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VDANYAYA

OF
DHARMAKIRTI
The Logic of Debate

Critically edited and translated by


PRADEEP P. GOKHALE
Bibliotheca Indo-Buddhica Series
Sunil Gupta, Editor
Bibliotheca Indo-Buddhica Series No. 126

V A D A N Y A Y A

O F

DHARMAKIRTI
The Logic o f Debate

Critically edited and translated


with Introduction and Notes
by
Pradeep P. Gokhale

Sri Satguru Publications


A Division of
Indian Books Centre
Shakti N agar, Delhi
INDIA
Published by:
Sri Satguru Publications
Indological and Oriental Publishers
A Division of
Indian Books Centre
40/5, Shakti Nagar,
Delhi-110007
(INDIA)

First Edition: Delhi, 1993

ISBN 81-7030-380-X

No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner


whatsoever without written permission except in the case of
brief quotations embodied in critical articles
and reviews.

PRINTED IN INDIA
Preface

I am happy to present a translation of Dharmaklrtis


Vdanyya before the students and readers of Indology and
Indian philosophy. When I read the text for the purpose of
translation, I found that the text is still in need of critical
edition because it contains some corrupt readings. So I have
edited the text in the light of the editions of Rahul
Sankrityayan and of Dvarikadas Shastri and also in th e light
of Sntaraksitas commentary Vipancitrth.

In my translation of the text I have tried to be neither too


literal nor too liberal. The former, because I wanted to make
Dharmaklrtis Vdanyya intelligible to those English
readers who do not understand Sanskrit. And the latter,
because I wanted to be useful to those who would like to
read the text with the help of a translation. I have also
included explanatory notes at the end of this work in order
to facilitate a clearer understanding of the text and the
translation.

The central theme of Vdanyya is the nature and


classification of nigrahasthnas. I had written on this topic in
the context of Nyya and Buddhist theories of inference and
fallacies, as a small part of my Ph.D. dissertation. Around
the same time my colleague Dr. Mangala Chinchore had
taken up the theme as the central topic of her Ph. D.
vi VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKIRTI

dissertation. (Co-indicidently both the dissertations have


been published in the Bibliotheca Indo-Buddhica series of
Indian Books Centre). Dr. Chinchore has discussed the
theme with a great length and depth in her work. But while
reading her work I found that my approach to Vadanyaya is
basically different from her approach. In my Introduction
to this work, therefore, I took an opportunity to express my
approach as clearly as possible and also to discuss one of the
crucial points made by Dr. Chinchore in her book. Thanks
to Dr. Chinchores writing which provoked me to do so.

I am grateful to Shri Sunil Gupta who asked me to


translate Vadanyaya for Indian Books Centre and
encouraged me from time to time. I am also grateful to my
parents, wife, colleagues and friends who gave me
encouragement and moral support when it was needed.

Pradeep P. Gokhale
November 15,1992
Contents

Preface v
Abbreviations xi
Introduction xiii

Parti

(Definition of Occassion of Defeat) 3-63

The definition and classification of


nigrahasthna; the first type of asdhannga-
vacana.
The justification of a constituent of proof in
the case of self-nature as reason.
The justification of a constituent of proof in
the case of effect as reason.
Justification of a constitutent of proof in the
case of non-apprehension as reason,
(continued upto section 29).
What kind of non-apprehension proves the
practice of non-existence?
Do all cognitions and verbal usages (and
identities and differences amongst them)
viii VADANYA YA OF DHARMAKlRTI

prove existence of objects (and identities


and differences amongst them)?
19 Does pragmatic function prove existence?
Do identities and differences amongst
pragmatic funcdons prove denudes and
differences amongst the objects?
20 The nature of non-apprehension as reason.
21-26 Refutadon of the Sankhya view that nothing
can be said to be non-existent.
27-28 Refutadon of Satkaryavada of Sankhya.
29 Conclusion of the discussion on non
apprehension.
30 Second type of asadhanangavacana.
31 Third type of asadhanangavacana. In what
way are Declaration etc. non-consutuents of
proof?
32 Fourth type of asadhanangavacana.
33-35 Fifth type of asadhanangavacana.
36 The first type of adosodbhavana
37 Condemnation of cheating practices
(qubbling etc.) in the course of debate.
38 Second type of adosodbhavana.

Part II

(Refutation of the Afyayo-View) 65-149

39-41 Criticism of Pratijnahani as nigrahasthdna.


42-45 Criticism of Pratijnantara.
46-58 Criticism of Pratijnavirodha
59 Cri deism of Pratijndsamnyasa.
60 Criticism of Hetvantara.
CONTENTS ix

61 On Arthantara.
62 Criticism of Nirarthaka.
63 Criticism of Avijnatartha.
64 Criticism of Aparthaka.
65-68 Criticism of Apraptakala.
Do incorrect words make sense via
the recollection of correct words?
69 Criticism of Nyuna
70 On Adhika.
71-74 On Punarukta.
75-78 Criticism of Ananubhdsana.
79-80 Criticism of Ajnana.
81 On Aprtibha.
82-84 Criticism of Viksepa.
85 Cri deism of Matanujna
86-87 Criticism of Niranuyojyanuyoga.
89-91 Criticism of Apasiddhanta
92 O n Hetvabhasa as nigrahasthana.
93 Epilogue.
Notes 151-181
Glossary 183
Abbreviations

D Dvarikadas Shastris edition of Vadanyaya.


(D) Reading accepted in D.
Lit. Literally
NBh Nyayabhasya of Vatsyayana
NS Nyayasutraof Gautama
NV Nyayavartika of Udy o takara
R Rahul Sankrityayans edition of Vadanyaya
(R) Reading accepted in R
V Vipancitartha, the Santaraksitas commentary
of Vadanyaya as included in D.
(V) Reading of Vadanyaya as accepted in V.
VN Vadanyaya as included in this work.
Introduction

Vdanyya is an important work by Dharmakrti, the


Buddhist philosopher and logician of seventh century A.D..
The work is devoted to the rules of victory and defeat in
debate. Tne term Vdanyya means the logic of debate in
the broad sense of the term logic. Logic in its restricted
sense means a formal discipline which systmatiss the rules
governing validity of valid arguments or logical truth of the
logically true propositions. But logic in its broad sense could
mean a discipline which deals with the questions of
rightness and wrongness from a rational point of view (that
is, where right stands for rational or reasonable and
wrong stands for irrational or unreasonable) in the
context of any given enquiry. When, for instance, a debate
takes place between two persons it is a legitimate question as
to whose stand in the debate is rational and whose
irrational. Winning and losing in a debate would be
governed by the consideration of rightness or wrongness in
this sense, if one has to look at debate as a rational
enterprise. Naturally the discipline which deals with the
rules governing rauonality of winning or losing a debate
could be called the logic of debate. Vdanyya is a work in
the logic of debate in this broad sense.
xiv VADANYA YA OF DHARMAK1RTI

The concept o f nigrahasthana


Dharmaklrds construction of the logic of debate can be
better understood on the background of Nyaya discussion
of debate. Dharmakird has used the Nyaya account of
debate, not only as a purvapaksa, a position to be refuted,
but also, at least partly, as a raw material for reconstruction.
His criticism of Nyaya is not purely destructive but it has a
construcdve aspect also. Gautama in his Nydyasiitra
(hereafter, NS) states the rules regarding winning and
losing a debate in terms of the notion of nigrahasthana.
Gautama presents the notion of nigrahasthana (the point of
defeat) in his work in two places. First he gives the general
concept of nigrahasthana as vipratipatti and apratipatti
(Misapprehension and non-apprehension) in NS 1.2.19 and
in the latter part of his work he gives an elaborate
classificadon of nigrahasthanas. Dharmakird seems to
develop over the general concept of nigrahasthana given in
NS. His line of approach could be spelt out as follows:
Dharmakird suggested that nigrahasthanas of the disputant
( Vadin) and those of the opponent (prativadin) are not the
same. The job of the disputant (as disputant) is to present a
good argument for proving his posiuon and to justify it,
whereas the jo b of the opponent as opponent is to point out
the faults in the argument. They would be failing in their
jobs it they suffer from non-apprehension or false
apprehension relevant to their respective jobs. The non-
ipprehension that the disputant has consists in his failure to
aresent or justify a sound argument and the false
ipprehension he has consists in his presentation of
allacious arguments or irrelevant or redundant statements.
.11 these types seem to be clubbed by Dharmakird into one
irm - asadhanahgavacana'. Similarly the non-apprehension
jat the opponent has consists in his inability to find out the
inuine fault in the faulty argument advanced by the
sputant. The false apprehension he has consists in his
)inung out a non-fault as fault. Both these types seem to
INTRODUCTION xv

be clubbed by DharmakTrti in one term - adosodbhavana. In


this way it is possible to argue that Dharmaklrtis account of
nigrahasthana is not radically opposed to the Nyaya
definition of nigrahasthana but it is a development over it.
That is why, it seems, Dharmakiru does not criticise the
general definition of nigrahasthana though he criticises
other aspects of the Nyaya account of nigrahasthana. Two
such aspects come to the foreground-
(1) The Nyaya conception of debate in the context of
which the question of nigrahasthdnas becomes
relevant.
(2) The elaborate classification of nigrahasthana given in
NS.

Dhamiakirti on the Nyaya-concept o f debate


Dharmaklrtis account of the nature of debate differs
significantly from the Nyaya account. The first point of
difference is that of terminology. What Naiyayikas call Vada
is not the same as what DharmakTrti calls Vada. Naiyayikas
classify katha (discussion) into three kinds: vada, jalpa and
vitanda. 'Vada' roughly stands for a friendly discussion
between a teacher and his disciple or between two co
disciples where the question of victory or defeat does not
arise, 'jalpa' stands for a debate between two parties where
both the parties try to justify their own positions against
each other. In jalpa the question of victory and defeat is
most relevant. 'Vitanda' stands for a debate similar to jalpa,
the difference being that in Vitanda one of the parties does
not present any position of its own, but it only attempts to
refute the position of the other party.

What Naiyayikas call vada resembles what DharmakTrti


cM s prapahcakatha or vistarakatha (see, for instance, sections
70, 72, 73). Prapancakatha is a diffuse discussion which is not
governed by any rules concerning defeat or victory. But
unlike vada it is not restricted to the discussion between
xvi VADANYA YA OF DHARMAKIRTI

teacher and his disciple or between two co-disciples. It can


take place between any two persons interested in a subject.

What Naiyayikas call jalpa resembles what Dharmakirti


calls vada. Vada of Dharmakirti (let us call it vada (D)) is a
debate between two parties trying to argue out their own
cases and refute the cases of each other. The question of
victory and defeat does arise in the case of vada (D). But
vada (D) may be distinguished from jalpa in at least two
important ways-
(1) The purpose behind jalpa is the protecdon of
o n es own philosophical determination
'jKrMfqd^ . . . NS 4.2.50). In fact Naiyayikas associated their
concepts of victory and defeat with this goal of self-
protection. Jalpa and vitanda are the weapons to be used for
defending oneself and for defeating others. The purpose
behind vada{D), on the other hand, is to persuade the
other debater radonally, to help him achieve the knowledge
of truth and to remove his misconcepdons. Dharmakirti
associates his concepts of victory and defeat with this goal of
vada (D). cfc^fFR
Ifiddiid'l:! - VN, Secdon 37). The other
difference follows from this difference.

(2) Since jalpa (and also vitanda) is to be used as a


weapon for self-defence (and for winning over others), the
use of both rauonal as well as irrational devices in the course
of debate was permitted by Naiyayikas. On the contrary
Dharmaklru condem ned the use of any irrational means
(such as chala, a form of deceiving the other debater) in the
course of debate, because for him the purpose of vada(J>)
was not to defend on es own position by any hook or crook,
but to benefit the other debater by removing his
misconception and leading him to knowledge.
The third type of katha viz., vitanda which was
recommended by Naiyayikas as a means to self-defence was
INTRODUCTION xvii

disapproved totally by Dharmaklrti. (u.d'ta fad^-sl yc^tdl,


3T^qTTrnn%f^RI^M^I - VN, Secdon 83).

Dharmaklrti on classification o f nigrahasthanas


We have seen that Dharmaklrti does not seem to be
critical about the general definition of nigrahasthana as
given in NS, which he develops further. But he is vehemently
critical about the elaborate Nyaya classification of
nigrahasthanas. He devotes the second half of his work to the
criticism of this classification. He gives his own classification
of nigrahasthanas along with their definitions, in the first
half of his work. Let us first consider his own classification
and then turn to his criticism of the Nyaya classification.
Prima facie it appears that Dharmaklrus classification of
nigrahasthanas is just two-fold. But the two types of
nigrahasthanas that Dharmaklrti mentions (viz.
asadhanangavacana and adosodbhavana) in fact indicate
many more types because Dharmaklrti himself derives and
interprets the two terms in various ways. By interpeting the
terms variously Dharmaklrti himself makes room for five
kinds of asadhanangavacana and two kindsof adosodbhavana.
His classificadon maybe tabulated asfollows-
Nigrahasthana

O f the disputant O f the opponent


(Asadhanangavacana) (Adosodbhavana)
(Nj) Non-justification of a (Ne) Not pointing out a
constituent of proof fault in disputants
(Nj) Non-statement of a argument
constituent of proof (N?) Pointing out a non-
(N}) Statement of what is fault as fault
redundant as a part of proof
(N4) Statem ent of a fallacious
constituent of proof
(N#) Statement of something
irrelevant
xviii VDANY Y A OF DHARMAK RT1

[For the types Nt to N7based on different derivations of


the terms asdhanngavacana and adosodbhdvana, see
sections 1, 30, 31, 32, 33, 36 and 38 respectively]
This amounts to a seven-fold classification. If we
understand this classification, then we can understand the
point in Dharmakirtis criticism of Nyya -classification also
in a better light. Dharmaklrti is not very critical, for
instance, about two Nyya - nigrahasthnas - Apratibh (Non
imagination) and Hetvbhsa (Fallacies of probans). (Of
course Dharmaklrti would differ with the Nyya conception
and classification of hetvbhsas in their details, but not with
the basic concept of hetvbhsa). It is not surprising because
Dharmaklrti has included them in his own classification in
some form or the other. Apartibh, takes the form of N , Ns
or N.o in Dharmakirtis classification and Hetvbhsas are
included in N4. In fact Dharmaklrti in one place goes to the
extent to say that the two nigrahasthnas viz. Hetvbhsa and
Apratibh cover all the nigrahasthnas. (H x^tvm8J^rf^7Tf

ef{MHldf VN, Section 80).

Dharmaklrti accepts the Nyya nigrahasthna Punarukta


(See sections 71-73) with some qualifications and
modifications. It is natural because Punarukta in its
modified form implies Nsof Dharmakird. He clearly accepts
Arthntara' of Nyya (see section 61) which implies his N5.

In general we can say that when Dharmakird is cridcal


about the Nyya classification, he is not opposed to each
and every type of nigrahasthna of Nyya. He is ready to
accept those Nyya nigrahasthnas, which are formally
matching to his dassificadon which is more systemauc. Still
he is cridcal about the Nyya dassificadon to a large extent
for the following reasons-
( 1) The Nyya classification is not mutually exclusive: Many
nigrahasthnas which are m enuoned separately in the Nyya
INTRODUCTION x ix

list due to minor differences, could be clubbed into a few of


them. For example Pratijnavirodha in its refined and
corrected form could be included in Hetvabhasa.
StWcmfwrfcT
Section 53) Arthantara, Nirarthaka and Apdrthaka insofar as
they are genuine nigrahasthanas are different kinds of
irrelevant talks; so they could be clubbed into one.
Ananubhasana, Ajnana and Apratibha need not be
distinguished from each other insofar as their essence is
concerned. In this way there is a great scope for economy in
Nyaya classification.

(2) Nor is the Nyaya - classification collectively exhaustive:


Because, if one allows invention of new types on the basis of
minor differences, then any number of types can be
invented, which are not there presently in the Nyaya list.
(See section 80).

(3) DharmakTrti is critical about the Nyaya framework of


anumdna: When Naiyayikas were not clear about the
constitutive elements of a sound probans, Dharmaklri
introduced the scheme of three constitutive elements.
Correspondingly he pointed out three basic fallacies of
probans : Asiddha, Viruddha and Anaikantika. This was a
systematic counter-thesis to the Nyaya scheme of five
Hetvabhasas. Naiyayikas talked of five elements (avayavas) of
inferential statement. DharmakTrti systematically criticised
this view and pointed out that only two elements (the
statements of paksadharmata and vyapti) are necessary and
sufficient and also that the order between these two
elements is of no importance.1Whereas the Nyaya scheme of
nigrahasthanas presupposes the Nyaya framework of
anumdna, Dharmakirtis criticism of the former reflects his
criticism of the latter. So Aprdptakdla is no more a
nigrahasthana because it presupposes the specific order of
the elements of the inferential statement. If an inferential
statement lacks Pratijnd or Nigamana then the occasion of
XX VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKlRTI

defeat called Nyuna occurs according to Nyaya. Dharmakiru


rejects this possibility because, Pratijna and Nigamana as
elements of inferential statements are redundant according
to him. And if Pratijna itself is not necessary in any
inferential statement, then many nigrahasthanas such as
Pratijhantara, Pralijnahani, Pratijhasamnyasa lose their
significance.

(4) Other defects: Apart from the above defects in the


Nyaya account, there are other defects. There are many
places where Naiyayikas are incorrect or vague or confused
in their account. Sometimes they present implausible cases
as the instances of nigrahasthana. (For instance, see secdon
44). They unduly extend the scope of Pratijhavirodha and
mix up Drstantavirodha with it. They treat some of the
unnecessary conventions regarding debate as the essendal
rules (see section 78). Dharmakiru points out many such
cases into the details of which we need not go here.

A problem: Is hetvabhasa a nigrahasthana?


I have pointed out that Dharmakiru in his classification
of nigrahasthanas includes Hetvabhasa as one of the
derivations of the term asadhanahgavacana. (It is in his
classification tabulated above). But this view is not
acceptable to all. Dr. Mangala Chinchore in her thorough
going account of Vadanyaya repeatedly claims that
hetvabhasa is not a nigrahasthana according to Dharmakiru.*
As a matter of fact there are many statements of Dharmaklrti
himself which are clearly contrary to her claim.* But there is
one passage which apparently supports Dr. Chinchores
view.

f? KUiq-ilfatlftsfiT ^T^FT: yfcM lfc-iUytdHlQ ^


W M W H I ^TT, rafter WTOTRS2TfWclTitf5FIT
cZjcrcajTTllclJ ^RTlsfiT
W f a R f f c W f a t l W i ( S e c t i o n No. 36).
INTRODUCTION xxi

Here Dharmakirti is pointing out that commission of a


Hetvabhasa by the disputant does not by itself result into his
defeat. He will be defeated if the fallacy of probans has been
pointed out by the opponent. Nor would it be correct to say:
The commission of Hetvabhasa, if it remains undiscovered by
the opponent, would result in to the disputants victory,
because his position stands proved insofar as it is not
disproved. The disputant does not win because due to his
fallacious argument, he fails to persuade his opponent
rationally (^cmie^Oiraic^ - Literally - there is no realisation
of truth (by the opponent)).

