evidence gathered by Reynolds and dimensions analysis, 2 mensions number canbe conpited and wed to characterize Nw regime Co pelle Reyokir number cn be though ofthe ri between inet od is fous fortes io 2 uid, The Reynolds rimber fr fll owing clr pipes ean be ‘und sing the following ecuaton ten YO = 1D en where Re = Reps ner D = pple diameter) =f eos UL) ase viscosity (U1 1 bieatie iscosty (277) “The anges ofthe Reyaois umber tha defn the tre Dow regimes are shown ia Table 21. The fw of water though uncial wate systems samo always tr Tent, except inthe patery where water demnd i ow and nett, and may ‘est in ina and stagnant low cones Table 2.1 Ryle ber foros flow ines Velocity Profiles. Doc tothe shear sess along the walls of pip, the velocity ina pipeline pot for ve th pie diameter, Rae, the fd vlosy e200 the ppe wal Fld velocity incense with dstanee om te pipe wal wih the max lium ocuring alng the eterln ofthe pipe Figure 2.7 sets he vrai of fi velocity within pipe, als called te velocity profile 7 “he singe ofthe velocity profe wll wary depending on wher the fw seine is lama o tbl. In laminar flow the Did particles wave in pall ayers oF Tamim, rong very tong ear srstes Between ajacent ayer and eauing he ye steak in Reynolt experiment to tems ic. Matbemataly, te velocity ofl in nmin ow i shaped ike parsola a shown in Figae 27. In lamin ‘ow the ea Loss though pie sepment primal function of the fd isso ‘yy th intemal pipe roughacs. Ture fow i characterize by estat produce sadom variations inthe veloc fay profiles, Aitough the velo pro ofurulent ow ismore erat than tht of Jamia lw, he men velo profil actly exhibits less arian ars the pipe ‘The vlcty pois for bottles sd aina lows ere shown in Figre 2.7Setion2.3 nergy Concepts 29 2.3 ENERGY CONCEPTS Fluids possess energy in tue forms, The aunt of eacny depends on the Mis ovement (eric energy, levaion (pont one), ud. reso (presre ‘ergy. tna iydelesyten, 2 fid can hve all tree ype of energy associated tidbit simultaneous. The total energy associated with dpe unit weight of he ids called head, The Kine enery scaled velo head (V2), the potest ergy sel elevation head (2) a the intra press energy i cll presse head (Pr), While pial wits far energy ate fot pounds Cul), the units of tal and ate ee (ete). sea a wentee en) where H=tolahend(L) 7 = eleration above datum (L) P = presure (LT) 1 = Mud specie weigh MULT) ¥ = velocity 171) _g ~ grevitlooaacclrton constant (LP) ack pia in he ste has unique hen seocited wih Aine pleted of ttl had vers distance hough nyt scaled heen rode lne(HGL). The sum ‘ofthe elation hed and presse hen yield th raul rade ine (HGL), which respons the bight tat water wil rise vray na be atached to he pipe Sd pen fo te atmosphere, Figure 23 shows the BOL and HGL fora simple pipe Tne. In mos water distribution applications, the elevation and pressure ead erms are och rete than the velo ead term. Fortis tn veknty ea ofan ignored, and modes workin ems of hyali gades rather thin energy grades, Therefore, givens datum elation ands hydrulie grade line, the pressure cx be deri’ an p= ynon-2) any Figure 2.7 ieee30 Modeling Theory chapter? tendon a os eaten Hand, 2 Energy Losses ery losses also called ea! losses, gory the result of two mecha + Friston long the pipe walls + Trbulnoe due to changes in stounlies hough tings and appurtenances Head loses loth pipe wal ae elle freon ose ox hed loses du fice fine loses duc Yo ctl within the blk id ae called minor losses 2.4 FRICTION LOSSES ) ‘Whe gud ows through pipeline, shea stesses develop between the liquid and ‘he pe wall This shee sree rut of fetion, aad