Now the question is: If hetvabhasa is an occasion of defeat


according to Dharmakirti why does the commission of
Hetvabhasa does not necessarily result into defeat according
to him?

Dr. Ghinchores answer seems to be: Since commission of


a Hetvabhasa does not necessarily result into defeat,
Hetvabhasa must not be a nigrahasthdna according to him.
But is this approach satisfactory?
The fact is: Where Dharmakirti calls Hetvabhasa a
nigrahasthdna, he does so literally and vividly.4 But the
passage which apparently supports Dr. Chinchores
interpretation, does not contain the word nigrahasthdna'
at all. (Dr. Chinchore has apparently overlooked the direct
and clear evidences unfavourable to her thesis, but tried to
exploit unclear and indirect evidences apparently
favourable to her.) If the two evidences are put together, we
have the following picture: Hetvabhasa is a nigrahasthdna but
commission of Hetvabhasa does not necessarily cause the
defeat.

This is interesting. If Dharmakirti is consistent in this,


then his notion of nigrahasthdna is in need of further
clarification. I suggest the following clarification.
x x ii VADANYA YA OF DHARMAKlRTI

Nigrahasthana, i.e., an occasion of defeat or a ground of


defeat is so called because when it is committed by a
disputant or an opponent in the debate situation, it can
cause the defeat (subject to its discovery by the other
debater). But nigrahasthana is not always the sufficient
condiuon of defeat (i.e. it need not necessarily lead to ones
defeat); it is possible that a nigrahasthana is committed but
the actual defeat does not occur.5 Hetvabhasa is a
nigrahasthana according to Dharmaklrd in this restricted
sense. In fact this situation is not peculiar to hetvabhasa, it
could be generalised and applied to other nigrahasthanas as
well. In general, one could say, it could be applied to
asadhanahgavacana and adosodbhavana. (We will consider a
problem with this proposal a little later.)

Dharmaklrd in this way realises a gap between winning


and losing - a situauon where none of the debaters is to be
declared as defeated though one of them is certainly at
fault, and though a nigrahasthana has been committed. Why
does Dharmaklrd take this stand? He himself gives the
answer-

The debater who commits a fallacy but whose fallacy


remains undetected by the opponent, is not defeated,
because winning and losing is determined reladve to the act
of surpassing each others strength that takes place among
the two debaters. That one debater loses a point or fails to
score a point is insufficient. Whether the other debater
scores a point by surpassing him is equally important. If the
disputant commits a fallacy, he has lost a point, but if the
opponent does not discover the fallacy, he is equally a loser,
he will score a point over the disputant, if he points out the
fallacy committed by him. Commitung a nigrahasthana
amounts to losing a point, but it will not be translated into
actual defeat unless that is complemented by the other
debater by scoring a point. Here Dharmaklrd is insisting
INTRODUCTION x x iii

that result of a debate should not be based on a one-sided


judgem ent, but it should always be made in the light of
reciprocal or competitive character of the debate. This
contention in no way affects Dharmaklrtis view that
Hetvabhasa is a nigrahasthana.

But if the judge cannot declare the disputant as defeated


in the situation described above, what else can he do? It is
possible to claim that the judge may declare the disputant as
the winner. Because if the judge has discovered a fault in the
disputants argument which the opponent has not, but if
the judge is pardal to the disputant, then he could take
advantage of the situation and tell the opponent, See, the
disputant has presented an argument which you are not in a
position to refute. So you have lost; the disputant has won.
Dharmaklrti condemns this possibility because it would be a
case of cheating the opponent on the part of the judge. And
no cheating practice is in order in a philosophical enquiry.
(=1f t chdfa'dwi ISection 36).

This approach of Dharmaklrti is important as a response


to Nyaya approach also. Naiyayikas do not talk of any gap
between occurrence of a nigrahasthana and actual defeat.
This somedmes may generate a paradoxical situation.
Consider, for instance, the two Nyaya-nigrahasthdnas -
Hetvabhasa and Paryanuyojyopeksana. Suppose a disputant
commits a fallacy of probans and the opponent fails to
discover it. Then the disputant has committed the former
nigrahasthana whereas the opponent has committed the
latter. According to Nyaya, both will have to be declared as
defeated. Dharmaklrti tries to avoid this paradox by creating
a gap between occurrence of nigrahasthana and declaration
of defeat.

But the problem reappears in a different form in


Dharmakirds framework also. Consider the first type of
adosodbhavana (N6), according to which the disputant is
xxiv VADANYAYA OF DHARMAWRTI

faulty, but the opponent fails to discover the fault. This is an


occasion of the opponents defeat. But the disputant has
already committed a fault (which the opponent fails to
discover), so it is an occasion of disputants defeat as well. So
there is an occasion (or two occasions at the same time) of
the defeat of both disputant and opponent. But none of
them is to be declared as defeated! What will happen now?
Adosodbhavana cannot culminate into the actual defeat of
the opponent unless this incapasity of the opponent (to
discover the disputants fault) has been pointed out by the
disputant himself. (Because, an incapasity of a debater
cannot by itself lead to his defeat! This is by the same token
as in the case of Hetvabhasas.) But if the disputant points out
the opponent's incapasity to discover the disputants own
fault, then he in a way acknowledges the real fault
committed by himself. In discovering opponents incapasity
he is discovering his own fault.6 He is acknowledging
asadhanahgavacana committed by himself and
adosodbhavana committed by the opponent. Again a
paradoxical situation! Dharmaklrti may perhaps say: Such a
situation of indecision is welcome, because occurrence of a
nigrahasthana does not by itself play a decisive role! But still
the question is: Why did Dharmaklrti introduce
adosodbhavana of the first type (i.e.. N6) as the occasion of
the opponents defeat, which never leads to the actual
defeat of the opponent?

On the present edition of the text


The Sanskrit text of Vadanyaya was first edited by Rahul
Sankrityayan and was published by Mahabodhi Society of
Sarnath in 1936. It was further edited by Swami Dvarikadas
Shastri in the light of Santaraksitas commentary
Vipahcildrtha, and published by Buddha-bharatl of Varanasi
in 1972. This latter edition is certainly an improvement over
Rahuljis version and is closer to the original text. Yet it
contains many corrupt readings and leaves room for further
INTRODUCTION XXV

improvement.7 The present edition is an attempted


improvement over Dvarikadas Shastris edition of
Vadanyaya.

While editing, I have considered Dvarikadas Shastris


edition (hereafter, D) as the point of departure. Generally, I
have accepted the alternative readings suggested in D in the
light of Vipancitartha (hereafter, V). But in some places I
found that the readings in Rahul Sanskrityayans edition
(hereafter, R) are more consistent than the readings in D.
Generally, I have benefited from V while improving upon D.
However, since V is not a word to word commentary and
leaves many words and sentences unmentioned and
unexplained, it cannot come to our rescue while improving
upon many corrupt readings in the available text. I have
suggested alternative readings in some such cases,
considering mainly the question of semantic consistency of
the text.

Since D is my starting point, I have given editorial foot


notes only where I had to deviate from D. When the
alternative readings suggested by me are based on R or V, I
have altered the text accordingly and explained the source
in the footnotes. But when the source of alternative reading
is not R or V, but my imagination, I have introduced my
suggestions in the text by placing them into brackets, and
have prefixed or suffixed a question mark to them.

The main drawback of my version of Vadanyaya is that it,


like R and D, does not take into account any Tibetan version
of the text. My humble request to the scholars of Tibetan
would be to verify the alternative readings suggested by me
in the light of Tibetan versions of Vadanyaya. In spite of this
drawback, I would like to claim humbly that my version is
closer than R or D to the original, though it still contains
m any doubtful places.
xxvi VDANYYA O F DHARMAKRTI

Lastly I would like to inform that the division of the text


(and the translation) into sections and the assignment of
section-numbers has been done by me for the convenience
of the readers. These sections or section numbers are not
there in the original text.

Notes and References

1. For Dharmakirtis framework of anumdna and the way it


differs from Nyaya framework, see Chapters II, III and V of
Inference and Fallacies Discussed in Ancient Indian Logic by
Pradeep P. Gokhale, Sri Satguru Publications (Indian
Books Centre), Delhi, 1992.
2. Dr. Mangala Chinchore makes this claim vividly on pp. 83-
84 o f her work Vadanydya: A Glimpse of Nyaya-Buddhist
controversy ( Sri Satguru Publications, Indian Books Centre,
Delhi, 1988) Elsewhere in her work she makes the point in
different form such as - *'Nigrahasthanatva and
Hetvdbhdsatva should not be confused with each other.
None of the two determines the other. She attributes this
view to Dharmakirti. But I think that, that Hetvdbhdsatva is a
determ iner of Nigrahasthanatva would be acceptable to
Dharmakirti if that amounts to saying that commission of
Hetvdbhdsa is a nigrahasthdna because it is what it is. This is
so because commission of Hetvdbhdsa is nothing but
asddhandngavacana in one of the senses of the latter (See
section 32) and asddhandngavacanatva is definitely a
determ iner of nigrahasthanatva.

3. (i) 3T*RT f^ 5 : v U M *TT


fcwrom:, Fft (VN,
Sec. 32).

(ii) fw w rrff, W P n i f t e f W (VN,


Sec. 92).
4. See Note 3 above.
INTRODUCTION xxvii

5. Dr. Chinchore observes that the Nyya concept of


Nigrahasthna was different from Dharmaklrtis concept
she points out that Udyotakara uses the term Parjayavastu
(the point of defeat) where as Dharmakirti uses the term
Parjaydhikarana (the ground o f defeat). This is an
im portant observation indeed. But Dr. Chinchore does not
use it while considering the question whether Hetvbhsa is
a nigrahasihna. She could have said: Hetvbhsa is a
nigrahasthna in Dharmakirtis sense. It is a ground of
defeat, which may or may not result into actual defeat. But
it is not a nigrahasthna in Naiyyikas* sense. It is not of
point of defeat (Parjayavastu) which indicates actual
defeat.
6. This situation is similar to Matnuj in Nyya terms.
7. Prof. Hajime Nakamura, in his foreword to WTcT
-tfwm mfxK v m (vkmfo irf ^hsrWf 3), a
Hindi work by Prof. Ramachandra Pandeya, Dr.
Raghavendra Pandeya and Dr. Manju, congratulates the
authors of the work for editing the Sanskrit text of
Vdanyya successfully. But the Sanskrit text which the
authors include in their work as its second appendix is
nothing but a word to word (and error to error)
reproduction of Dvarikadas Shastris edition (with the
deletion of his editorial footnotes, but without the deletion
of footnote numbers in the text). The authors do not care
to acknowledge Svami Dvarikadas Shastri anywhere in the
work.
w z m :

VDANYYA
P arti

Definition of
Occasion o f Defeat1

3WT <M^RH<1Ml<5PR
t^SHH., 3 F T 5 ^ ^ f t r c ( % ^ l l

fSWF f a f e cTFT f W ^ _ 3 T ^ , cTPT 3R*FT


cl^ M I^W I^ K U l c n fc fw iftR iW ; ci^^PTq 3 W fc i^

1. The wicked persons defeat in debates by employing


improper methods2(Lit. Systems) even the one who argues
rationally. We start this (work on the logic of debate) for
repudiating them.
Asadhanangavacana and adosodbhavana are the occasions
of defeat of the two (debaters, i.e. the disputant and the
opponent respectively). Any other occasion of defeat,
however, is not just; hence we do not accept it.
4 VDANY YA OF DHARMAKRTI

Sdhana means proof of the matter4 intended (to be


proved by the disputant). Its anga means what constitutes it.
Its non-statement, i.e.. non-utterance of that constituent (of
proof), is the occasion of defeat of the disputant; (this
occurs) either because the disputant keeps mum because of
Non-imagination after he proposes (to prove the matter) or
because he does not justify the constituent of proof (which
he states).5

cTW w ffl TOTtHT trfiffui *TTcrcnH^| W

2. (Justification o f the constituent o f proof in the case


of self-nature as reason.]
Because, three kinds of inferential sign (= probans)
constitute the proof of an unperceived object: self-nature,
effect and non-apprehension. Its justification (i.e.
justification of probans) means nothing but proving its
existence in the property-bearer (= subject of the thesis),
after proving its pervasion with the probandum (= predicate
of the thesis). For example - All that is real or is a product is
impermanent, like the things such as pot. And sound is real
or a product.

3. 3T^fq 1 I
W n^Erfiffrl MKI Wrf: TTCTlsqcl T^l W -
RFF ^T, *IsN ^ - qzif?: ^fl

This and other subtitles given in brackets have been introduced first in
D. They are not in R.
DEFINITION OF OCCASION OFDEFEAT' 5

3. In this there is no rule about the order (of


premises)1because the two cases make no difference as to
the establishment of the intended matter. Because,
pervasion can certainly be demonstrated afterwards, after
proving the existence (of the probans) in the property-
bearer. For example - Sound is real or a product. And
whatever is of this kind is all impermanent, like the things
such as pot. (This also is a legitimate proof).

^ ^ ^ SiyfuidvW

'3T fTeqa fcqfcfftfcl ?TfBTT:l

4. Here proving pervasion means demonstrating an


evidence1 (= pramana) which falsifies (the existence of
probans) where there is absence (of probandum).* (It is as
follows.) If all that is real or a product is not subject to
destruction at every moment, then the defining
characteristic (of the real) viz. capacity to function gets
excluded from it. Because a non-momentary object cannot
have any function (= artha-kriya) either in succession or in
simultaneity. Hence it (= the non-monetary object) will be
unreal. Because the entity, which by definition is destitute of
all the descriptions in term of capacity,tis indescribable (as
real etc.).
If the evidence, which falsifies the existence of probans in
the absence of probandum, is not shown in this way, it (=
6 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKlRTI

the possibility that probans may exist in the absence of


probandum) is not contradicted (by any means of
knowledge). And hence when it (= probans) is not seen to
exist in the absence (of probandum ), there is no suspension
of the doubt that the sound may be real or a product and yet
permanent.

ycbKW<i*rM3j

5. Not every (kind of) non-apprehension falsifies the


existence of an object. In the given case capasity of an object
is established as pervaded by the association with succession
or lack of succession, because there is no other mode.
Therefore (in this case) the non-apprehension of pervading
characteristic (viz. succession or no succession) falsifies
the capasity in the case of the non-momentary object.1
Because the pervasion of the non-association with
succession or simultaneity with the absence of capacity is
proved, there is no occurrence of infinite regress.2
DEFINITION OF OCCASION OF DEFEAT 7

^ ft ^ f MHIuMc1l w H w & l
3pqn TfiFf W R t ^f%R:l

cft ^ ft^ P T "H%T^FTftl=F: WI<rtl*rTCT:l

M ^V 'kflT ^^^T ^:; fayMU4<f^Ht5^TRl*IiTOTT^,

6. [An Objection-]
But here non-apprehension is not the means to
knowledge because the pervasion of the non-association
with succession or simultaneity with the absence of capasity
is itself not proved.1Hence there is no pervasion of the
earlier probans (realness) (with the probandum
momentariness). If you proceed to accept (another)
probans for (proving) this (second pervasion), then there
will be the danger of infinite regress.
[Answer] That is not correct. Because you have not denied
(successfully) the non-apprehension as the
means to prove absence.
(Which kind of non-apprehension is called the
falsifying evidence in this case?) That non
apprehension, which proves the absence of
probans in the case in which there is absence of
probandum, is called the falsifying evidence
because it establishes the opposite of that (=
existence of probans in the absence of
probandum).
In this way the probans will be proved as absent
from the case in which probandum is absent, if it
(= its existence) is falsified by the authoritative
contrary evidence. Otherwise if the evidence
falsifying it (= the existence of probans) in that (=
the absence of probandum) is not established,
8 VDANY YA OF DHARMAKRTI

then the doubt (that the probans may exist


without probandum) is inevitable.
In that case there will be a fallacy of probans
called Inconclusive because of the doubtfulness
of negative concomitance.
Nor is the exclusion (of probans from the case of
the absence of probandum) proved merely on
the basis of non-apprehension. Because in the
case of remote objects non-apprehension does
not prove their absence to a non-omniscient
being; and because a person with downword
vision2does not perceive some objects although
they are real.

tit
V9. -J: w fh w M F

cp if farfl

TT^RTT ^ f o g H^fl

wT*fci ^rati
^rf^l: W 5W FI; THT^*lfaTSIlJ ^ :

7. The falsifying evidence, however, is (expressed as


follows)1: Anything which lacks association with succession
and simultaneity does not have capacity to do anything. And
the non-momentary object has this character (that it lacks
association with succession and simultaneity). The falsifying
evidence which goes onwards in this way entails (Lit.
attracts) the absence of capacity which is the defining
DEFINITION OF 'OCCASION OF DEFEAT 9

characteristic of unreal. By that (the pervasion-) what is


real or a product is definitely impermanent is proved.
By this (justification) the positive concomitance of
the whole2 probans-characteristic with the probandum-
characteristic is proved.
In this way the constituent of proof becomes justified in
the arguments based on self-nature as reason. Not justifying
it is non-statement of a constituent of proof. It is an
occasion of defeat of the disputant because it amounts to
non-fulfilment of the purpose undertaken (by the
disputant). Because, the soundness of the reason has not
been brought out (by the disputant) there, although in fact
a sound reason has been employed.

dFi f a tranrraireniR-
w - ^rf', dd^
d ^ j ^ dd*Tl% d d d fd f f l

"dd tlc^l4cd '^rRf^fcT ^T^fTTI SPddl 4vqi dddr d


ddfd spqpnfq dddT% 3PTc(dd
W , dddTdT<(dd ^ 1

TdfFftft 3 d f ^ f t l 4 ^ K H I : l fd d ^ F d d :
TdddJ ^ f f 'dfd dc(d4
fa e ifd i

d?CPldPd4d d P P d d Plddfd, dd4*d ddPTcdfddddJ

3Tqf*rdr d wbK<|: "dTd:!