is agua is dependent fn the propeies of he Hud tha is pati Uough the ip, the speed st which tis ‘moving tbe nena roughness ofthe pps, andthe lng nd ameter fhe pps ‘Const, for example, he pipe segment shown in Figure 29. A foe Blan o he fui elreat consid within pipe section ene used to oem general expesion Ascbing the head los deo Ftion. Noo he Fores action: + Preaue deere between sections Land 2 + Te weit of th ld volume consined between setions 1 and +The shea a the pip walls Between sections 1 and 2 ‘Assuming the ow inthe ipetine has constant velocity (ats aceeraton seal to aco), the sysem canbe balanced based on the presue dilfeence, gravitons Toes, ad bear frees.Section 24 Friclon Losses 31 Py Pay ALysin( a) 1g = 0 ew where P, = pete atseton 1(MALT) 1, = erection area of seton IL) , = prose at rection 2 LIP) 1, = eoe- sectional ea of section 2 (L) 1. ~ average ava between ton 1 and seston 2) 'L = distance betwee section Land seton 22) y= Mad specie weight (MILT) 14 = ange ofthe pipe to rion +, = shear sess along ppe wall QUL/T) WN = perimeter pipeline cros-xection Figure 2.9 “The ast enon the ef sd of Equation 2.4 represents the ton loses long the pipe wal brweon te two sections, By recogni hat ine) = (2) he equ tion fr head lous de 0 fition can be rewiten to obtain the lowing equation. (Nott the veloiy Hed ot cosiered in ths ease Deca he ppe dates, tnd therefore the veloky beds, ae the same.) ay= nt» Ceo) (C202) a)32 Moling Theory Chapter? where hy =a oss et tion.) 2Z, = cemtion of enol of section 1.) 2, = elevation of cenit of etion 2 (L) -Recaltat he ser stresses ina fd can be found analytically for Iie flow ting Newton’ nw of vsoosy.Sbear sess sa apetion ofthe viscosa eoe- ity erodient ofthe, the fl pee weight (oe dest, andthe diameter ofthe ‘pts The roughness of ths pie wll alo actor (a i tbe ougber he pipe ‘rl the lange th sear bes) Combining tee factors, canbe een that, = Fionn De) 219) were p= Sid density QL) fs = abot vison (WL/T) 1 = average ul velocity 77) D = diameter (1) «= inde ofatera pipe oughees(L) } Darcy-Weisbach Formula slog dimensional analysis the Dary-Neltach formula ws developed. The Sor Inula enn for bend los expres terms tho variables sted in Futon 216-2 lio (oe hat head ou i expeesed with nits of eng neoptt sag Ae Die” aoe en where f= Day: Welibch ion ator |g = sittin sceleration costar (L/P) = pple Now ante 7) “The Dary Welch ction factor a Fieton ofthe same variables as wall she ostbsatee 216, Apion dimensnal nym ational aomtpiie | thai itr canbe opt 4- H228,8)~ ee) am where Re ~ Reynolds numer “The Pasy- Welsch sion factor i dependent onthe vost, density, and vcs iy of he fui the sie of the pipe in which the i Ye wing: at the itera Toughness of th pipe, The Mid velocity, dns, viscosity, and pipe size are preted interns ofthe Reynolds aunbet The intra roughness expressed a terms of varble called th relative roughness, which Is th eral pipe roughness (@ divided by te pipe diameter (D),Section 24 rcton Loses 33 In the erly 1990, the German researcher Nise peforme an experiment that Wwonl become fandamentl in ea los determination (ewadse, 1912). te ied Unify sed and grin tthe sides of te pipes of ferent sizes. His expr rents showed tat the cure off versus Re is ot forthe sume valves of. Pry beease of Nira’ snd rain experiments, she quay «is clled the equivalent sand gran rvghnese of the pie. Table 22 provides values of « for various maori Other esentha sondacted experiment on atily roughened pipes to generate he dearibing pipe fistion fre fora wide range of relive ougess values, Table 2.2 Esai se glo ohoee fr vein