10 VANY Y A OF DHARMAKlRTI

ebl4dlcirq tntHItflcHH ^ cfTfc: WSFTFTRj


37TFTfscr fw i;
^ rfw n v rM i^ ,3 T R ^ n lffe 4 ^ : c b l^ l^ M K I^ cKyfcMKHItjJ

8. [Justification of the constituent o f proof in the case


of effect as reason.]
In the case of effect-as-reason too, a constituent of proof
needs justification. (The nature of this justification is as
follows:) It is the establishment of cause-eifect-relation
(between probans and probandum) where the effect is used
as probans for proving the cause. This is done by giving two
kinds of evidences (= pramnas), one establishing existence
(i.e. positive concomitance) and the other non-existence
(i.e. negative concomitance) such as This (= smoke etc.)
occurs (only) when this (= fire etc.) exists and In spite of
the presence of other powerful causal conditions,1 this
(= smoke etc.) does not occur in the absence of this (= fire
etc.).
In this way the fact that this (- smoke etc.) is the effect of
this cause (= fire etc.) (and not of any other thing) becomes
justified indubitally. Otherwise if (while establishing the
negative concomitance) only this much is demonstrated,
that This does not occur in the absence of this, then the
(causal) efficacy of it (= of the alleged cause) will be
doubted, if other things are also absent there (when the
effect is absent). The doubt will be as follows: Some other
thing is efficient in producing it (= the effect), and it (= the
effect) did not occur because of the absence of that (other
thing).2
Absence of this while that is absent amounts to
accidental coincidence. For example the fact that marriage
with ones own mother is granted in a particular place is
related with the generation of date-trees in that place and
the fact that there is absence of date-trees in other places
where marriage with ones own mother is not granted, is a
DEFINITION OF OCCASION OF DEFEAT 11

matter of mere coincidence. Thus the effect is proved if


justified properly.
When any real thing is proved, it proves the generation of
its cause through its own generation. Because the effect has
invariable relation with the cause. There is the common law
(of causation) in so far as the invariable relation of all effects
with their causes is concerned.
(Like in the case of self-nature as reason:) In the case of
effect as reason too, not justifying (the casue-effect-relation)
in this way is non-statement of a constituent of p ro o f and is
the occasion of the disputants defeat.
Because when it (= the cause-effect-relation) is not
justified, the proposed thesis remains unproved, because
the effect-hood of the effect is unproved, as there is no rule
by which something (Lit. that) exists when some other
object which has no binding relation with it, exists; because
although effect (as reason) is employed as a matter of fact,
its effecthood is not proved.

yPdMTjycqwfa'HIW*RJ 17-
5

v (V); - (R): <n^n - (D).


12 VADA N Y A Y A OF DHARMAKIRTI

9. [The justification o f a constituent of proof in the


case o f non-apprehension (as reason)]
In the case on non-apprehension (as reason) too,
(justification of a constituent of proof means) proving non
apprehension of the object fulfilling the condition of
apprehensibility1by the knower.2Because it is only by this
kind of non-apprehension that the practice of non-
existenceis proved.
If the object does not fulfil the condition of
apprehensibility, then its absence is not proved even if it is
not apprehended perceptually by the knower.
Here fulfilling the condition of apprehensibility means
(1) the specific nature (of the object) and (2) the aggregate
of all the remaining conditions (of apprehension). The
specific nature of the object means that the object is not
remote (from senses) due to (any of the) three kinds of
remoteness.4It is the nature which appears in the perceptual
appearance to the knower, in contradistinction with the
appearance of something other than self-nature. When the
object is not apprehended in spite of the presence of other
conditions of the apprehension of such an object, the non
apprehended object is the object of the practice of non
existence. Otherwise there arises a doubt (about non
existence) in spite of (non-apprehension as) the reason.

*0. 3q^|pq

<TFT %T:I 1 FcT:


3PjqcT,rqFi cfh|?i -dlFftcfol -
DEFINITION OF OCCASION OF DEFEAT 13

10. The pervasion here is of the form, Everything of


this kind is the object of the practice of non-existence;
because (for instance) the same characteristic (viz. non
apprehension associated with fulfilment of the condition of
apprehensibility) commonly exists in the accepted case of
some non-existent object.
Because unless non-existence of the object of this kind is
accepted, non-existence will not be obtainable in other
cases. Because if the object of this kind exists and the other
conditions of apprehension are present,, then there will not
be non-apprehension. If on the other hand the object of
this kind is not apprehended, then it does not exist. This
much is the (sufficient) condition of the practice of non
existence, because there is no other condition.

11. A possible objection:


Exclusion of all capasities (from the object) is the
condition (of non-existence)
[Answer] That is right. But the experience of the non
existent object, which (as, you say,) excludes all
capasities, takes place in this way (i.e. in the way
explained by us), because there is no other
means to its experience. And when the non
existent object is experienced in this way, it is
practised as non-existent. That is why we call this
as its condition.
14 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKiRTI

l^iil'Wyrd^RTFn: f w f i t 5 ^ p ^ R :|

WTSTlRM ^ WlfatfiW 3tfq ^ c r f ^ ^ p q ^ R : !

3 R T ^ I ^ K ^ d ^ H ^ S ^ l P d c h : , fay<f>58f Tdwpc^^TFT
S R F IW IT O W

12. A possible objection: The practice of existence (of


an object) originates from cognition, verbal usage and
pragmatic function (of the object) whereas the practice of
non-existence originates from the absence of them.
[Answer] (Yes) The practice of existence originates from
the cognition, the appearance of which takes
place as has been stated above.1And the practice
of non-existence originates from its opposite. But
when the object is not the object of perception,
the practice of existence could originate from an
inferential cognition.
But the practice of non-existence is uncertain
(= inconclusive) in the case of absence of it
(= perceptual cognition) (i.e. in the case of non-
perceptual object). Because in the case of a
remote object although the knowers perception
or some other means to knowledge becomes
inoperative, the doubt (that the object may be
existent), remains.

w n rfo r, amcwfa ^ is %
DEFINITION OF OCCASION OF DEFEAT 15

TRcfWT, UgliWdPlPftfWI
W qpH^ft m M ,

13. It is also not the case that all cognitions and


linguistic usages or the distinctions or identities amongst
them prove the existence of things or the existence of
distinctions or identities amongst the things. Because there
are cognitions and linguistic usages to indicate the
existence of objects which are non-existent somehow,
because they belong either to past or future or the objects
which have multiple or singular functions; (similarly) there
are (cognitions or linguistic usages with) multiple or
singular form, although the objects (indicated by them)
lack multiplicity or singularity (respecdvely). (For example)
- (i) (Past object-) The king Mahasammata, the originator of
the monastry. (ii) (Future object-) The emperor Sahkha
would elevate the sacrificial post established by
Mahasammata. (iii) (Unreal object-) The horn of a hare (iv)
(Singular object with multiple functions-) colour that is
perceptual and restrictive (v) (composite object with a
singular function-) Pot.1

q ff qPHc^kP^KI xrcf>'i|qq$Rfc{j

HRIpqq5 wBlPfflHi tlrlrq^miPiPd SIFi!


[q^is:?] qfirats h P ^ q ^ p q r f w ircqpd

fqr qtc*imf !

V (V); - (R) and (D).


5. (V): - (R) and (D).
16 VDANYYA OF DHARMAKjRTI

in 3 ^ F lt %
cftT dcH H P M 5fq ^ fasq fl W . ^ T$f
T^eff^TRfri | feH^f^TW mT?

^ t s f q 1% Tj^TsfeTftwt *#g :, ^ r ^ i f ^ i m
^ T ^ p M s f -^qiRRl -^ T^PT:!

14. In this the words like perceptual (sanidarsana)


(which are used for describing colour) do not designate
many ohjects because they consolidate in one object.
[A possible objection by Vaisesikas:] Many descriptions,
although they correspond to many objects, consolidate in
one object because the objects causing them (= those
descriptions) are related by Inherence (samavaya) with the
respective (single) object.
[Answer] The poor fellow object (such as colour-object) has
fallen into a burdensome task, because it directs
many words from many related factors towards
itself, when it favours a multi-termed relation
(called Inherence)1 ! Why does not the object
(colour) stimulate different words, with respect
to the same different capasities, through which it
favours the multi-terned relation (called
Inherence)? By this the strain of following
(endless) series* can be avoided by it (= by the
object such as colour).
If (according to you, the Vaisesika,)5one and the
same object cannot stimulate different words,
then let it not favour the multi-termed relation as
well. And if it does not favour it, then it (= the
object) cannot be proved to be related with them
(= many terms of the relation). Similarly many
entities such as colour etc. which have one
(collective) pragmatic function may be named by
DEFINITION OF 'OCCASION OF DEFEAT 17

a singular word namely poi. What is the use of


imagining a different entity (pot, over and above
colour etc.)? Many entities can have one
pragmatic function, like (the entities such as) eye
etc. (which have perceptual cognition as their
collective function). So we think it proper that a
single word may be applied to many entities to
indicate the single capasity (that they have).

Vv ^l Uk 41'jHII ^S S J: w j s p c n

Trf^cnFTT ^

w : ifl

-sr^Nt fedui ^ n fW tfd ,

if] 'F^l

iw r

1 R-llf urail

15. Moreover, people do not apply words for objects


without any purpose. What will be the harm if for many
objects which serve a single purpose either collectively or
distributively, a single word is used for indicating that the
objects are like that (i.e. that they serve common purpose)?
Similarly there is no contradiction in using a group-word
(for many entities) in singular, when it is used for indicaung

k. Suggested in Rjclfol - mentioned in RiUM - (D); Gram matically 3 |t*I


- (= ct ?t*l - ) would b e correct.
18 VADA N Y A YA OF DHARMAKJRTI

their common pragmatic function, because they have that


single efficacy collectively and not distribuuvely.
So the group-word is used in singular, when it denotes a
single group of objects, as the word pot.
But in the case of class-words, the objects (belonging to
the same class) may have single (common) capasity either
individually or collectively or they may have many different
capasities or the same capasity. Hence the class-word can be
used either in plural or in singular, according to on es
desire, if one intends to talk of many capasities or one
capasity (respectively). For example one may use the word
trees or tree (according to on es intention).
While (according to you) it is the rule that plural form is
used only when objects are many (i.e. more than two in
number) and singular form is used when the object is one,
our view is that the two (kinds of words) are used by
convention in their convendonal senses. So it (= what you
are saying) is only an (undue) adherence (on your part).

s. (R); - (D).
DEFINITION OF OCCASION OF DEFEAT 19

'T s fa c^f^TPTT W ^ f T

^ Wf F W i:
sfai y P a <vThAhi^ sr[?

16. [A possible objection by Vaisesikas: ]


(The characteristics of the pot viz.) colour etc., which
are plural in number cannot stimulate a single word.
[Answer:] Do the objects themselves stimulate the words
irrespective of the intendon of the person (i.e.
the speaker) or it is the persons who use the
words for objects, in order to conduct practises?
Because the question whether the objects have
real capasity or no capasity can be thought about
only if objects themselves give rise (to words). But
this (posidon) is not reasonable. Then what is
your censure, when you say that if the words are
applied by persons, then they will be applied by
them at will (i.e. without any rule)?
We have already told the efficient cause of the
applicadon of words.
Moreover, if colour etc. (being many) do not
have relation with a single word, then how can
they (= colour etc.) have any relation with the
single substance which is regarded as the
substratum of them?1Therefore this is nothing
but the ghost of false hood* possessing you.

. (V); - (R) and (D).


20 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKiRTI

[The Opponent Vaisesika says:] We do not intend to say


that one word should not be used for many objects as they
are opposed to any relation with a single object. But we say
that colour etc., when they are non-different (i.e. one and
the same) in pots, blankets etc., are opposed to differential
pragmatic functions and to (the use of) different words.
Hence when they (= colour etc.) are one and the same in
nature, they will not have the pragmatic function which
other collections of objects cannot have.8 Therefore, in
order to indicate it (i.e. the sameness of colour in spite of
diversity of collections which share it) the colour etc. can be
mentioned by a single word.4
[Answer:] One could have an inclination to say, colour etc.
would be the same through all the collections.
(here we ask) Does the perceptual knowledge of
the mutually distinct appearances of colour set
aside this inclination?5Moreover, this view (of our
opponents) is not desirable because colour etc.
are accepted to be different in nature from one
collection to another.

Vd. VmRwfl'

srfoqrcd fa>HicKUiH7

^ c n cT w i# ^lt% f^W fR % sfq i

. (V); vzK ftrito: - (R) and (D).


t. (R); Vrsyr (D).
DEFINITION OF OCCASION OF DEFEAT 21

W f ^ l 3TC ^'4dli<^<r*KH9b*fl H: ^

17. [The opponent asks:] What (wrong) will happen if


pot would be distinct from colour etc.?
[Answer] All right. What then is the obstacle1that obstructs
the appearance of the real perceptible thing (like
pot), which is not of the form of colour etc., in its
own form distinct from them (= colour etc.), in
our cognition?*
The perceptible objects such as odour and taste
are seen to appear distinctly even when they do
not have separate location (i.e. even when they
belong to the same thing). And the objects such
as the touch of the wind and the touch of suns
heat are seen to appear distinctly even if they are
sensible by the same sense organ.5
This is what makes perception a perception,
namely, the submission of objects own nature, as
distinct from the nature of what it is not, to the
cognition. But this thing such as pot (as
conceived by you) is a free-of-cost-purchaser,4
who does not exhibit its own (distinct) nature,
but wants to appropriate (distinct) perceptibility.

Tcn- ainsqrai:, ^

Qi cn^FT ^Tl
22 VADA N Y A YA OF DHARMAK1RTI

STcTT^^T

18. This (= above explanation) also explains the


(distinct) cognition, the (distinct) word (i.e. verbal usage)
etc., if it desired (by the opponent) to prove it (= distinct
existence of the pot etc.) on the basis of them.1
Moreover, it is not correct to say that the colour is not
identified (distinctly) when the perception (of the
composite object such as pot) is not dominated (by some
other object), in which case (i.e. only if the colour is not
identified distinctly,) a probans will be stated for proving it
(= the distinct composite object such as pot) .*
When it (= the composite object) is not perceptible, it is
not proper to assert the existence of a thing, for the
knowledge of which there is no authoritative means.
Therefore pot is not different from colour etc.
In this way one cannot talk of existence just on the basis
of cognition and verbal usage, nor can one talk of
distinctness or identity of existence (on the basis of them).
For the same reason the obsence cannot be established
on the basis of the absence of them (= cognition, verbal
usage etc.).5

- STifftfTqi^^l^l '(H'dl^litTlf^T crff ?


qT 3T*ffo*TT in irm fti w
13T^5T"q
DEFINITION OF OCCASION OF DEFEAT 23

?q%T8ff^7T^: i s n M N s p n ^ iK T f ^ T ^ ; ^ f ^ h -
^ ulblB<;6Hiir*W^:, cTSTT " ^ ly cqq ^^TR^^cMrlHI-cMI-
t^ s ff^ I^ rl

19. O ne can talk of existence on the basis of pragmatic


function, but one cannot talk of distinctness or identity of
existences on the basis of it. Because a single object is seen
to have many pragmatic functions. For example a lamp has
the following functions: (helping) cognition, transfor
mation of the wick and producing another flame.
(Distinctness or idendty of existences cannot be established
on the basis of pragmatic functions.) Because, (for
example) although eye and the other (causal) factors are
many in number, they are seen to have a single function viz.
(perceptual) cognition.
[The opponent says:] We are not saying that distinctness
of existences is established merely on the basis of
distinctness of pragmatic functions. But (it can be so
established) on the basis of distinctness of some unseen
pragmatic function. The pragmatic function which is not
seen in one thing (at one point of time) but is seen there
again, establishes distinctness of existence. For example the
function of carrying water which is not seen in mud is seen
in the earthen pot and the function of covering body which
is not seen in threads is seen in the cloth. In this way there is
the distinctness of existences.
[Answer:] In this way (the existence of) some other object
may be established, but the composite whole (=
ayayavT) is not establihsed. The difference in

v (V); - (R) and (D).


24 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKlRTI

pragmatic function (in the cases cited by you) is


due to the difference of nature (= svabhava)
which occurs in a series of modifications in
accordance with its causal conditions.1 For
example, when the fire is in the stage of rubbing
of the fire-producing sticks, the pragmatic
function of fire differs due to whether it is
produced in thick cow-dung or in grass or in
wood. In the same way different pragmatic
function can be found in threads etc. because the
nature of a thing differs in accordance with the
difference in causal conditions.
This explains the distinctness and identity of
cognitions and verbal usages (as the alleged
evidences of distinctness and identity of
existences).2

^O. eraV n - ' arsfft,1Id: Hy I d g l i f t f a : , :


ittT; TEnSer'S fasqfdl

cinfq ^tsf?rara: ^ ff

qrcTf^rri

lT?TTftisftrw ITTSfq cfSiTF^ ^f%l ^


ftfftT*rFITcII 'sqnfH: - lift grt fftl
DEFINITION OF 'OCCASION OF DEFEAT' 25

20. [Objection:] But it has been said (by you yourself)


that the (linguistic) practice of existence is proved on the
basis of pragmatic function and its (i.e. formers) absence is
proved on the basis of its (i.e. latters) absence.
[Answer:] That is right. But that absence is not proved in
the case of those objects which do not fulfil the
condition of apprehensibility.
So one has to accept even against ones will: That
is the object of the practice of non-existence, the
capasity of which fulfils the condition of
apprehensibility and yet is not apprehended.
Because capasity is the mark of existence.
But what does this statement score over the
earlier one? Because, capasity is not a different
object from self-nature. So the non-apprehension
of the capasity fulfilling the condition of
apprehensibility is nothing but the non
apprehension of the self-nature of the object. So
this non-apprehension is the same as the earlier
one.1
Therefore the one who accepts the practice of
non-existence of something in some place,
should accept it on the basis of this (kind of)
non-apprehension.
This (non-apprehension) is common to other
similar cases.8So let them be like that (i.e. let the
other cases be equally the cases of non
existence). Or let it be (i.e. let non-existence be
proved) in no case, because there is no difference
(amongst these cases insofar as non
apprehension is concerned). The pervasion
(here is as follows): Every thing which is of this
kind (i.e. which fulfils the condition of
26 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKiRTI

apprehensibility) and is not apprehended is the


object of the practice of non-existence.,s

tit

M} Rcfc[5fa|%: Ref W &

j i ^ R RTTcp - 1'TIcT W

fas

3RTCSJ1'Pl^Rrcr'^Pti ^ T l SZRRfft % l T^cf Rtf f 1(RR^ Rt^-


^ RRlf%, R<TRlft cTRTT

1 % ^ 5 R ^ i^ R t^ R ^ T ^ fc T ^ T c z p ^ | H5 I^ d n -

^TTtFR^I

375qeF^n^ cRvyprif^ ^ d3<=nik R ^ s R ^ R c ^ r i f w i ^f?r


^ r o q R , Mhn^Ricpi

21. [A possible objection by a Sankhya opponent1]


Nothing is an object of the practice of non-existence
whatever it may be and wherever and in whatever way it may
remain non-apprehended.
[Answer:] In that case everything will be applicable every
where all the time, because every form of
everything will remain incessant all the time.
Moreover, the following (situations) will not
occur - This (is) out of this; This (is) not out of
this; This (is) here; This (is ) not here; This
(exists) now; This (does) not (exist) now; This
DEFINITION OF OCCASION OF DEFEAT 27

(is) of this kind; This (is) not of this kind.