ppe mates wm = a sath soto? 01-2 wap samt suo" Colebrook: White Equation and the Moody Diagram. Noncros for- ‘mus ext tat lt the con fictor othe Reynolds number and reative rough nes. One ofthe eat and most popular of these formas Is the Colebrook. Maite equation 1. -aaeu;£+281) au g Bn) “The ifculy with wing he Colebrook Wht equation hat it is an impli une tio ofthe tion fcr (ound on both sides of the equation). Typically, he uation i soled by testing thowghssimed values of fun both sds ae equalModeling Theory Ccapter2 “The Moody diagram shown in Figur 2.10, was developed ftom the Colebrook White gatlon a rpc aon or he Dey Weisbach ein ates, ee iaterening toate tht fr lia flow Cow Re) he ction acto sa inser function ofthe Reynolsmumbs, while inthe Ally eben ange (high and igh Re) he Fito factors only a uncon ofthe relative ougness. This ifleresce ‘Soe becsse the eft of roughness x nealisble Fer lamina law, while for very flea ow he vssous forces become nplib Swamee-Jain Formula. Much csicr fo solve than the ieative Colerook- ‘Nhe rl he fa deel by Ears an Jain (1976) alo approximates the Darcy. Weidach fin factor, This eqetion am expt unetion ofthe Rey oie mui and th relative oughnes, ad it accurate to within about one percent ifthe Calebrok- Waite equation overa ange of set Res Litt and r ear amy Decause ofits envesipliiy and reasonable accrey, mast water dsibution ftom modeling software pkiges or the SwomeeJes formal to compute the fiton fc. Hazen-Williams Avot fequatly used head loes expression, arcu ia North Amaia i the ‘Hace Willan forma (Wiis an azn, 1920; ASCE, 1992) f+ aaa @21) whee head os det tion (8) 1L = die between eto | and2 (9) = FazenWlisms C factor = diameter (Rm) (2 = plier ate (5, 8) 6, ~ unt omverson fctor (4.73 Eaglis, 107 S1 “The Mazen-Wiians formule wes many of the same variables a¢ Durcy-Weisbech, Turisca of wing fio fat te Haren Wilms formula sea pipe eaying fapecty fice, Cigher C-actrs represent smoother pipes (vith higher cay, apovites) and lower Cfactors describe rougher pipes. able 23 shows ¢pial C= factors for various pipe materials, based on Lamont (1981),Seaton 24 Titi Loses 35 Figure 2.10 oy “somos Eo| 36 Moti Theor cagert | Lamont found tat was no possible to develop a single conelation between pipe | TEER Ctr and ht, ise, be crease in fo aso depended heavily om Te erica: af the water beng etd. He developed four separate "retin se sor egy os dopentng oe "atack ofthe water onthe pipe. Te 1 SHektack.covesonded to wae tht was ony lly coos, Trend 4 severe Fao reer cotter tnt would rid atack cast iron pps. Asean be seh rare 2 te exe of tack can significa aft the C-actr. Testing pines | to determine he os of tying capacity is discussed farther on page 196, Toble 2.3. Cctv pipe mts Dette sey santa) een) ayes | eto a 7 @ ow | met coo Sop mm | “rt gan ee | “end opie oe 7 ae om! | end me emtSection 24 Friction Lowes 37 Pe Ga Tobe 2.3 cn) Cc rr al be Tere _Gsem) Gem) _(szea) Oden) rem) _ Cate) suet ip oo» wom Semapectviiging ID ‘md PVC) clean * From s purely there! standpoint, he C-fctor fa pipe should vary with the Now 4 ‘locity wader turbulent conditions, Bgution 222 ea be used toast the Cfactr Tor dlfeent closes, ut heeft of his cometion se ally rls. A ewe fol increase nthe flow lc ola fm appaeut ive erent eereas inthe reahnss factor. This difference fuel within te eno range forte roughness ‘State inthe fi plse, 3 most engineers ase the C-fcor remus constant : {epstlese of flow (Wolski, 1988). However, i Cctor tests are done a very high 4 ‘ovis ie, 710 Ws), thn «signet er can reall When te resulting C Taco ae used to proc