Because there will not be any distinct cause of any
(particular) form of an object in any way,
anywhere, any time. The universe will be without
co-existences and co-absences because there will
not be any distinction.
[A possible objection:] There will be order (in the
universe) on the basis of the distinctions between
disappearance and appearance of states (= avastha) (of
things) .
[Answer:] These distinctions themselves are not possible in
your system on the basis of which there will be
order; because the practice of non-existence of
anything is untenable (according to you)
If you accept the linguistic practice of non
existence in the case of some objects, then you
will have to tell how that is tenable. Because there
is no probans proving non-existence except non
apprehension. When non-existence is proved
either on the basis of positive evidences or
negative evidences5, non-apprehension is always
the probans.
If one accepts the thesis that it (= the practice of
non-existence) is on the basis of non
apprehension only, then one has to say that
everything is the object of the practice of non
existence, wherever that (= non-apprehension) is
there. Because there is no difference among
these cases (in so far as they are the cases of non
apprehension).
28 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAK1RT1

RR. ^4yH|UirH^rx1<iMdr^:l TfT [ ?#5-^<2ra-


^ i r - f w r ] je 'Tw t V rm f^R n'-
q fe^T , R ^TsIRt <<141^!

^ W gT T H if^T ^H ^ W l f t , 3 | f w ^ l ^
3Tfe^:l

HIcHyc^^lf^ylNPi^rdifM PclH^ '5 1

cTFTT^ W U d i d ^ zm: SlfdM^,


fli^P d fd ^ W ^'clS 'R ^TTpTt%, cic^^lq'HTll-m: 'ddimuRld<m f | : l

3TpT^[ - *l|cHf?Tf1dH^

W ?^:, 3TiIrqySI; ^ T f% R F n ^ iH ^ if l:, <b<\U^ 3R*W,


^ rfw F f:! iirfii'?r^t sr M r^ rmt f^rrtnc^i

22. [Another opponent says:] Non-apprehension


means cessation (i.e. inapplicability) of all the means of
knowledge. We regard something as an object of the
practice of non-existence if it is not apprehended in this
sense.
[Answer:] Oh! You the beloved of gods have so delicate
intelligence that you cannot tolerate the exertion
of thinking about means of knowledge. That is
why you did not pay serious attention to it.

t. (V); V O T fW o z r^ n - (R) and (D).


*. (V); ( R ^ t l ^ n W - (R) and (D).
j. (V); - (R) and (D).
DEFINITION OF 'OCCASION OF DEFEAT' 29

Because, the cessation of inference etc. does not


lead us to the knowledge of absence because
there is variability of relation (~ vyabhicara)
(between, say, non-inferability and absence).1Nor
does the cessation of perception by all (beings)
lead us to the knowledge of absence, because that
(= the cessation of perception by all beings) is
unproved.8
Even the absolute (= avisesa) cessation of the
perception by oneself cannot (lead to the
knowledge of the absence of objects), when the
objects are remote.
Therefore the cessation of only that means of
knowledge can prove the practice of non
existence (of an object), on the basis of which the
specific nature of the object is invariably called
existent. Because the existence of the (specific)
nature is expected to be proved by the existence
of the (specific) means to knowledge.
Nor is it the case that if the object which reaches
the condition of apprehensibility is not
perceived,4 then its apprehension will be of
different nature (i.e. other than perception), in
the case of which its apprehension could be
through inference! Nor can an object (which is
there and perceptible) remain unperceived,
unless the nature of the object has undergone
transformation. But in the case of transformation
the object will not remain the same.
Moreover, wherefrom has the fellow (i.e. the
Saiikhya opponent) learnt this magic-without-
chanting-and-medicine? Because (according to
the Saiikhya opponent) the same object is
sometimes the object of perception, sometimes
30 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKIRTI

not, in which case its apprehension is sometimes


the same as inference; sometimes it is perception,
sometimes knowledge by verbal testimony! And
this happens even though no excess in the nature
of objet is generated or destroyed; the object is
not either concealed or remote and the person
(= the observer) is the same with the sense-organs
etc. in the same condition as before!
Because when the object is one and the same
without any excess, these characteristics (viz.
sometimes perceptible, sometimes not
perceptible, but inferable etc.) are incompatible.

[... rW H H :

y<jroPi^inqi sfid

3TFn ^ ^ TPffriPfffdfftT
xR t '^ T O I : P h ftiR l d l^ 'H R c !?

<TR 4*HHPiRl^^^miPclPd

TOT? W I ^FR f^rm d): in s ^ q f W lft


'Ji'+H'il tl'ii4! 'Jiidti, *T fFTR(ftfdl

R 'CR^cTYs^f -IcrgK-
fa*lFT:?

This is how the interpretation in V goes.


PicfMR:i - Interpretation in V ... (R).
DEFINITION OF OCCASION OF DEFEAT 31

t 3TfcRTW3 ffcT ^ T 3FFn: M ^ Tf^T:


M:? 3fl^IW^^F?

- MM-M, fT ^frlif^ fr:, Pc^, cttycn5cq*TT,


^ f s ^ r a t 'i : a r ^ V i w f ^ i

23. [Another opponent says:] T h e object is not without


an excess. Because the objects assume different (linguistic)
practices (such as the practice of existence and the practice
of non-existence) on account of cessation'of one excess and
generadon of another.1
[Answer:] If the excess in the object is identical with the
object itself, and it ceases to exist and comes into
existence without continuity,2 then how does it
not entail diversity in the nature of the object? -
For example pleasure and pain (lack continuity
and are diverse in nature).
On the other hand if the thing has continuity,
then what is (its) generation or cessation and
what is it the generauon or cessation of? So this
(= your argument) is insignificant.
O r if you yourself accept generation or cessation
of a certain self-nature (of the object), then why
donot you approve of the same thing when it is
stated by your opponent?
[The Sarikhya opponent may say:] That is because he (=
our opponent, i.e. the Buddhist) accepts generation and
destruction destitute of any continuity.
[The author asks:] What is this continuity (= anvaya)?
[Opponent answers:] It is the capasity of a thing to get
generated and destroyed. It exists even before
the generation and after the destruction.
32 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKlRTI

Therefore this (= continuity or continuous


capasity) is not such that it-did not exist before
but gets generated all the way or it existed before
but gets destroyed.
[The author asks:] If that capasity does not undergo any
change (Lit. excess) at any time, then what does undergo
the change due to which there is the distinction between
the (linguistic) practices?*
[The opponent may say:] It is the states (= avastha) (and
not the capasities) that undergo change.
[The author asks:] Are the states and the capasity one
and the same thing, or are they different?
[The opponent may answer:] O ne and the same thing.
[The author asks:] Now, how can you apply mutually
contradictory predicates such as generation, destruction;
cessation, non-cessation; oneness, manyness; perceptibility,
imperceptibility; having pragmatic function and not having
it, to one and the same uniform object, without relativising
them to different modalities (= nisparyayam)?

yx. 3hR<TTqMtScRSIT Rid, cFTTfaftoltd ^ 1

ld<l*T

ff?i H f^TTc^l

^ ^ Wi ^ (A cR ZF^T:!

v (R); - (V) and (D).


DEFINITION OF OCCASION OF DEFEAT 33

-^TcqpT ^rq fi 3T ^t f f hi^ + 4 ^ im ^


*nf^f 'aq|fR:l
fFtfliqfcdRi: $cMlf44i HHlcqcrl^n1! ^ 4)rWti?
arc %'7RHT ^ ^dis<fai^:, w - ^ir< ^i^oiwqti-
'KifflPii 3^ tt ^^4Uwid{*n Fn?yr4fi
ddlchPl WIlfrsif:,faM<t : , W - ^TcqfHm^^clYMd
^ g fdM4 4 ff tz ifM ta fff

^ $ TJflcqft ^ZFT T tl^ ^ :! f f f ? TJflcfci TfZ:, f


ijficqri "S ffffW M fW i^ fg fsrc3*rra*rfTfi
f t w f t ^snR $ ^ IW i: I

iff: FIl^l

tfcq^drW^rTcq-il5^qT ^1 :,

^ ^ ^Tclf^fq w tc fR lS ^ q :,

^=r ^rz tj'<ichh ^ ^ f g ^ fWtntq^apifcT, ^FmlfffiTf1

ff?f ?iW : '^TcrRtsitft ^

24. [The Opponent may answer:] There is a (considera


tion of) modality, namely state and capasity (are the two
modalities).Therefore there is no contradiction.

? (R); ^ ? (D).
v (V); ^Utfffcl ^ - (R) and (D).
34 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKlRTI

[The author says:] You, the beloved of gods, are forgetful,


as you are not noticing the context. What a contradiction
you have made, as you have said that capasity and state are
one and the same thing without any distinction!
Even if there is a distinction between them (= state and
capasity), there is no contradicdon (by itself), but then it
only would not be the case that generation and destruction
of a thing are qualified by (its) conunuity.
Therefore the thing which has continuity, does not have
generation or destruction and the thing which has the
latter, does hot have conunuity.
[The opponent may say:] There is no fault (in our
argument) because there is no difference between them.
[Answer:] The respectable fellow (i.e. the Sankhya
opponent) is being rushed into a crowd of faults
due to his attachment to his own view; yet he is
not making himself aware (of it). Because non
difference means oneness. But referring to them
as they two (= tau) is the genuine (linguistic)
pracuce based on (their) difference. There is also
the definition of manyness (difference), If the
thing lacks cessation and origination inspite of
the (other thing undergoing) cessadon and
origination, if it lacks stadcity inspite of the
stadcity (of the other thing) etc. (then that thing
is different from the other thing.) How is (all)
this co-tenable?
[The opponent might say:] The difference amongst
things and the absence of such a difference, that is, non-
differences (= abheda) are (exemplified) as follows -
pleasure, (pain), etc. (are different from each other and)
capasity and state of one and the same thing (are non-
different from each other). If we d o n t accept this, then,
due to the absence of disdncdve marks of difference and
DEFINITION OF OCCASION OF DEFEAT 35

non-difference, there will be disorder between difference


and non-difference everywhere.
So (we accept the distinctive marks of difference and
non-difference as follows)- arising in a thing-itself is non
difference; to the contrary is difference. For example pot
arises in mud-itself, so it is non-different from mud. But
there is difference if the case is to the contrary; (for
instance) pleasure and pain (do not arise from each other,
so there is difference between them). These are the
distinctive marks of difference and non-difference. Hence
there is no contradiction.
[Answer:] The pot does not arise in the mud-itself. But
some mud-itself is called pot. Because the nature
(= atma) of mud is not the same everywhere in
the universe. The difference between reflective
cognitions (prativijnapti) (of a thing) and
between appearances (of it) are due to the
difference between the natures of things. That is
how it is possible for him (- the Sankhya
opponent) also to know that pleasure, (pain,)
etc. (are different) and consciousnesses (i.e.
pursusas according to Sankhya) are different.8
If that is so, then there will be difference
(between pot and the whole mud etc.)
[The opponent might say:] It (= The non-difference
between pot and mud etc.) is the case inspite of this
(difference), because of the continuity of some (part of the)
nature.
[Answer:] The same consequence will follow in the case of
pleasure etc.and also in the case of
consciousnesses.
Even in the case of pot etc. there is no continuity
(of mud etc.) in all respects. Because (otherwise)
the following difficulties will result -
36 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAK1RT1

(i) (avaisvarupya -) There eannot be (the


generation of) all the forms (if the whole mud
has continuity with a pot only).
(ii) (sahotpati-) There will be simultaneous
production (of different states of a thing)
- and other difficulties.
Moreover, nobody observes the pot and its mud-
nature distinctly, in the case of which it would
have been possible (to say:) this (pot) has arisen
in this (m ud).
Because, it does not become possible when the
substratum and the superstratum are not
observed distinctly.
Moreover, it is not the case that a capasity arises
in the locus (lit. self, nature) of the capasity.3
Therefore there will not be non-difference
between capacity and its locus.

3K. hR ui Ih : "qt 4R uiih :


F W irsfTO:' ifdl 1 f? FfWIcRF: mIfFR ifdl

FFfa - -qftqrq '^ p F T d F l s(cqFT


hR uiih : i

Flc^fafd F , c1^dMRRT ^ q
FI, 31^id*<rMIFTFlcI?

cT FfT FFIH M f^f% 3^farfFfclFiFT

tTFTPrqif^W tyi^
FFfdl
DEFINITION OF OCCASION OF DEFEAT 37

h R u |R1:I

^ FTT^fH^lw le p ifa rw ira ^ qfFifci :,


W ^l'l^l

*pf ifa ^ ^ f a e # , w w iT w rR i ^ %
w ^ u u w r a K ^ c r ^ ^ R f r s f e ii

^ W r it: bl4bKU|*tra:, WtWWWtSTTWRWWl, tpfFT


W W f a R >JcicWIj

3TlfFTTc%5fq rfsRRTiRet, awitRW W ^dKdT^'oMFI M N m :


WtH FTf^l 'digSSFIlft T J ^ W t , Tj4sRPjfa5-
Itan?^ bKUH^diFJ W^WFT wfFlYcTtft *TJ^ j(oq sffl
^ ra src F ilw n ^ i

T g S R f F T fc | = h < r M : T P W t f d , ' 3 W I T ^
qRailHrl

25. The same (argument) answers (the doctrine of)


transformation (parinama). Because whosoever imagines
whatever is a transformation of something is non-different
from it is like that (i.e., is liable to the above criticism).
Because, the capacity of a thing is not (the same as) its
transformation.
Moreover, it happens to be said (by Sankhyas):
Transformation (of a substance) is cessation of some
property of the subsisting substance. Transformation is also
the arisal of a different property in that substance.
(Now we ask:) Is that particular property which ceases or
arises, the same as the subsisting substance or it is different
from it.? Because there is no other alternative.
If it (= arising or ceasing property) is the same as that (=
substance), then, because the substance subsists, there will
38 VDANYYA OF DHARMAKRTI

not be cessation or arisal (of any of its properties). So tell us,


to whom do they (= cessation and arisal) belong?
Nor can it be proved that the subsistent thing has got
another property (which arises or ceases), because the thing
itself cannot be another property of itself, unless it is
(attributed to the thing) depending upon a different
enquiry.1
If (on the contrary) a property is a different object from
the substance, then the cessation and arisal of that property
do not constitute the transformation of the substance.
Because cessation and arisal of one object cannot amount to
transformation of another object. Because (by the same
token), it (= transformation) will have to be accepted in the
case of consciousness also.2
Moreover, the linguistic expression the property of a
substance cannot be justified because there is no relation
(between substance and property). Because, there is no real
relation except cause-effect-relation.
And there is no cause-effect relation between them (=
substance and property), because (according to you) a
thing which itself.is not of the same nature as that (= effect)
is not the cause of that, and because a property is a different
object from a substance.
If (you say that) something could be a cause of its
property even if it is different (from that), then this will
amount to your admission that the substance has
undergone transformation by way of producing the effect
which is a different object (from that). (But this is
im proper). Because your opponent (= Buddhist) would also
accept the linguistic practice The mud-substance is
transformed (into a p o t) regarding the cause-effect-series
called mud-substance when from the earlier substance
namely the lump of mud, which is the cause, the later pot-
substance, which is the effect, is produced.5
DEFINITION OF 'OCCASION OF DEFEAT' 39

Nor is there any (third) alternative position of a property


with respect to a substance apart from sameness and
otherness, so that transformation would be justified in any
of the two cases.4

t t
^ sCTl^faTTH, f i t crff?
gfe: R Qot g tl:,
yyiRtinw^rrcdi^i

TTRTOfalt, ^T^^M bilM dr^Rrd M \ 1, 1*10=11^1


3T^C*I ^ life:, ^ 5 TRf:l 1 MfRctl STppft
R rR f^ w n w : ^ w i Rr R tsrt^ i

^ W ^ WTr=rycT:,TT 13=1 ^15*3^1

M-tdlRdl HdW'd^lTyj ^ f?

^rjjRi, sfsqira PiRf^chqci^n, qrfq fRn

<JfdRl <, q ^ R l'^ l q % w l "cf^HWr5(r^^ ^r5H 3R7: 33HT:


TFWR t, cPM ^R r W I T ^ftFTT-fTiif^yu|^^d,rilMIWI.q-
<im<mN(i*ichccii^i

3 ^ # ^ ^ : 3 r f d y T q f W M w T I 'q ^ w R m : , 3 R H ^fg:|

33 ^-^iTf^T^T (o|5i|qfqq<ll:, 3T^eft?T^: Mldi^fqqq:,


% nf^T^5E ri i l d l ^ l : TTTTlftcfT 3 y^E:!

't. (R); ^ il? - (V) an d (D).


s. (V); ftf (R) and (D).
s. (V); (D).
40 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKlRTI

26. [The Sankhya opponent might object:]


It is not true to say that the undifferentiated1 (=
nirviveka) substance is itself the property. Nor is the
property a different object from the substance. What is a
property then? It is an arrangement of the substance, i.e., a
different state of it. For example, fist of fingers (is an
arrangement or a different state of fingers). The fingers
themselves without differentiation do not make a fist,
because (, for instance,) the spread fingers do not make a
fist.
Nor is it (= a fist) a different object from that (= fingers),
because it is not observed as distinct in nature.2
[Answer] No. Because, fist is fingers in particular form.
Certain fingers are themselves a fist, but not all
fingers make a fist. Because (for instance) spread
fingers in undifferentiated nature are not the
fingers in the form of a fist. Otherwise one will be
forced to accept the experience of both (the
forms of fingers) in both the states.
Because, when differentiation (i.e. the specific
qualification) is the very nature of the thing, the
same becomes a mark of distinction of the thing,
like pleasure and pain.
If (on the other hand) the specific qualification
(= viveka) (of -fingers) arises as alien (from
them), then the fingers will be apprehended as
spread only. Because the object which does not
itself deviate from its own nature, is not
apprehended as different (from itself) (even)
when some other object is produced, as that (=
claiming that it is apprehended as different)
would am ount to transgression (of reason).
[The O pponent says:] But we have said that a state (of a
substance) is (neither) the substance itself without
differentiation, nor an object other than the substance.8
DEFINITION OF 'OCCASION OF DEFEAT 41

[Answer:] You have said this but what you have said is not
correct. Because there is no (third) possibility
apart from thatness and otherness in the case of
any real thing. Because thatness and otherness
stay in a real object by excluding each other
essentially. Therefore abandoning one of them is
invariably concomitant with accepting the other.
And fingers being subject to destruction every
moment, the spread fingers are different and the
fist is different.
Here the words like fist have the particulars as
their objects; the word fingers has the universal
as its object. For example the words like seed,
sprout (apply to the particular states of rice) and
the words like rice (are general terms). Therefore
the spread fingers are not the same as the fist.