head os at lw veloc. > ~~ an ee where € = velocity adjusted C-factor vs C, = reference C-factor : 1, ~steecewlof ey awh eine! 7) s ‘Manning Equation 1 a oes : Arter tel i xeon no ply a Manning equation:38 Modeling Theory Chapter? neat 22» | where ‘n ~ Manning roughness coefficient = ent conversion factor (46 Enh, 1029 1) ‘As with the previous hea lots exestons, the head los computed wing Manning {uation i dependent onthe pipe length and danetr, the discharge o flow hough | + the pipe, aad a rughnese coer In this ase, a higher vale of m represents a { Nhe tema pipe rougnaess Isle 2. proves peal Mannings roughness coe ficients for coamonky oe pipe mate. Tele 2.4 Nose ohn ss cen an Wendne oi Comparison of Friction Loss Methods Most hyaulis mols have festres tht alow the use 9 seletfrm the Darey- ‘Weitorh, Hen Wilian, or Manning head as formulss, depending onthe nature ofthe problem and the wer preferences 1 ‘The Darey-Weishach formula more physically based equation, died from he tale governing equations of Newio's Second Law. With appropriate fui vscos- ties and desis, Darcy Weisbach en he wed to ath head Loss ina pipe for any ‘Nevo fi in any How regime i hearer Wilms an Massing formas, on he te aed epic bse txpreons (cing te they ee developed om expedient) and pent {iy ony spy ater alt conto | ‘The Hazon Williams formula i the posdominant equation ward inthe nite Stat | _and Darey- Weisbach is predominant in Burope. The Manning formal is not typically teed for wate distribution modeling, bower, i x sometimes used in Anstala, ‘ible? 5 preset thee tre equation in vveral common wit cofiguritions. These | ‘unions solve forthe ton slope (S) which ste ead Tos pr ua lngth of | ibeSexton 25 Minor Losses 39 Table 2.5 Fists lo goto iets Deer oanyg? oss 13()* 5 0 ABQ 5, Ws 5 WGge = eagt — g, BD 2.5 MINOR LOSSES ‘ead losses also ocr at valves, tes, bends Ge Figure 2.11, reducers and other ‘npiotenancer within the piping str, These lose cllel mor les, te due 0 febulence wii the bull flow ati moves hough Sings and bends Figure 2.12 ilustates the rules ees tht velop within th i low at waels ough 2 salve and 4 90-epree tend Figure 2.11 Head oss de o minor loses ean be computed by mulling a minor los coe cen bythe velocity head as shown Equation 22840 Moding Teory chapter? where fh =a std 0 minor losses (L) = minoc os cofivient V = velocity (7) 1g ~exvittonlaceeration constant (LIT) (A = erousedonal ea (1) (0 = flow to) Miso lous nent a ound experimentally and dita ae waa fc many dit [ert ype tings ae appurtenances Table 26 provides ist of minor los oe Seles deocnted with several of the mot commonly used iting. More thorough ‘teanensof mio ls coon! cas be found in Crane (1972), Mile (1978) ad sek (199), For water dition systems, ior Ise are genealy mach sal than the head [eur duc to tion (ence he tem "mito" lss Fortis reson, many madelers | ‘egently choos oneplet minor losses, In some cates, however, sch sa pnp ‘avons or valve manifolés where tere may be more fitings and higher wots, ‘nine loses ean play sgncant rl nthe piping stem under consideration ie pipe roughness coef minor head loss coeficiens wll ry somewhat ‘it lol: For most practical oetwor problems, however, the miar loss coefi= ‘Set ete coast Valve Coefficient Most valve mapuicturer can provide a cart of erent opening vers valve coe= {ent (Cc ca be elated ote morass (K) by using Equation 2.2,Sesion 25 ‘able 2.6 Mio scott Supt Deas D020 Dn pense Dp-020 Dmsaae Bes pp-0s0 dale ae pen Bay een es bas =2 ons on ome ” xc a ag 0 ect webs K=qpye where = diameter (n,m) ‘lve coetiien [gpa ()APaP*T = wniteonerion