TRTSI ^qcH-11 W l'l^ 41cr^i %

m ^ jR g ^ c i tfrs'Risnwi
irat ^TT^ ffc ^ 1 : m4'3%I:I
if^iw ^ ^ t '^nfei, ^ ;nfei ^
M i : , era

a. (V); HfilM - (R) a n d (D).


c. (V); (T^'RT^ - (R) a n d (D).
42 VADANYA YA OF DHARMAKiRTI

27. [The opponent asks:] So if the effect is not pre


existent in the cause, why is not everything produced from
everything? Because there is no difference (between various
cases) in so far as (previous) non-existence (of the effect) is
concerned.
[Answer] Even if (one concedes that) the effect has
(previous) existence in all the cases (of
causation), the same fault is there. Because there
would be no difference (between various cases)
in so far as (previous) existence (of the effect) is
concerned.1and if there is difference (between
different cases because anything cannot be
produced from everything) then that real
difference (i.e., the specific characteristic of an
effect) will be distinct from the three strands (=
gunas, of prakrti). Because in spite of the
existence of them (= the three stands of prakrti)
(in all the effects), the specific characteristic of
an effect does not extend (to other cases).
And what is produced from a thing which is
existent in absolute sense of the term (=
sarvdtmana) , like something which is in the
accomplished state?* Moreover, (if the effect is
pre-existent in the cause,) the means (to the
production of the effect) will be futile, because
(according to you) there is nothing to be brought
about.
[The opponent might say:] Some special characteristic
(Lit., excess) which was non-existent there somehow, could,
be produced.
[Answer] How could that special characteristic which was
not existent there, be produced? And if it could
be produced, then every-thing (which was non
existent) could be produced from everything.
DEFINITION OF 'OCCASION OF DEFEAT' 43

The objection is common (to your position and


mine).
[The opponent might say:] The special characteristic is
not totally absent, because something can come into
existence only if it is (already) existent in some form.
[Answer] (Though existent in some form, the
characterisdc was non-existent in some other
form. Now the question is:) How can the
characteristic be produced in the form in which it
was non-existent?

s ift F?j cRcRsrrai f

W T R ^^i f If W fT F t ^ ^ R T W f a il

f ^ < ^ y R iw ^ ^ r :, 3itf5rer^i

28. We have said hat if a thing exists in absolute sense of


the term (= saruatha) then there is no point in its
generation. Even in the case of the production of the non
existent effect, there is a law that the effect is produced only
from that thing which has a natural tendency to produce
that effect, not from any other thing.
Again that causal factor is produced only from its own
cause and not anything else. This is the law of nature. In this
way the (causal) law of nature is beginningless.
44 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKJRTI

Moreover, if the pot exists in the lump of mud, why is it (=


pot) not apprehended in that state (i.e. mud-state) as it is
apprehended later? Or why is its pragmatic function not
present in that state, as it is present later?
[The opponent might say;] "That is because the particular
manifestation (vyakti) has not arisen so far.
[Answer] How can you say that the pot exists (in the lump-
of-mud-state)? Because that particular mani
festation along with the pragmatic function etc.
constitutes the pot and that form of the pot was
not existent previously.
Nor is it proper to regard (two) things as one
when there is a difference in their apparent
forms. Because, that amounts to transgression (of
reason).

S F F & i JRTmcTT cTFT

<. (V); a r f w f a a r a w ^ - ( R ) a n d (D).


DEFINITION OF 'OCCASION OF DEFEAT' 45

M P ^ I [ ? fFTTH^ STCWsft]

29. [Conclusion:] Therefore the object, the nature of


which is not apprehended but which fulfills the condition of
apprehensibility is not there at all. Because, the non
apprehension is not justified when the thing exists along
with that nature. Its not being (in that nature) means its not
being the same thing (as itself). For example1pleasure and
pain are mutually like tha.t. In this way the non
apprehension of specific nature is pervaded by (= vypti) the
determination of the (linguistic) practice of non-existence.
Hence the one who is proving the non-existence
(= vyavaccheda) of something on the basis of non
apprehension has to show that the object (under
consideration) by its nature fulfils the condition of
apprehensibility as stated above.
Having demonstrated the non-justification of the
indication of non-apprehension (as reason) in the case of
non-apprehension of self-nature,* the justification in the
case of non-apprehension of the pervader may be
explained as proving pervaded-pervader-relation between
two properties and then showing the non-existence of the
pervader.
In the case of non-apprehension of cause also
justification (of probans) means proving cause-effect-
relation and then showing the non-existence of the cause.
In the cases of apprehension of the contrary too the
justification (of probans) means showing the existence of
one contrary (= incompatible) object out of the two
(mutually) contrary objects.
In this way non-justification of a constituent of proof in
the case of non-apprehension is non-statement of a
constituent of p ro o f (= sdhanngvacana) . This is an
46 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKJRTI

occasion of disputants defeat. Because, in the absence of


(such a) justification, the pervaded* (i.e.. reason or
probans) does not get proved.

3o. 3TST3T - zR ^IW d T dlssf W R,

ERR, cRft ddd-d} % ^ q ^ W E R ^ , 3TcfFi

30. [Second meaning o f asadhanangavacana]


Or sadhana (argument) means that by which the object
not experienced by others is established, that is, the set of
statements stating the probans with triple character. The
ahga (= constituent) of that sadhana is the statement that
the probans is a characteristic (= dharma) of the thesis-case
(= paksa) etc. Not stating any one of them (= the three
characteristics) is asadhanangavacana (= non-statement of
a constituent of the argument). That too is an occasion of
disputants defeat. Because not stating sadhanahga (=
constituent of argument) (in this sense) is not stating a
characteristic of probans and if it (= a characterisdc of
probans) is not stated then there is no proof of the thesis.

3 *. [
- cFFfo fntrrPT yRi dl m ^ PiJm 1ft e iw fv i
H E m i ^ w <r ^tffatrRTcij

'iTT5FzNrftT ^1 TTT^HTJ41-a

fW R fT T Jlw i,
DEFINITION OF OCCASION OF DEFEAT 47

^ ^ , ^qrfqi

tTFfWRRHJ

^ R f^R % n#R R faT w t e q f r l: , spi ^ TTfwr R iR R 9 :


[1R*RPRR:?]? ^ % W lR c m W Ifa y d l R * R T * i : ,
R l% W ^ 3fq tJRT ^PT R rit*rh?

% ^R F nW R rf^T tR ^M l M } W^eMHWIMlfa RRfa


^ W T O :W ? [I

R f | WsrfRRRT^^RRl [%RRR?] RftRvtRRfRtl

Q^R RVRft'cqfR: ST^ckll, WR*fRRRTRfa %RRTc3Rf?ft


WTtR%:l

tnFfT^^ififa I R ^ RfdRlRRRlRTRH qlR'il Piyt*mHj

31. [Declaration etc. are non-constituents o f proof!]


[Third meaning of asadhanangavacana]
Or asadhanangavacana means employing asadhanahga,
i.e., a statement which is not a proper constituent of that
proof, in the statement of proof. (For instance) Declaration
(= pratijha), Application (of instance to the thesis-case) (=
upanaya), conclusion (= nigamana) etc. (are non
constituents of proof). It is an occasion of disputants
defeat, because it is a case of unnecessary statement.
Or since the conclusion is proved by the expression of
any one statement out of the statement of positive
concomitance and that of negative concomitance in the
argument containing similarity or dissimilarity
(respectively), the statement of the other kind (of
concomitance), (when one concomitance is stated), has no
significant role. Hence the other statement, which is not a
proper constituent of proof, is an occasion of defeat for the
same reason namely unnecessary statement.
48 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKIRTI

[The opponent, Naiyayika, says:] But it is necessary to


employ the statement of Declaration in order to indicate
the object (of enquiry) even if it is not a proper constituent
of proof.
[Answer] No, because it is unnecessary. Because the
intended object does get proved from the
inferential statement as expressed above, even if
the Declaration is not made. Hence employment
of it (= Declaration) is without any significance.
[The opponent asks:] Even if the (inferential)
experience can be produced without indicating the object
(of inference), how is not the Declaration a constituent of
proof?1 Because the statement that the probans
characterises the thesis-case (= paksadharmavacana) does
not have any other purpose in proof apart from causing the
(inferendal) experience. And the same purpose lies behind
the Declaradon also. How is (= Declaration) not the (part
of) proof then?
[The Buddhist might answer:] Declaration alone is not
capable (of proving the probandum ) and hence
does not consdtute the proof.
[The opponent responds:] The case is common with the
statement of probans characterising thesis case. So that
statement too would be a non-constituent of proof. Because
the (inferential) cognition cannot be produced merely
from the statement of probans characterising thesis-case.
[The authors answer:] (The statement of probans
characterising thesis-case along with the
statement of pervasion constitutes the proof. But
that is not the case with the Declaration.
Declaration along with the statement of
pervasion does not constitute the proof.)* This
answers the arisal of doubt (in the case of
Declaradon), because the doubt (about the
DEFINITION OF OCCASION OF DEFEAT 49

probandum) can arise from the mere statement


of probans characterising the thesis case, when
the relation (of pervasion) is not shown.
Therefore the employment of the statement of
Declaration is definitely unnecessary and is the occasion of
disputants defeat.

3Trr s^rrg r^ fW n ^ m [? a n ^ n -
[ ?3TOTmi^FT] W l f t

.34H'clvTHK-M

32. [Fourth meaning of asadhanangavacana]


Or asadhanangavacana means the statement of what is not
the constituent of sadhana, i.e., proof. For instance the
fallacious probans such as Unproved, Contrary or
Inconclusive probans (is like that). This too is the occasion
of disputants defeat, because it amounts to the
employment of something incapable (of proving the
probandum).
Likewise, a statement of a fallacious instance, which is not
a constituent of proof, is also an occasion of disputants
defeat. For example, (Positive) instance lacking
probandum-property etc.; (Positive) instance without
positive concomitance, (Positive) instance without the
indication of the positive concomitance etc. They are
occasions of defeat for the same reason, viz., that they
amount to employment of something incapable (of proving
the probandum). Because such fallacious instances cannot
50 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKJRTI

demonstrate the relation of probans (with the probandum);


and because they do not demonstrate (the relation), they
are incapable (of playing their role in the proof).

t t

3TO^nf^ETRTcI_l

TttoT; cTTT S jfc td lM s -

V "tRlf^n ( ?) : *TTf5R:, i n f e p r i ^ ^ ^ i P H f c l l

Q^T: :R f f : RfrR^fst>dHiuiyd^-
^ y ^ c i , ^IcWldlicpI^ t T W f s f t W ^ l

^ T :l % ^ 5 T :? ^ fg F T * 1 W T : ? T T W 7 ^ R c n :l ^ fg t W ^ ?
ETFT ?TTCF) R^TTSPffa: Wfacfrl : 'JR'id'dlW fa:? "RPR <l4ld
R F T H k + H J c h l ^ i t i 4 R ^ IF T '- i k c b H ? l t d 3 R T ^ * H I ^ J ^ cT cT :
3lfV?l id : ifa q ^ , TjiiREf | lifd^lO c i ^ 4 ^ ^
i T H i f i T T ^ T T r f ^ R T : c f ^ R T T W K : !

33. (Fifth meaning o f asadbanangavacana)


Or sadhana means proof. And sadhananga means the
object which has the proof as its ahga meaning
characteristic. That is, the object which is the basis (or root)
of the debate, (that is,) which causes the proposal of debate
is called sadhananga. So asadhanahga also means expressing
and announcing some special subject different from
DEFINITION OF OCCASION OF DEFEAT' 51

sadhananga, not enquired by the opponent, under the


pretext of claiming that he (= the opponent) is not
following the discipline (= sastra). This is done with the
intention of confusing the opponent and impeding his
power to repeat (the statement made by the disputant) etc.
This too is asadhanangavacana and is the occasion of
disputants defeat, because it amounts to irrelevant
statement.
Such occurrences do am ount to breaking the discussion.
Because the object as qualified by that special characteristic
was not enquired by the opponent. If there is an enquiry
(about it) then there is no fault. That the characteristic is
enquired means that it is enquired by the opponent and by
enquirers (= arbitrators) who know logic,1 by drawing a
series of implications.
On the occurrence of them (= such irrelevant statements)
the discussion should be broken. Because (otherwise)
nothing is inapplicable in some made-up context. The
upholder of No-self-doctrine, for instance, while proving his
doctrine could even dance and sing (and that will have to be
regarded as relevant)!
It could happen as follows: O ne will make a Declaration
and perform as follows - There is no self. We the
Buddhists say this. Who are the Buddhists? Those are the
Buddhists who take recourse to the teaching of the Lord
Buddha. Who is the Lord Buddha? Lord Buddha is the one,
on following whose teaching the Buddhist Asvaghosa
became a monk. Who is the Buddhist Asvaghosa? The
author of the play called Rastrapala. What sort of a play is
Rdstrapdla? By creating an occasion (in this way) the
disputant should read After the Prologue enters the
Director and then should dance and sing. The opponent
being incapable of imitating the whole performance will be
defeated. What a courteous way of philosphising followed by
the well-recognised savants!2
52 VDANY YA OF DHARMAKRTI

3*. ^ RgFT "CR5RH 'R [ ? R T ^ R l], 'sfSRT'-


W c^R W T TJf q|;^q|

^7si ^ ^RTWiRft? y e r m kr **j irt ^ f

FT^ TjflT^FF^ ^ I ^TMHJ <: ^ R ^ lf ^ lf tf c lM ^ I -


W ^P T R T :, ^n^R T ^T N S?

T^SRTTRPRt <j*fffa : ? l ^ W R # M T^5'RR^ : H^fcf : I

W - '^ T f P W ^ f ^e|*H<uiKliV yfa^Ri

fc^: ?R^5f?^ ^f c|T^ KVIdOT y^yblVM^ira V tf'-

s r f ^ n jw c ^

trsz -4 cfi^rrh -/d w ^ siR ii


W ^ fR R ^ ^ fR T l# R ^ c ^ l

34. The proposed topic cannot get concluded in this


way because determination (of truth) is the (proper) result
of a debate. But (here) there is no beginning of the debate
at all. How are victory and defeat possible in this way?
Because the opponent himself too can give another
performance under the pretext of repeadng the disputants
performance and create a situation of Non-reproduction
of this kind.1Secondly there will be no determination (of
truth) in this situation.
Therefore stating the Declaration itself is not reasonable.
What to say of opening some special topics which are not

t. (R); - (D).
(V); - (D).
DEFINITION OF 'OCCASION OF DEFEAT 53

enquired? And what to say of the futile chattering under the


pretext of explaining that topic?
This whole (unreasonable) way has been introduced by
malignant and deceitful persons incapable of stating things
with the strength of logic.
For example one first makes the Declaration: Body,
earth, instruments etc. are preceded by excellence of a Self
and then announces the whole of Vaisesika discipline under
the pretext of explaining the terms body, instruments
and earth.
Or in the debate over the question whether sound is
perm anent or impermanent, one makes a Declaradon: Pot
is coupled with either of the two things viz. sound and pot,
out of which sound is the locus of permanence, which is a
category declared by Jaimini, who was the author of the
discipline, which illuminates the explanation of twelve
definitions. And then one goes on explaining the twelve
definitions etc.
All this is a device used by malignant people for hiding
their incapability. It is not accompanied by truths. Because
(for instance), the practices such as offering fruits etc. and
application of rods etc. are improper in a critical
examination of Truth.*

3<a.
f^lR id 'fM % ^ *Rf? f? cTFTlfa
RffcFFll 'q y
dlfdcqfliiufe:!
54 VDANYYA OF DHARMAKRTI

H SMRsHR ^Tl 'dW&4fFPlfq cRpff 'Rh M


i r f W i ^ M ^ n ^ iieqr-i stswt -
q.fcM ^nA di

fR ^ T if e tp to ^ ^ ^TtRT^ w & i, 1

Q ^n^R T^^FT ^Tfcfl Pw$WR ilfcraif^TT cTiI^Tr% 3[fcFllf^,


3RlTT ^ U w i P q H ^PPiW fTM il

35. [The opponent might say:] O ne gets defeated


by announcing a drama (and performing it) etc. in a debate
(, but that is so) because there one shifts to a different
topic.

[Answer] Does not the same thing happen if one


announces some other thing which is not
enquired? That other thing too has no invariable
relation with the proof of the intended
probandum-property, as (for instance, there wan
invariable relation in the following case:)
impermanence (of composite objects) does not
get proved unless the unpleasantness of
composite objects, that is, their dependence
upon cause and other conditions is proved.1
But although such a characteristic (of
probandum) (which is relevant to the proof of
the probandum) is not stated separately, it is not
to be presented or explained separately either.
Because, as it is included in the probandum-
property, is becomes (a part of the) thesis itself.

is probably more consistent with the context.


DEFINITION OF 'OCCASION OF DEFEAT' 55

Therefore (separate) presentation or


explanation even of such a (relevant)
characteristic which is not enquired by the
opponent,* made during Declaration or some
other ume is definitely an occasion of defeat
because it is a case of shifting to a Different
Topic.

Therefore only that constituent of the proof


should be uttered which refers to the inquired
characteristic (of probandum). No allied topic (=
prasanga) should be opened. Because, if we open
it, then there would be transgression (of the rules
of debate).

Hence asadhandngavacana (in any of the senses


stated above) is the occasion of disputants
defeat, when it is shown to be so by the opponent.
Otherwise (i.e. if it is not shown to be so by the
opponent) then there will be neither victory nor
defeat of any of the two debaters.5

dcKl^rl

^TTf^R:
3TETCYT ^IFdT'HTOTSI
^R T^^IW TrfcP ^t ^Pc1dlP<H:
56 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAfiiRTI

^ ^T: ^ h fc ls fq

*T f t ^TTtRTfaq'Ftsfq <TTf^T: T fR l^lM syR lM I^ ^


4<N^o^ei^mHi " 5 ^ , trcfoi w q w i * x n ? f A ^ n

% ^ % f^ T O ^ 'J d ic l4 il< W 5 [ yPdHlc^W ratsfH lfc^ciR


f? tl^Pd-tlNi ^FfE^?oToZi^WR:l

^lt^ ,f# 3 TO5PT:, 3ifd<lb<ullTU pf<jB<-uj %


ciFTFtR W3TO:, H fTOT^TFrpf

'awi<^M^MfiniRif^irn#r ^ traraitsyfireii^ls m \ M

36. [Adosodbhavana as an occasion o f defeat]


Adosodbhavana, i.e., not pointing out the fault (of the
disputant) is the occasion of opponents defeat. When the
disputant presents the proof, but the opponent who has
accepted the opposite view, does not point out any fault in
(the argument pertaining to ) the object of enquiry,1then
the opponent is to be called defeated.
The faults in proof are (1) Deficiency (2) Unprovedness
(3) Inconclusiveness (4) the probans proving contrary of
the object intended by the disputant to prove and (5-22) the
eighteen fallacies of instance. Not pointing them out, i.e.
not indicating them is the ground of opponents defeat.

<. (R); <13:-(D ).


*. This is more consistent. But TrirPtt^efOiTc^hrga'tra^zii - (D).
DEFINITION OF 'OCCASION OF DEFEAT 57

This2(occasion of defeat) takes place either because the


proof (given by the disputant) is without any fault or
because the proof is faulty but the opponent does not
understand the fault or because he (= opponent) is
incapable of indicating it.
Even if the disputant states a fallacious proof, it is not
proper to ascertain the defeat (of the disputant) in case the
fault (in the proof) is not indicated by the opponent.
Because the ascertainment of victory and defeat is relative to
vitiating each others capasity.
Nor does the one (= the opponent) who does notindicate
(the fault of the disputant) get victory only on account of
fallacious probans (stated by the disputant) because the
knowledge of truth is not (reached by any one) there.
Because, no practice of cheating is in order in a
philosophical enquiry.
[The opponent might ask:] If that is the case (i.e. if the
opponent cannot be declared as having won if he does not
discover the disputants fault), would it be the case of
(disputants) defeat then? Because, he (= the disputant) has
failed to establish the truth.
[Answer] No, because here the repudiation (of disputants
argument) does not take place. Because, his (=
disputants) defeat by the other debater consists
in the repudiation (of his argument by the other
defeater). It does not consist in his not
establishing (the truth). Because, it (= defeat)
requires the (presence of an) opponent.
Because, there can be absence of (a sound) proof
when there is no (sound) probans, even if there
is no opponent. So there is no defeat, because
there is no occurrence thereof, because the
opponent is incapable of repudicating (the
disputants argument). Therefore even if the
58 VADANYAYA o f DHARMAKlRTI

disputant states an inadequate (= asamartha)


proof, he is to be called non-defeated if the
inadequateness of the proof is not indicated by
the opponent.

tt
^9. [ '31$ ]

Rdi : R1^ mj^il d*>'fq<q*HI<i{]dv

RdWMK:l

^ cT8Tra^%T: 3nfrFTT^TcFn ? IR ^ R
^ ^ ^Fmr^rfBT 'R fe^hf^qr4diii y ^ M i

WTlvI -zMMWc!: TTRI WJiT^H^dR^ TRfl


f^ rfw l * r r < w l
^11

^TTf^ioqy d ^ d l j,yi>TRI cfi^: - ^oRRTl^


tiw s ii ^ 'y rd M ^ d ,' tR ^fFR Tl^^qt ^ W d rq t^ T I

cr^rc*pmf u f^ q tic fe r fc i ^ \\
^Rsi m r<r<0 qh ir<Pwfrfd w pm sw tppt

3 m i ciw ism faFr:, ^iRT^ra^nn


w ift*T F ts fq d^rqfdgFui^i ^ iift'^ r q tq -
ft'gcsrfdgFiT^i

*. (R); yldHtlilfil - (D).


DEFINITION OF OCCASION OF DEFEAT 59

iK IpS W enfi^I

37. [Prohibition of cheating - practices in debate]


[A possible objection:] But the practice of cheating can
be (an acceptable part of) debate between persons desirious
of victory!
[Answer] No, Because, any science written by noble
persons operates in its .proper domain (=
adhikara), namely, the misconceptions of ignoble
persons. (It operates in order to remove these
misconceptions.) Persons inclined to favour
others do not (themselves) prescribe ignoble
practices like elevating oneself and spoiling
others1 by starting false chattering. Gaining
profit, felicitation and fame by spoiling others is
not a conduct of noble persons. Nor is it proper
for the members of the assembly, who are experts
in the science (of debate) (Lit. authors of the
science; sastrakara) and who are recognised by
noble persons, to trouble creatures by giving a
helping hand to those who are inclined in that
way (i.e. inclined to use cheating techniques in
debate). Moreover, the scientific works on logic
are not created by noble persons in order to gain
profit etc.
Therefore, there is no such thing as a legitimate
debate between persons desirous of victory.* The
noble persons, on the other hand, who are
inclined to favour others, should follow logic
while stating (their arguments) to the persons
having misconception (about truth), either by
stating a sound probans or by pointing cut the
real fault (of the opponent). Witnesses
60 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKIRTI

observation is also meant for enlightening the


same (kind of practice). The same act of
following logic is the debate of noble persons. (It
follows the dictum:) When the reasoning is stated
(by one debater), he (= the other debater)
should understand it, if he wants to know the
truth; and even if he does not understand it, (at
least) someone else (say, the audience) should
not apprehend it wrongly.
[ANaiyayika might object:] The noble persons desirous
of victory should certainly employ quibbling and other
techniques for protecting the truth.
[Answer] In that case you should also say that (one should
try to protect the truth) also by means of hitting
with nails, slaps and weapons or by blazing him
up! Therefore this means to protection of truth is
no better.
The noble persons means to protection of truth
is: presenting the (sound) proof and refuting the
fallacious proof. Because, the truth does not get
established in the absence of them, even if the
other person is perturbed by making false
chattering. If (on the other hand) one describes
(the truth) logically, then he is respected
amongst learned persons even without it (i.e.
even without perturbing the other debater byway
of false chattering).
Therefore establishing truth for favouring others
is the victory of the disputant and preventing
false conception by showing real faults is the
victory of the opponent.
DEFINITION OF 'OCCASION OF DEFEAT' 61

$6. 3T3T - ^ ^ WHFT, cfTfc

f fT fe R , feqtxRfqePn^l W ^ w m ^ i s ^ t s f q *r:
crfgrrat ^

t^ ct ?f <ra yfci^m<-Mlfy'0T ^ W ra N te ra i,
raiRRhraT: ?i^t5fra:, vrapR N ^rar^' ifcf
3rfirarta^?T -irafa w pF#!
ir ir a T q iM w to w r a r a te r a ^ i f i ^Tfcn ^n^ract w #
* n ^ t raRTf^mt w n ra :, W Hwf^rafaraip

^ r a f t ^T: ntA w i w f t , ranramicv


s ra N te m rai 3Tf?ra^raT ra ^ rra t '^ i *rafi

cTFf^FNi 9 0 # ! : , ^ W Pi<lhrfoti:|

f^raf ^raTf^rar^sft ^ rfci: yfacnfifii tarera


^ w ^ r r a r a w ^ ira 'ra migrai, ^nra^n, ^ra^raraif^m ^sfy

38. [Second meaning o f adosodbhavana]


Or (adosodbhavana means) pointing out that (as a fault)
which is not the (real) fault in the proof. Because, in spite of
the presence of that (= the accused fault), there is no harm
in the establishment of the object intended to be proved by
the disputant. It is a ground of opponents defeat because it
is a case of giving a false answer. For example, some
property which is not intended to be proved by the
disputant is claimed (by the opponent) to be provable, on
the ground that it is accepted in the disputants system
62 VADANYAYA O F DHARMAKlRTI

(= sastra), and then its contrariety (with the probans) is


shown At that time the fallacy of contrariety is not (really)
brought out (by the opponent).
(Other examples of adosodbhavana are)- (1) Pointing out
the fault of Declaration in (the Declaration:) Self does not
exist by saying that the terms in your Declaration are
mutually contradictory. (2) Pointing out the fallacy of
unproved probans in the argument, T h e sound generated
through efforts is imperm anent because it is generated
through efforts saying that this probans is a specific
characteristic (of the probandum) and hence a part of the
Declaration. (3) All the analogical responses (= jatyuttara;
psendo-refutations)1 referred to (in Nyayasutra) as:
Sadharmyasama, Vaidharmyasama etc. are the analogical
responses. Pointing out (pseudo) faults of this kind is
ado$odbhavana (= pointing out non-fault as fault). When it is
shown to be a pseudo-fault by the disputant, the opponent
should be declared as defeated, because the probans
(employed) in the first position (by the disputant) is
faultless.
But if the probans (or argument) (used by the disputant)
is faulty, neither of the two parties has gained either victory
or defeat. Because that (faulty) character (of the probans or
the argument) has not been shown and yet a non-fault has
been pointed out (as fault).*One becomes a winner when
one establishes o n es position and there is no contrary
position.
Therefore the person desirous of victory should establish
his own position and repudiate the position of the other.
Even when the disputant states a faultless proof and the
opponent points out a pseudo-fault, victory and defeat can
be declared only when it is shown that there is no (real)
fault, not otherwise. Because, in the latter case although the
disputant in fact states the truth, he is unable to show the
DEFINITION OF OCCASION OF DEFEAT 63

truth by repudiating the contrary position. Nor does the


opponent win here because he (= the opponent) has in fact
a false understanding.
So we have stated this logically proper definition of
occasion of defeat.
Part II

Refutation o f the
N y c iy a - V ie w

3V s p j t j ^ '^fH icI % ^ l ^ r n y ^ W H c r i ^ i ^ T f e T ,
cfFT

[* .] y f a ^ M s m f a p p FT^OT% TrfcHTFT^T:
^P^rcil 'ciircichchKl'qtWcfq^W,
<r^j pfei
%f^cTSZT:l

cR ^ESiraT^ ^ ^SRT: I : W i ^ : Isf^ERT :


TlfiR?i:l "afcnyFi pf W *3Tft?q: ^
O . P w c ^ ^ r u h r H y c ^ i ^ t 3 w - <zrf^
Pic4?T^i5^c<H^,fc^T MRl^iieliH:, Ml'+iMfcl^Hcl^ i
^l;iPlct|cMV4 c^MllRRil

39. (The second half of the first verse is:) M


Any other
occasion of defeat, however, is not just; hence we do not
accept it. This means: The character of being an occasion
66 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKlRTI

of defeat does not apply properly where the definition of


occasion of defeat as stated by us is not applicable. So we
have not attributed that character to them.
(1) [Pratijnahani: Declaration-abandonment]
Declaration-abandonment means admitting a property
of the counter-posiuon (= pratidrstanta) in ones own
position (= drstanta)". [N.S.. 5.2.2.] The author of Nyaya-
vartika (i.e. Udyotakava) while writing on this aphorism
repudiates the opinion of the author of Nyaya-bhasya (i.e.
Vatsyayana) and states his finished position. We say on this
as follows-
[Udyotakara has said1:] Where the disputant admits the
property of prati-drstanta in ones own drstanta he is to be
known as defeated. In this drstanta means that which is
seen and established at the end (of the argument). O nes
own drstanta means o n es own position. And pratidrstanta
means the counter-position. So the one who admits a
characteristic of counter-position in o n e s own position is
defeated. For example when the debaterw ho says Sound is
impermanent because it is knowable through senses is
countered by the opponent by pointing out universal (=
samanya) (as the counter-instance), he (= the former
debater) says, If universal is knowable through senses and
is permanent, let the sound also be like that. This is a case of
Declaration - abandonm ent because here one abandons the
impermanence of sound which one has declared before.

fcivfKTtS^T
x't>i\ui sriwT MicwieiPiRRn

'wwft isA'dlft
w m f w T : , -q m tw isii
REFUTATION OF T H E NKAFA-VIEW 67

^ srfWT?^: Titrn ^ "g lw f^ T ^ra^n,


5 m1 MIN4! ffcTl

40. [Dharmakirtis response:]


If Declaration-abandonment occurs here because the
Declaration once accepted is abandoned, then why is this
special restriction made that Declaration-abandonment is
attributed to one who abandons Declaration in this way (i.e.
in the way stated by you)?
Because, it could occur in this way also: when the fault in
ones probans etc. is pointed out and the proof of the
counter-position is stated (by the opponent), there is
abandonm ent of o n es own position and admission of the
opponents position.
In fact this is the main cause of abandoning ones own
Declaration. When one is answered (by the opponent) in
the above way, one has to abandon ones Declaration and
when one abandons it, one is defeated.

yfciM^rciitfrtc! twifq % w rP T fq ^ f^ r?

ff?t ^T5F1 Sfcl'Mxift f^KT^rFIRII

t. (V); - (R) and (D).


68 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKlRTI

41. When one (= the opponent) says that the universal


is knowable through senses and is permanent, (the
disputant would say,) Let the sound also be like that. This
statement of yours is quite inappropriate here. Because,
which sound-hearted person, who himself argues that
sound is im perm anent because it is knowable through
senses like a pot, would admit that sound is perm anent
merely on the basis of an (opposite) instance viz.
universal?
If universal, which is permanent, is knowable through
senses, the probans viz. knowability through senses will be
doubtful (i.e. Inconclusive), because it is seen in the
impermanent pot (also).
[Apossible objection:] The disputant could admit (that
the sound is permanent) on the basis of analogical
argument (=jati)nl
[Answer] What is the need of presenting universal as the
instance then?
O ne (i.e. the qpponent) should better say sound
is perm anent (This would suffice to make the
disputant admit the counter-thesis) Because an
insensitive person does not think while admitting
(anything).
Moreover, the characteristic of counter-thesis
does not happen to be accepted by the one who
admits a characterisdc of the (counter - instance
viz.) universal as a characteristic of sound when
the perm anent univefsal is presented as an
(opposite) instance.
REFUTATION OF THE ATAK4-V1EW 69

The closest (= anjasah) counter-thesis for the


disputant who says, Sound is impermanent is
Sound is perm anent and not Universal is
perm anent.
Therefore (in this case) the disputant is worthy of
defeat because he employes a non-consituent of
proof, because knowability through senses,
which exists in permanent as well as
impermanent things, has variable relation (with
the probandum viz. impermanence). He is not
worthy of defeat because of abandoning the
Declaration in this way by accepting some
characteristic of the counter-thesis.

fI
[ 2 .] "
[^T. 5.23] yRlWcilSSffsftcq: (TFT

"flfWRlt ^FTtfcT - W ^SF^T cT t-


sf^Te^T:, ? l ^ 3 tzRT47Ttft3f^cq ffal 7TR fTTTtTFTR
WFRTWfsumf<^Hi^| yfil*IWI:
IT O R I ' 3RT^TtT: ifrT iff M W , cf^faFT
cRf: dd<H fa'3lfH $n^#R fo:R ^
TlfW fWFTFFTj

42. (2) [Pratijnantara: Another Declaration]


Another Declaration means indicating that the object
of Declaration possesses another (probandum)-
characteristic; when the declared object is repudiated (by
the opponent). (N.S. 5.2.S)

X. (R); (D).
70 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKiRTI

[Naiyayikas explain;] T h e declared object is Sound is


impermanent because knowable through senses. When it
is repudiated by presenting the variable relation of probans
(with the probandum ), one (= the disputant) makes
another Declaration by attributing another characteristic,
when he imagines the characteristics viz. ubiquitousness
and non-ubiquitousness in the cases of universal and pot
(respectively) in the following way - J ust as pot is non-
ubiquitous and impermanent, sound too is non-ubiquitous
and im perm anent. This is the occasion of defeat called
Another Declaration, because although the probans was
sound, the disputant did not com prehend it (= its
soundness).
Here he (= the author of the aphorism) uses the
expression indicating the object of that (=
tadarthanirdesah) for referring to the Declaration, Sound is
non-ubiquitious which the disputant states after giving a
proof for the first Declaration, Sound is im perm anent.
Here (in the expression indicating the object of that) the
object of that (= tadarthah) means the object of the proof of
the probandum stated before. Indicating the object of that
means indicaung the later Declaration. And it is an occasion
of defeat because one Declaration is not capable of proving
another Declaration.1

t t
*3. ^ "SfWRit ^yPd^W ltR l^iki sfcfftl ^
erf!? ? f ^ W ^ I

^T: yPd^l'tHHIS; ^fcRTTCTg


REFUTATION OF THE ATAFA-VIEW 71

3rf<raT 3rfWPxit *T^fdl % crff ? t ^ T ^ W T :


<

^T^T^I %^W F^TiT^ g3d ^ "RfiTWWil

43. [Dharmakirti's criticism:] In this statement too the


one (= the disputant) who replies as stated above does not
make another Declaration for proving earlier Declaration
but he states only a qualification (of probans). When the
variable relauon of the probans viz. knowability through
senses (with the probandum viz. impermanence) is pointed
out by indicating the existence of the probans in the
universals, the disputant removes the variability of the
relation by employing a qualification of probans as
knowability-through-senses qualified by non-ubi-
quitousness. But he does not make another Declaration,
because non-ubiquitousness is proved in the case of sound
and Declaration is defined as indication of the provable
(= sadhya) (and not as indication of the proved).
What has been said (by you), namely, One makes the
later Declaration for proving earlier Declaration is also
wrong. Because the Declaration which is stated for proving
another Declaration does not become (the occasion of
defeat called). Another Declaration. But it is one of the
elements such as probans etc. (stated additionally for
proving-the first Declaration), (which becomes on occasion
of defeat) because it is this element which is employed here
for proving the probandum. But it (= employment of a
different probans etc.) will be the indication of the probans,
and not the indication of the provable.
This is so also because the defining characteristic of a
probans such as similarity with the instance1is present in
non-ubiquitousness but the defining characteristic of
72 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKl'RTI

Declaration is not present in it. And the probans-hood


attributed to non-ubiquitousness does not amount to
Another Declaration.

S'S. ^ - '5ridlT 3riW1^RFTl%fcTI 7^ 1% TfRT


yid^l^cRcjl ^Hl(d,TT PbfeKish'ii |>n?i<jsbM?]
HTtFTR 3fRTr^^ f f l ^TFT\ :^T^T:

el^T WT^I

q q F fs^ f^ n ^ ^Jcff f& & \^


^ u d y d N iiR ^ t t m w f $[\snfrft ^ fror, ctomfaaHKi?

44. Moreover, the statement that One makes a


(different) Declaration for proving the (earlier)
Declaration, is totally irrelevant. The one who knows how
to express the Declaration first and then probans, then
instance etc., certainly knows the particular order in which
the probans is to be presented. How in spite of knowing it
and in spite of possessing an undivided mind, would he (=
the disputant) employ a Declaration for proving a
Declaration?
And if he does employ (one Declaration for proving
another Declaration), then he desires that a thesis may be
proved by mere Declaration! In that case he would not
express probans previously (= in the first argument) also!
REFUTATION OF TH E NYAYA-VIEW 73

Such irrelevant type of cases being countless, to make a


regulation by definition as The occasion of defeat called
Another Declaration occurs when another Declaration is
made (for proving one Declaration) is also quite
inappropriate. There should be stated only one such
definition for covering (all) cases of this type.
Moreover, no such pracdce (of using one Declaration for
proving another Declaration) has been observed in debates
before, in the case of which one would make an attempt for
covering it. A discipline (= sastra) does not operate with
reference to childish chatters and if it operates, then what
status will it have? Because they (= childish chatters) do not
have any status.