fictor (80 English 1.22 0) Minor Lasse toma 2s)2 Modeling Theory Chapter? Equivalent Pipe Length Rather hen nluding minor los coefficients direc, a modeler may choos 1 dst the modeled pipe Ing fo account for ina losses by adng on equatnt length of lbs for each minor fxs Given te eno los coon! fra valve or fing the {apivlet length of pipet ive th same hed loss can be ened KD 1 229) = equivalent eng of pe CL) B= dameter of equivalent pipe 1) of ~ ate Weihah ron ctor “Th ratce of esigning equal pipe length was ypicalywsed when hand ale Iations were mae common eens could save time in the overall analysis of & pipet, Win modem computer modeling tecigues, this smo longer a widespread Frmcte, Besnse i 1 now 3 casy fo tse anor Ins ooflets dct within & Fraiche proves of determining essen lengths is ataly le of ‘enn ton, ue of evan pipe lengths can vfivoraby affect the vel ive editions tht re portant inmany ater ality cleans 2.6 RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS Many slated expressions for head los ave been developed Tey canbe mathemati tally penealzed wilh the troduction of ava refened to 38 a restance coef ‘lent This fom lows the equation to remsin evenly te sume regardless 0 ‘whch tion eid luted, making idea for hydraulic modeling. ao Ke a2 where, ~ heads duet fiton (L) = pipe resistance coon! (PIL" 0 = pipeline ow ie U7) = exponent on ow ten Equations or computingK, with he various head los methods are ven next Darey-Weisbach - 228) ee where = Darey Weisbach ton fcr 1 = length opine.) D = pipe damete(L) 1 = erst rectional te of ppsline (L}) a2sean 6 Resistance Coefcens 43 Hazen-Williams Le ax) where Ky ~ plein costs (tn 1. = length of pie) C = Cntr with velo ajotment D = pp dames) 6, =i comenina ee (4.73 Els, 107) Manning ex0 whece 1 = Manning's roughness coeticent rez 6, = ot conversion factor 464 English 103 SI (ASCEAWEE, 1982) Minor Losses ‘A resstance coefficient can aso be defined for inns, a show in he equation ‘ow Like the pipe resstince coefficient, the esistance ceticient fo rior lise 8 Taoton of the plyical characte of the ting or apputenance ad the dicare. ra ean where, = head os due to minor loses (L) K, = minor lose resistance coficient (7) © = pnt ow tL) Solving fr te minor ou reste conic by baiting Fyn 224 wale ay EE 232 ae where 5X, ~ sm ofntvidua minor les coefficients44 Mosing Theory hapeer2 | 2.7 ENERGY GAINS - PUMPS ‘on many occasions enerey need to be added to hydric system to overcome cle ‘ation ference, fiction loses and ine loses. A pump is device to which Inechnialeoegy is opi and tafe to th water ttl head. The bead Ie sealed pune head an is anton ofthe Bow rate trough the pump. The folowing discussion i oentd ows cent igal pump beeause ey ae th ost fHequenly used pope In water dirbuton sstens. Aadional infermaton shout pumps can be fund in Beserman (2000), Hye Insts Standards 2000), | . Karas (1976), and Sank (1998), Pump Head:-Discharge Relationship “The mlaionship Between pam bead and pu discharge is given inthe form of « ead versus dicharge cute (ko ealled head characterise eure) similar tthe ‘one shown fn Figure 2.1. This ve defines the rationship between th ead that the pump ads ad the sau of fw tat he pump passes. The pomp head vers dachargeelaanshipsnnlnes ad one would expect, the more water the pump passes, theless head tc a The brad that plted in he ead characteristic Etre isthe hed iference sero the pump, called tetova! dan head (TD. ‘This corve must be described as « mathematical ution 0 be used ina hydrate Sinlation, Some models fs polyno eure o Selected data pins, but» more emma approach sto deste