^ F T :I

>1-^1^ ?TlWlWf, w itW i# T R T ^ n T I ^ T


^ ^ f s i r q w i : , 37^qWTT^I
yfddlR'fl

[ ? arPT^n^iir] M w -
frl#T %<Tt: Ms+iHlcl^l

45. It is observed that even learned persons state


Unproved probans because (sometimes) they do not see
very clearly. When such practices are seen, the ground of
74 VADANYAYA o f DHARMAKlRTI

defeat is determined accordingly. Therefore, here also if the


opponent points out the Inconclusiveness of probans when
the disputant stops his inclination (to argue) it is the
occasion of disputants defeat because he (- the disputant)
has stated a non-constituent of proof, namely, Inconclusive
probans.
Thus if the opponent is able to state with evidence (=
pramana), without referring to a non-evident source from
his discipline, that universal is real, knowable through
senses and permanent, then, because he states these things
with evidence, this amounts to pointing out the real fault in
disputants argument. No defeat is brought about merely by
stating a hypothesis, because there is no proof of anything
there. Also because, the fault (in disputants argument) has
not been pointed out by the opponent.
And because the disputant has stated a probans not
justified by evidences, he does not become the winner also.
But if the disputants inclination (to argue further) is not
over then it is not any of his faults, because he may go on
justifying himself by stating the qualifications of probans.

[ 3. ] " yfd'ql I : UPel41ft (I ST: I [ . *J. 5.2.4 ] W

M'H [ - SPTm Tlf^iuit, 'IKrctllc^id cfTI

ffdl

c (V): (?)
REFUTATION OF T H E /VEAFA-V1EW 75

46. (3) [PratijMvirodha: Contrary Declaration]


Contrary Declaration means the contrariety between
Declaration and probans (N.S. 5.2.4.)
[Vatsyayana explains:] For example the Declaration is,
Substance is distinct from quality ; probans is, because no
object other than colour etc. is apprehended. This is the
contrariety between Declaration and probans.
[Udyotakara explains:] The Contrary Declaration
where Declaration is contradicted by the utterance (of the
Declaration itself), is also implied by the above definition.
For example, The nun is pregnant or The self does not
exist.
The Contrary probans, where the probans is
contradicted by Declaration is also implied (by the same
definition). For example, Everything is discrete, because
the term denoting a real is applicable to an aggregate only.
This also explains the contrariety of instance to
Declaration.

'to.

t \ \ r t I

v In the light of NV 5.2.4; - (R). (V) and (D).


76 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKlRTI

47. One should also mention the contrariety of


probans to instance etc. and contrariety of Declaration and
probans to the means of knowledge.
If one shows variability of relation, (between knowability
through senses and impermanence) in the others
argument, by referring to cowness etc. which is proved in
ones own discipline, it is to be understood as a contrary
reply.1Same is the case where the probans is independent
of on es own position.
When one employes a probans irrespective of o n es own
position as Sound is impermanent, because knowable
through senses, then that probans is contrary, because
cowness etc. which is proved in (the disputants) own
discipline is contrary to impermanence. In this way if the
Inconclusiveness is pointed out with reference to the case
of cowness etc., then it (= the probans) is contrary.
But if it (= cowness etc.) is admitted by both the parties
(that is, by disputant as well as opponent), then it is a case of
Inconclusiveness. Because the claim of Inconclusiveness is
based on something which is admitted by both the parties.

ifarc i c ^ s f q ttrtct
cicf)52if^RW5qerf^l':,

WT, w ^ FlGqepffwhi 'iTT^^I ^


REFUTATION OF TH E NEAKA-VIEW 77

^rafbiwiiMeiraiwrei ^nfar
[ ?] f f t faM ^U m H i^fa^
Q^fcTI ftwrftRRui, l^cjfaq: *fl%cfT: [ ? TlfemMi:]
faffa JZ : 1
[ ? yfatfitjcq):] foftq:, Mfaf<eKiMmfa ^M Pn^dPiJ^5
d ^ f a ^ l l ^ d ^ l c l f a otfPcr^q v f ^ |

48. [Dharmakirtis response:] Here too (there is


nothing like) the meaning of Declaration (which is
supposed to be contrary to probans)! Because, employing
Declaration in the inferential statement is prohibitted. So
there is no contrariety between Declaration and probans
which is grounded in it (= employment of Declaration) or
generated by it. Therefore there is no occasion of defeat
called Contrary Declaration.
One might object, Even if there is no employment of
Declaration, the contrariety between Declaration and
probans could be implied. For example (the inference may
be stated as this;) If any object apart from colour etc. is not
apprehended, then that object is distinct from qualities; and
a substance is not apprehended as an object apart from
colour etc..1Even if the argument is stated as this, the
contrariety between probandum and probans is definitely
understood, because how is it that there is non
apprehension of something other than that, and yet there
exists the thing other than that?
[Answer] True. This contrariety will be there if the probans
proves the opposite of the probandum. Because,
if the substance is known to be fulfilling the
condition of apprehensibility and there is non
apprehension of the self-appearance of such a
78 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKJRTI

substance as distinct from the appearances of


colour etc., then the probans will be contrary, as
we have already said. Because, this probans
proves the opposite of the intended
(probandum, namely,) distinctness, (which is
expressed as-) It (= substance) exists as distinct
from it (= colour etc..). And it is definitely a
ground of defeat if the contrariety of this kind
between Declaration and probans is intended2
(by you).
But if the fulfilment of the condition of
apprehensibility by it (= the substance) is lost,
then there is no contrariety between Declaration
and probans, because then the distinctness of it
(= substance) exists even if it is not apprehended
because some distinct entities, which are remote
in some respect5, do exist distinctly (though they
are not apprehended).

aroiRT?f?5irai: ilRf3Wl:

if 5 % f ^ f^EiTORT^ T55FW ^
rTfiTiKZRTTCRr1! 3^*11 tScfhlFT

1% 'SpfrTt ^ IgiitoFI
REFUTATION OF TH E NEAKA-VIEW 79

cfFTM sfiErrai: ^TH fefW O T iP T ^I

^ W ^Tcqr J&R yfiwifatl!:,


M 1 : FIRIJT^^5feT^i ?I^li
ffcil

49. On what you have said viz., If Declaration uttered by


oneself is contrary to its own utterance, then it is a contrary
Declaration, we say - That a Declaration, which is a non
constituent of proof, is employed in the inferential
statement is itself a ground of defeat. This is not a case of
contrariety, because that (= Declaration) itself is the
ground.
If there is contrariety (between probans and probandum)
independently of Declaration then it is a ground of defeat.
But when Declaration is the ground of defeat, the defeat is
due to employment of the Declaration itself. And because it
[= Declaration] itself results into conclusion of the debate,
it is futile to point out contrariety. Because, a defeated opg
is not defeated again, like fire which has turned into ashes
(does not get extinguished again).1
We state many probans for proving one (and the same)
probandum on some occasions of discussions, but they have
capasity to prove the probandum alternatively (i.e.
independently of each other). Otherwise (i.e. if the second
probans is not capable of proving the probandum
independently of the first,) then the second probans will be
superfluous.
If out of the two probans (proving the same
probandum), the employment of the other probans cannot
be made without the employment of one, then (the
probandum being proved by the first probans,) the second
one has got nothing to prove, because what is already
experienced is not to be established again.
80 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKIRTI

Therefore there is no occasion of defeat called


Contrariety of Declaration to its own utterance.
Moreover, there is no contrariety of Declaration in the
statement Self does not exist. Because it is denied that the
meaning of the expression Self does not exist corresponds
to a real entity (= bhdva) (The expression does not deny that
the word Self has some meaning.) If the meaning of the
word is denied then there will be (self) contrariety.
Moreover, the meaning of a word is not the same as the self
characterised particular.*

tt
<a. V : : VIid*1NIsntrH|fa<1 W w - ^
ffcll TO i-lididiy^M:, Tift TEITc^l
... cMdAdoWld?] I

T#T tifgiNr: Tic^pFcT:!

50. You have also talked of contrariety of probans (to


Declaration) based on falsification of Declaration as in
Everything is discrete because the term denoting a real is
applicable to an aggregate. (Our view about this example
is:) Here there is no employment of Declaration nor that of
probans with which Declaration will have contrariety. What
is there then? This would be the summing-up statement
which presents the object (already) argued out. (This would
happen as follows:) One first establishes by employing other
reasons that the word (such as pot) does not express a
single peculiar characteristic but expresses a common
characteristic belonging to many objects. One then shows
REFUTATION OF THE ATAFA-VIEW 81

that any meaning of a word is not by nature a single peculiar


characteristic of a thing, as it is of the form of plurality of
objects. Having shown this one may say, Everything is
discrete with reference to the meaning of a word.
This answers the (accused) contrariety in this.

'ddldPl^llclJ

yPdd^l i?ciltitFP^I ^ Pfcf^lRdlfd

^ 5 fq ,'57Ftttv"q^:T ^ r r ^ ieznf^n W T F f t ^ w , ^
tiff? m:
"iTtsftf ^ d^*dd^Ei) 'TcR TT^ffd ^ f^Rfa:!

51. [Alternative explanation:] Moreover, the statement


(viz. Everything is discrete because a term denoting a real is
applicable to an aggregate only) could be taken as an
indication of the instance, just as Sound in impermanent,
because products are impermanent (is a statement
indicating the instance).For example when there is dispute
on some matter, the disputant shows that a word is
admittedly used for a common property covering many
objects and having argued for the disputed point, concludes
in general, Everything is discrete.
82 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKiRTI

[A possible objection:] If it amounts to employment of


instance, why is the instance not employed in its straight
mode of employment? And why is not the object of dispute
indicated in that way?
[Answer] No, because it is shown in an abridged form. We
see the uses (of argument) in this form also.
Secondly the statement under consideration is
not the statement of proof (but it only resembles
the proof)-*
For the same reason there is no falsification of
probans by the Declaration here. Here one (i.e.
the Buddhist) is not intending to accept some
collecdon which is composite in nature and (yet)
is singular, when one says that there is nothing
such as a single object. If one accepts' it (= a
collection which is composite and yet singular)
then there would be contrariety.
Even the one who talks of the particularity (=
bheda) of atom by saying, Since there is
conjunction (of atoms) with the mud at once
etc.,5does not intend to prove a single object of
composite nature. What then? He intends to
prove the absence of such an object because
manyness of one thing is denied. Therefore in
that inference, the object intended to be proved
is not a collection and a word is not made
applicable to it. Therefore there is no contrariety
(between Declaration and probans here).
REFUTATION OF TH E NYAYA-VLEW 83

52. Secondly, this case of contrariety1does not differ


from the earlier contrariety, in which case (i.e. in case it
differs) it would be mentioned separately.
[A possible Nyaya objection:] There,(= in the earlier
case) there was falsification of probans and Declaration (by
some evidence) but here there is falsification of probans by
the Declaration. So there is a difference.
[Answer:] There will be the relation of falsified-and-falsifier
between probans and Declaration if they are
contrary to objects (= facts). Following the
principle, If there is contrariety between two
things then the two things are contrary to all
objects, if any thing (= any pair) is mutually
falsifying, because if one object is accepted, the
other object becomes impossible, then there is
no substantial difference between the two
examples of contrariety - whether it is collective
contrariety (of probans and Declaration to some
evidences) or a separate contrariety (of
Declaradon and probans to each other).

sift ^ - w fc m tpif
xffcii

*. As an alternative reading ac ce p te d in V; (R) and (D).


84 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKIRTI

%tri4f4H *tt4 *nra4faH4ii -q^, m fw r-

^^FiSiT M * i:l

M)
3T5rKioi41i| ^FTt4f4ftT w i : i <r*n *tfci
ftng^i i TfeRT fu ft-
%3:l
a rfe sfsr^ ; ^ %wimi ^ ^ hi44 i-44 * n f4 rt4 t
cfcfcf^q f1%l

53. Moreover, is it (= the inference, Everything is


discrete because a term denoting a real is applicable to an
aggregate only) a case of Contrary probans or it is an
Unproved probans because it has a different substratum
(from that of probandum) (and this is noticed) as soon as
there is employment of probans and hence Unproveness of
probans is the occasion of defeat here? Because, (i.e., latter
is the case, because) this kind of (Unproved) probans, as
soon as it is uttered, is recognised as not being the property
of that (- the bearer of the probandum) and brings about
the defeat of the speaker. When the speaker is defeated, the
concern whether the object of it (= probans) is contrary (to
Declaradon) has no significance.
Moreover, in every case this contrariety between
Declaration and probans, when it occurs, falls into two types
of faults: Contrariety and Unprovedness.
Contrariety is nothing but the absence of probandum -
property, when the existence of probans in the property-
REFUTATION OF THE ATAK4-VIEW 85

bearer (= locus) is proved, because existence of (such a)


probans is contrary to Declaration.
Unprovedness on the other hand takes place when the
declared object (= probandum) is proved (by some other
means) in the property-bearer (= locus) (and the probans
being contrary to probandum is non-existent in the
property-bearer) because two contrary natures cannot exist
in one place; otherwise there is no contrariety.1
[A possible Nyaya objection:] Contrariety (of
Declaration) is possible even when the nature of the
(probans -) property is unproved because there would be
contrariety between the expressed probans and the
declared object.
[Answer] When the evidence is not available to both
(disputant as well as opponent) there arises
doubt about (the existence of probans in) the
property-bearer. In that case, when there is doubt
about the existence of probans in the property-
bearer, Unprovedness is the only fault in
probans. Therefore there is no cause of defeat
called Contrariety of Declaration apart from
(the fallacies of probans called) Unproved and
Contrary probans.
And Unproved and Contrary probans are covered
by the mention o f fallacies of probans (as one of
the occasions of defeat). Therefore Contrary
Declaration should not be stated separately (as
an occasion of defeat).
86 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKiRTI

TRF
sm: yftisiiPu'te:, %#rd*ir

yfd*llfa<|snai
- HWcMk^RlI JlfiEll|?eft: M<W<fc|^4Vl^<uIHv- I p ] ^ t <;Wri:lrinrc(l
3 rf^ ';T R < ^ ^

3TT4 Wcf: ["SrfcTiTlMi^?] f s r a f ^

h ^ ert: i T r to n % %cM^
W 3 % p i ^rf^TT ^IG7?f ff?f ^*T:I

3pqi9t^5fq ^TSZTTTRf^^n <lf^T*TcR]lTMldJ

54. [Apossible objection:] Since contrariety (always)


holds between two objects, any one of them could be
mentioned by the speaker according to his intention.
[Answer] That is possible. (You might say:) The contrariety
of Declaration and probans holds between
Declaration and probans. So it is dependent on
two relata. So it is called Contrariety of
Declaration, when the contrariety of Declaration
is intended and it is called Contrary probans
when contrariety of probans to Declaration is
intended. Therefore there is no fault in calling it
either Contrariety of Declaration or
Contrariety of probans.
The example of (contrary) probans is - Sound is
perm anent because it is subject to generation.
The example of contrariety of Declaration is-
There is no Self. The example of mutual
contrariety between Declaration and probans is
Substance is distinct from quality etc.1 The
REFUTATION OF THE ATAKA-VIEW 87

example of contrariety of probans to Declaration


is, There is no single object etc.2
(Although you might say this, our comment here
is twofold-) You cannot say so (i.e., you cannot
treat them as different types of Contrary
Declaration) Because, as we said here before, no
case of contrariety dependent on probans falls
outside the scope of the fallacy of contrary
probans.
And if it is intended that there is contrariety in
the Declaration itself, in isolation, (i.e.,)
independendy (of probans) then employment of
the term probans in (the definition of Contrary
Declaration as-) Contrariety between
Declaration and probans would be irrelevant.
Moreover, it is not proper to say that there is
contrariety to probans (= hetuvirodhah) in
example, Sound is perm anent because it is
subject to generation, because there wiil be
contrariety to probans (properly so called)
when the Declaration falsifies probans. But here
the probans falsifies the Declaration. It is
therefore proper to call this example as that of
contrariety to Declaration.
Because, although contrariety holds between two
objects, that to which there is contrariety is
determined relative to what is falsified.

Va. TrftErar ^Tczrr


88 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKl'RTI

H W W W m M TT : I 3 T ftft
ir^T5'?ntiKuT:,|

i ^ g l - d l ^ l f w f a f t f t ^ 1 qFfa^ %3^hT:f 'p R iM tT E


yici^Ni fid 3^1

c l^ :I fl" 3ifW^T: ^N t

^ w f ^ g R ) ^ fwfcrtT*fafd ^ s r T ^ r f a ^ s f q fctitafar-
fT5TRipfm M I '^ir^fH fd d IU< r ^ c T T f ^ t c T t f t S F T : I
cM V fdW " ^E R T fcM tw^WHfcTpRf^l

55. You (= Udyotakara) have said by following the


allegorical principle viz., the picture drawn by a buffoon,1
By this (definition of contrary Declaration,) the contrariety
of Declaration to instance etc. should also be said (to be
covered) We say on this - There will be contrariety of
instance if the instance possesses the absence of the
provable property.* If the existence of probans is proved to
be there in such a contrary instance exclusively, then it is a
case of the fallacy of probans, viz. Contrary probans.5
But if the existence of probans is common (to contrary
instances as well as other instances), or if the rule about its
existence is unproved, then it is a case of the fallacy of
probans called Inconclusive. Or if proban does not exist
(both in positive contrary instances as well as other
instances) then it is a case of the fallacy of probans called
Uncommon.
[A possible Nyaya objection:] A probans does not exist
in the contrary instance but exists in the opposite instances,4

*. (V); *n*nrr: - (R) and (D).


s. (R); jiRmiql - (V) and (D).
REFUTATION OF THE NYAYA-VIEW 89

then there is no fault in probans, but the Declaration does


have contrariety to instance.
[Answer] No. Because, (in the case cited by you) the
probans does not exceed dubitability. Because,
the contrariety of Declaration to the instance5is a
fault when it is with regard to positive instance,
not when it is with regard to negative instance,
because such a contrariety (i.e. the one with
regard to negative instance) is desirable.
When the positive instance possesses a property
contrary (to probandum), although probans in
fact has invariable relation with probandum, the
invariable character of the probans cannot be
demonstrated (because the positive instance is
defective) and there cannot be determinate
cognition (of the probandum) caused by the
probans unless its relation of invariable
concomitance (with the probandum) is
demonstrated. Therefore the contrariety of
Declaradon to instance does not fall outside the
fallacies of probans.