the curve By wing a power faction i the folowing ip beet aan wise Ay = pump had) 1, =e te end gun ead at 20 ow) (E) 0, = pm sche 27D nt ~oveficens dein pnp cure tape Me information on pump penance leg i ale a Chap 5 se page 17. ‘Affinity Laws for Variable-Speed Pumps. A ceuifgal pump's charac fers cure I xed for piven motor speed and imple amet, at it can be {dberminel for any speed ay ameter by applying relaansips alte afin i-las,For variable-speed pops, hee aay la te presented a allows | Orr! Ora =m /me 3g Ayvhea = (/m* (9) wie Oy = pam fowatspet i (L7) = romp et) | 1 pamphend ated 1)Sesion 27 nergy Gains—Pumpe 45 Figure 2.13 oto q 7 Siatecee J snd | i 1 | sth. i | 2 {tit } | ; | ool L tt “Thay, pup diachage tte i diet proporonal to pump sped, and pump dis: horge heads proportional othe quae of te sped. Using ths reltonshi, once the punp curve at eny one speed sown, then th curve at ano sped an be pre- Siete Figure 2.14 sats th aft laws for varble-speel pumps where the Tne though the punp bead ehrectrtc caren represents the leas of best ef eieny pins. Inserting Equations 24 and 2.35 nto Bquaton 233 an solving for gives a general quition fr astng puny baad carves To spect: ings Phyo", 239) where n= n/n, System Head Curves ‘The pupote ofa papi to overcome elomton dfreces and ead losses due to Pipe sion an fing The rn of head the pump mst ad overcome eleva Hon differences i dependent on system characterises an tpology (and independent ofthe pp discharge re), and referred Yo 8 ate head or star if Fition aad Ininr loses, however, ate highly dependent on the rte of dachrge rough the Pulp, When these lees ar aed tthe ste head fv a sete of escharg aes, the resaing plot is called stm head curve (ee Figure 213),46 Modeling Theory captor Po Ochre. pnsection 27 nergy sine The pump characteristic eve i fanton ofthe pump and independent ofthe ye tem, whe te ajstem bend curve i dependent the System ands idependent of the amp. Unlike the pump cave, wich is zed fr a ven pump at given see, the system hea eure stil aiding up and down a tak ater eel ange snd demands change Rather han thee beng ungue system ead curv, 2 family of System ead cures form band oo the graph For the cae of single pptine otmesn two pis, the aye bead care can be essed in gut om 8 alos HEMET en whee = taal ad 1) 4, = sae 1, = pe resisncs ooo (PI) ge (UT) ~ minor los resistance coin (T) Ths, the head fetes and minor losses atone with each segment of pipe ate summed alo theft ng ofthe pipeline. Wen Ie system is more comple, the interdpendenses ofthe hyaline ake impor to wre single eg fon o dereribe a pont on the yen crv. In these cases, yerele analyse wing 4 -ydmile mode may be needed. It spl to vile the Bydreule grade tn increasing braply at pup and sloping downwards th water ows tough pipes and valves (Gee Figure 216). Pumps 47 (rapamge48 Madeling Theo chapter? Pump Operating Point ‘hen the pump head discharge curve aod the system bead cuve ae pote onthe ‘me anes (os sown Figure 217), oly ene pa es on oth the pun charter ince cure aod the system esd curve, This infers dees he pun operating point which representa th discharge ht will pus ough the pomp and the hea hat the pnp wil. This hea sequal 1 the bead need to overcome the static bead and ther ose athe syste Other Uses of Pump Curves In aon othe pum head disearge curve, oer ares rpeseting pump bobs icedesrbe power, ster horspowe, an eliciency (ee Figure 218), and ae i ‘use rt In Chap 3 (ee page 9) and Chapter S (sc page 197). Since lites ‘wet to minimize te enoust of energy necesay far stem operation the einer “ould slet pumps that una fenly u posrible, Pamp operating cos ar i used fern Chapter 10 (te page 436) notes isos when designing «pomp it the ner paste sueton head (NPSH) ‘ted (ce pope 324). NPSH ie he Bead tht ie presenta the auton side of the Dpnp. Each poop cogs thatthe eaible NPSH excod the required NPSH to rare ta laa eesees within the pump dono op below the vapor pressure of {he Mid casing avon. Aa sued on page 23, cavatian eset a bal ing ofthe liquid wit the prop, and it can ease temendows damage. The NPSH reauited is unique foreach pump del, and fa Fanction of low ae. The ws of alrated hai made! in determining eval et positive setion head i essed further on page 324section 28 Network Hydraulics 49 rs 2.8 NETWORK HYDRAULICS In networks of intrcomectd hydauicclements, every clement is infoeced by ‘cha neighbors the entire yfem interest in soc Way tha he endition ‘toe clement as becouse wth he condition ofall ter elements. Two co ‘cops defi thee interconnections: + Conservation of ass + Conservation af ener Conservation of Mass “The piciple of conservation of mase (own in Figate 219) dicate that te kd ras ening ey pipe wil be ea the mass leuing te pipe (ince Nad typ Cally nether eeated nor destoyed in bydemlie systems). ln newer modeling, all tutlows ae lmped the nso anton. Fa-u-o aay ihe Q,~ iow eins pip 7) C= wer ed ate 7) iguro 2.1850 Moding Theory Figure 2.19 Note that or pipe outlows fom the node the ale of is gating, Wen entended-period slinustions ate considered, water cin be stored. and ‘witha frm aks, thes frm is neoded Yo deserbe the ecumlaion of water at ‘tain nodes yonu-S- aw wiere = chageinstonge (U1) “The consrvition of mae sation is plied to al action nodes and tanks in ane ‘wor, ad oe equation is witen fer each of them, Conservation of Energy “The principle of conservation of nergy dicate hat he diference in enray betwen ‘0 ois mut be the sane pares of he path hat is tken (Berl, 1738) For ‘orveninnce win a hyubieanalya the equation i wren i terms of bead at flows: An ah BeBe yn eB Be pneye 20) where 2 = elomtion (©) P = pres (LIT) 1 = Mud specitc weigh (WLI) ¥ = veloc (7)Sesion 28 Network Hiydraties st 5 grevinionaaccertion constant (L/P) sy = head added pumps L) 1, = ead oes in pipes (1) 1, = ead loss de to mina losses (L) “Tha the ference in cneray at any two pots coenected in a network ieql othe aay guns om puns a ney losin pipes ant iting that acu a he path etween thom. The eqation ean be wsiten fr any agen pth between any (Wo ons. OF particalat interest se paths between resis oak hte the die ace in head is known), or pats around lops because the changes in energy mst fimo zero, ar aszsed in Fire 2.20. Solving Network Problems Real water distbtion ystems do not const of & single pipe and cannot be escsbed bya sage set of cont and energy equtons. Latex, one contin ution mst be developed foreach aad inthe sya, and one energy equation must be developed. fo ech pipe (or 1op), depending 0 the method wed. Fo el ‘ystems these equations ean name in he hous The fist systematic approach fr solving these equations was develope by Handy Cross (1936). The intention of digital compute, however, allowed more power ume techniques to be developed. Thee teshniqas st up and ace the ayes of equations deering the hyde of the network max fon, Because the nergy equaas ae aaloea In terms of flow and esd they canot be solved the drence been solutions ile within peifig tolerance. Acts po ‘te hydraulic equation ar considered slvd Some ofthe methods wsedin network analyse described in have (1991) Laney nd Mays (200 Lark, leppen, and Waters (1999) al Todi a Pit (1987) Figure 2.20