STTMTtJTc^' ^T,

e. (V); ^ - (R) a n d (D).


90 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKJRTI

<J %cfFf*TT - c ^ 3 i^ T : -?teTT^ frfFTg)

yfciymi: WwMtKT: sqi^!il:l ^fcT Tff T^tcl


TtT^'iici^^ %^n^RT5ra%^t^n:i

56. [ A Naiyayika might say:] Let there be fault in


both ways.
[Answer] No. Because, the fault in probans has prior
occurrence. And it is not expected to discover
another fault, once the disputant is defeated
(due to the fault in probans).
This is true especially in the case of one who
insists on the rule regarding the order of the
elements of proof.1The defining characteristic of
probans viz. similarity with (positive) instance
becomes inapplicable to the probans if the
(positive) instance is contrary. Hence the defeat
of the disputant takes place due to the fault in
probans which is employed before (instance).
Hence the contrariety (of Declaration) with
respect to instance, which is employed later, does
not deserve our concern.
If probans has contrariety to (positive) instance
(i.e. it does not exist in the positive instance)
then there will be (the fallacy of probans called)
Uncommon. Or if the probans (that does not
exist in positive instances) exists in the negative
instance then there will be (the fallacy of probans
called) Contrariety.
On the other hand when probans is contrary to a
means of knowledge, like in the example, Fire
does not burn because it is cold, there is the
fallacy called Unproved probans.
REFUTATION OF T H E NTATA-VIEW 91

The contrariety of Declaration to a means of


knowledge is explained (i.e. examined) through
(the examination of) Contrariety to its own
utterence.
In this way all these cases are included in the
fallacies of probans when there is contrariety in
the proof.

tit
ms. ^ J l l W l I d ,

w R U d JilcdiRdi
" 5 ^ cti ti 1%w i Trfcrq^r
w rq fd i

^ ^ TTcqtrfd tm*l % ^T <-

W fa ct $ Wtzf ^ 3 o [ W q # ( qcf,
mRs Rui trc*Rntid

Wq^TTT^8:1% ^4 )J1 14 <*>I Rd dl dRsqrdU "iftsfq


4 dPdcd*[) c ^ f t l | id ^ ^ ^ S iF ie iw S F ftH r^ W
tm ^ R q i^ P d l

^W lW icyfdT^R -Q^ d l 5^d T l R d , ddM d *4


^ R T ^ :! d^M Rfts-qqiPH 'p*rfRfd

57. But your statement viz. Accusing the others


argument of the fallacy of Inconclusive probans, by
referring to cowness,1 which is proved in ones own
discipline, amounts to contrary reply, is quite irrelevant (to
the occasion of defeat called contrary Declaration).
92 VDANYYA OF DHARMAKRTI

Because, if the opponent claims to prove the variability of


relation (between probans and probandum) by referring to
cowness etc., which is proved in his own discipline, then the
contrariety (of his reply) will be right, because the cowness
etc. which is contrary to the disputants own position is not
accepted by him (=disputant). Because, he (=the opponent)
doubts the existence of the probans in cowness, which is
accepted by himself, and hence exhibits his own lack of
understanding.
But whether cowness exists or not, the probans remains
Inconclusive, when its capasity to prove (the probandum) is
not established, because it causes doubt.
If on the other hand its capasity (to prove the
probandum) is established, then in that case it does not
exist in cowness and hence there is no doubt regarding the
probans at all, because it (= capasity of probans) is
established by removing all sorts of doubts.*
This also explains the inconclusiveness of the probans
which is employed independently of on es own position.
Such an employment of probans also amounts to applying
the probans that exists in the perm anent cowness accepted
by oneself, for proving impermanence. Hence such an
employment of probans being incapable (of proving
probandum) amounts to employing dubitable probans
only, as it is a non-constituent of proof.
You also said, There is (sometimes) a claim of
inconclusiveness on the basis of something which is
admitted by both the parties. Here also one should talk of
inconclusiveness necessarily based on the probans causing
doubt. This factor (namely the probans causing doubt) is
common to other cases (of inconclusiveness) also, hence
there is no difference between the inconclusiveness in this
case where something is admitted by both the parties, and
4he one in other cases.
REFUTATION OF TH E ATAKA-V1EW 93

^. q ^ J R - ' ^ R T W ! tcq T ^ R T ^ R q i^ R f a q i ^ -
qfaqr ft% q "'JR Pm^W i^cKii: ffq R'qqqqRrqTfqqls'gRqj
q ts q q q R * ^KRI^dt: [^ E R ^ T t:? ] 3 R , cIFi q ^ W f -
q^TT ^ERTRifrfR^lfR!, flg-'I'H f i F R WTfRUHTq-
y^-idj

^SRTqrapri %cqT^5T2Riqkr^ ^ k m w i Im tH iq^qfa ig t


qqftl " W q q ^ R : ^ R R iR q q q : ^ P frh l

q t ^ER R TTtqt5$fm q % c P R q f q i^ q Trrfsra sfq q


i

srfq q - q M w c i; ^ q y q r f R t ic q rq ra iw T Y f r r t
f^RRRTW tfH cT^FRRTtfH %cqT'qTRTqq%^q <JTbMlftl q
TjsHMMirn ^ : i

f e ^ s q f W F R q r f R R # , aroqsiFT fa w u y ^R ld l

58. You also said, Because the fallacies of instance arise


out of the fallacies of probans, so the former are covered by
the mention of the latter. Therefore the former are not
mentioned separately in the list of the occasions of defeat.
This too cannot be held rightfully by the advocates of
(instance as) a disunct element in the argument.
The mention of the fallacies of probans cannot cover the
mention of the fallacies of instance according to the one
who talks of instance as an element disunct from probans.
Because, if it (= a fallacy of instance) is covered by the
mention of them (= fallacies of probans) then it (=
instance) will not be a disunct constituent of proof from
that (= probans).

. (R); re - (V) a n d (D).


94 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKiRTI

If the fallacies of instance are included in the fallacies of


probans, then it is desirable also to include instance in the
probans. In that case instance will not be a separate element
of proof, as it does not have separate existence.
The object which is to be proved by the instance is
included in the (object to be proved by) probans. Therefore
it is proved by probans only and hence the instance has no
power separately.
Moreover, any occasion of defeat of the disputant (= the
defender of the first position; purvapaksavadin) is not justly
so if it is not connected with a fallacy of probans. Hence all
the cases (of occasions of defeat) related with it (= a fallacy
of probans) are covered by the mention of fallacies of
probans (in the list of the occasions of defeat) and hence
they do not deserve a separate mention.
Because, the occasion of defeat such as Shifting to a
different point is also possible only when the probans is
incapable (of proving the probandum ). Because, nobody
begins to shift to a different point if the probans (employed
by him) is sound and the probandum is proved. Because,
only an incapable person goes for false practices.

tt
VU [ v . ] 3lf?t?ira^ira:r
yrd^IdH^43Tfrc*I: i f ^ : V j^ c f V c ^ t Rt

3^1 f a ^ [ W T ^ ' q f l c ^ f t i ? ] , ^
H Tjifa? SfRpj^ cT [ ? 3#pj^tcl] TJcf

Rh fa <h iyjHH f a w ^ R f f a w u ctpt


REFUTATION OF T H E NYAYA-VIEW 95

m fra^ n r^ , w rm H F i
g w M 'q ^ rra ft ^it^i c T F n ^ fq ^ h ^ I h R h

59. (4) [Pratijnasamnyasa: Renunciation of Declaration]


Renunciation of Declaration means removing (i.e.
disowning) the declared thesis when on es posiuon is
repudiated (by the opponent) ( N S 5.2.5.)
[Nyaya explanation:] The disputant first declares the
thesis as Sound is impermanent because it is knowable
through senses and when it is repudiated by showing the
variability of relation of the probans (with the probandum)
by referring to the existence of the probans in universals, he
disowns the thesis by saying, Who said that the sound is
impermanent? It is an occasion of his defeat, called
Renunciation of Declaration.
[Dharmakirtis response:] If in this case the disputant
does not disown his own position, then will he not be
defeated?
If you say, (He will not be defeated) because here the
disputant expresses fallacious probans when he is not
defeated (i.e. not caught by the opponent),1then we ask-
What is the point in looking forward to the later
renunciation of Declaration? The earlier event (of ones
argument being repudiated by the opponent) is itself the
occasion of ones (= disputants) defeat. What is the use of
introducing the other innumerable acts of impotent chatter
(as the varieties of occasion of defeat)? In this way there will
be transgression (of reason). Becoming silent when ones
position is repudiated will be an occasion of defeat called
Becoming silent; if one runs away (when ones posiuon is
repudiated), then it will be an occasion of defeat called
Running away. The occasions of defeat such as these will
all have to be mentioned (separately). Therefore this
(occasion of defeat) is also irrelevant.
96 VDANYYA OF DHARMAKRTI

^O. [q .] arfrehfr# %?it yfdft f a j it t ^ R ^ r '


[ ^ . ^ . M . ^ . ] faqvfaH.-'
W fW mRhiuih^' ifiri

3TFT - T1MI!>i<^fl,1lActiM<Jic]'1l ^ ^g
q fo p ifa fin

TJ3 3RW8T 3TIF - T T ^ flc lW W ^ R M i uRuilH^fol^


[ MPwR^i^r^?] i^ rg -tsu l^M fo
TJfRt?]'l tTFT "51$ rq^^q-H*RPTml<=Tli-Hd [ ? f ^ R W W H -
q im e ^ ] VbSI<JdKrt(Hrd %tfl ' l^ jcftft
*refi Tift %srr ^

s m fq ^ ^ -c ( %il H'rPtfSh IF W l fa cl %FFRf?RTT


<dlT K M m :^q
ftpjSRti a^fR rc r^ R t %?w^TFl5fq ^ s rfw m p

60. (5) [Hetvantara: Another probans]


Another probans occurs when one desires to present
the qualified probans when the probans stated without
qualifications is repudiated. (N S5.2.6.)
[Vtsyyana explains-] For example, The manifest has
singular original nature (= prakrti) because it has a limited
size (= parimna). For instance it is seen that the things like
(earthen) plate etc. which are produced from (a single
substance viz.) mud, have limited size.
This argument is repudiated (by the opponent) by
poindng out the variability (of the relation) in the following
way - The things having manifold original nature as also the
things having singular (i.e. common) original nature are
seen to have limited size.

. (V); qftDTTRT<Ji - (R) and CO),


v Supported by V.
REFUTATION OF THE NYAYA-V1EW 97

When repudiated in this way, the disputant says: (We


state our probans as follows:) Because limited size is
observed in the kinds of objects co-ordinated by a singular
original nature1'and all these manifest objects which are co
ordinated by pleasure, pain and delusion, are known to
have limited size; (hence) they have a singular original
nature and the lack of co-ordination with any other original
nature. In this way it becomes a case of Another probans
when someone repudiates the unqualified probans.
When another probans is presented the earlier probans
proves to be incapable of proving (the probandum) and
hence an occasion of defeat.
[Dharmakirtis response:] In this too, where is the point
in thinking about the other probans, as the disputant is
already defeated due to the earlier statement of the
Inconclusive probans? If the proposer of the first probans
expresses an Inconclusive probans and is given an
opportunity to respond (to the objections) then he gets
defeated due to the same (Inconclusive probans). But if he
is not given an opportunity to respond (to the objections)
then even if he presents another probans, he is not worthy
of being defeated, because there is no closure (of the
debate in that case).

++
K ] [^T- %

%c[:l W lj
^^H IH I^IdlM rflM ldrsid HIHIdlid ITSTOta* nH

'^ l^ d fa llg W R , MfclMlRcl <1*1


98 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKlRTl

C K ^ I TTPT SRT^mRT^T ^S cfW ^W PlT faST H -


g^W faftsfq ?f?TI

61. (6) [Arthantara: Different point]


Different point means (speaking) something, the
content of which is irrelevant to the topic under
consideration. (N S5.2.7.)
[Vatsyayana explains:] When the position and the
counter-position are held in accordance with their
definitions (by disputant and opponent respectively) and
proof of the probandum on the basis of probans is due, one
(= the disputant) would say, Sound is permanent. The hetu
(= probans) is - because intangible. H etu is a word ending
with Art - suffix when the word tu is attached as suffix to the
root 4At (= hinoti). Words are of four kinds - noun, verb,
prefix and particle. Having initiated (a different point) in
this way he explains noun etc.
[Udyotkara explains:] This is an occasion of defeat
called Different point, because here the disputants
speech is irrelevant to the proposed topic.
[Dharmakirtis response:] This occasion of defeat is
legitimate one. It amounts to first leaving the issue at hand
when the fault (in ones argument) is pointed out (by the
other debater) and then stating a non-constituent of p ro o f
or pointing out a non-fault, on the parts of disputant and
opponent respectively. Because, when the proposer of the
argument is required to give justification of his proposed
argument, he states instead of that something that is not
invariably connected with the proposed topic either by
relating it to the context or not. And from the side of the
respondent (i.e. opponent) it amounts to expressing
something other than discovery of the fault (of the
disputant).
REFUTATION OF TH E NYAYA-YIEW 99

[V S .] 0 |u i s b H p 1 ^ 1 c i i 5 R 8 i ^ l [^ T i. \.R.6] W
^ ihi^hkhi^ Ph^
i ^ ttm -
Ipn^F I ^ R 'iTTUj fa 4l Pidl Sfat^TFT[*iRTc[,

M ^ uisbMPi^Nr<Ri * ^ h m :
['iirs -^ ft? ] 3R5?R ijfiTfn fc*Tcfa: fftl

^i us**i h wra*ru*i^\\\ -q^ ff cn ^rzti


f ^ ^ ip w d ip ^ [^ i^ ^ ir^ v T p n ^ ? ] i
'I 'HT^zTfe^ SRsf^ 'ZRZf

^ c h ^ r^ K ^ ir^ sfq % far ^ farrf:? f a w -


faf^^faRJ
1; ?1^fraW!c(ir<rd ^ 1

SlRldPHS - -$\ faTfai sfatfa, W f f a w ffiil cTcpfa


TfaFiraTSRT^TfaR ffal ^ "ifaf f^R^eFTf^ViFTtS^^q PduS^I'fa
fa w trl

R R RTjfsRifa^T: iFfa faT*fai:; cHpxIdWJ) cTFqi^qsfsrT^T^I


dWI^ c(|^TrHta[^eWHcfelHJ3#fMRifT<5^t - AhPh^II
r^ra^W'f^^fa; ^M^lP<dTO^PgdcFlTTcitw^TFlPM RRZTceTRI
62. (7) [Nirarthaka: Meaningless utterance]
Meaningless utterance means an act like uttering a
series of letters. (A/S5.2.8.)

t . In the light of N V 52.8; ^TtiHr^'ti^Hl^ - (R) and (D).


100 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKlRTI

[Vatsyayana explains:] For example, Sound is


permanent because (it is) ja, ba, ga, da, like jha, bha, gha,
dha.".
[Udyotakara explains:] Here the debater is defeated
due to non-employment of the probans.
[Dharmaklrti responds:] This is also irrelevant.
Because there is no meaninglessness when simply it is
proved that there is an utterance of a series of letters. If
something is an utterance of a non-constituent of proof,
only then it is meaningless. Because, the content of that
utterance is not conducive to the proof of the probandum
and also because it does not serve any purpose. Acceptance
of it, (therefore,) as a special type (of the occasion of
defeat) is not in order.
[A possible objection:] It is no fault, because the word
vat (= like) is used (in the definition).
[Answer] It may be so. (You might say-) The term vat ( =
like) is used in the expression vama-
kramanirdesavat (= an act like uttering a series of
letters). It indicates other discordant expressions
also. Therefore there is no fault. But we do not
accept this. Because, in that case no mention of
Different point etc. will have to be made (as
distinct occasions of defeat). And in that case all
those examples (of Different point) will have to
be called the examples of Meaninglessness only,
because they are covered by (the definition of the
occasion of defeat called) Meaningless.
[A possible objection:] Meaningless utterance does not
mean the one which does not surve any purpose in proving
the probandum. By Meaningless utterance we mean the
one which does not have any meaning.
REFUTATION OF THE AT FA-VIEW 101

[Answer] In that case, why is not any person, who is not a


disputant at all (i.e. who does not participate in a
debate at all), defeated when he makes
meaningless utterances? Because, the efficient
cause (= nimitta) is common (to the two cases).
[A possible objection:] No. Such a case is not relevant
in this context.
[Answer] Here you have to accept that the one who makes t
meaningless utterance is defeated by thai
utterance only. This is common to all the person:
who state a non-constituent of proof. All thost
who make meaningless utterances are worthy o
being defeated by the same occasion of defeat.
Moreover, utterance of a series of letters is no
always meaningless. In some context even that i
meaningful. So this (= your mentioning series o
letters as meaningless) is itself an occasion oi
(your) defeat, because it is meaningless here (=
in this context). Moreover, you are saying
something different (from what is relevant) when
you say, Utterance of a series of letters is an
occasion of defeat, because in that case one
should mention striking the cheeks,1rubbing the
upper garment2 etc.

+ +
[ . ] 'qtferfc?irc(<ri [-^i. tj.
y firaiRn i^ i fa %w cl i*ri sw k h hdid

frP fw irH fo i
102 VADA N Y A Y A OF DHARMAKlRTI

ftw i ^cjj
srrs^Tr^wwFr^ ^ u Pa 3 1<{1 P i'p p d ? i-s^iiq^ m^ i^:
^f^^ldyfclMKHiHIH^ ifir H FTETfHil^rt 3mHlfalft
ft^ A A R f h fsrafamtf [fa3% R p ^ d id i ? ?]
PiU^WHiHfdl

63. (8) [Avijnatartha: Meaning -not- understood]


Meaning-not-understood occurs when the statement
uttered thrice (by the disputant) is not understood by the
audience and by the opponent (N S5.2.9)
[Vatsyayana explains:] If the statement uttered thrice
(by the disputant) is not understood by the audience and
the opponent, because it contains obscure words or
unfamiliar usages or is uttered too speedily or for some
other reason, then such a statement the meaning of which is
not understood and which is used for hiding ones capasity
(to justify on es own position) is an occasion of defeat.
[Dharmakutis response:] This does not differ from
Meaningless utterance. If the disputant makes a statement
speedily, which is intelligible and relevant to the topic
under consideration, then he does not have incapability (to
justify his position). Nor do the audience etc. fail to
com prehend his statement because he was insensible. (But
the audience fails to com prehend because of speady
delivery.) Therefore such a learned disputant does not
deserve to be called defeated.
[A possible objection:] The disputant does deserve to
be called defeated because the audience has only to imagine
that his statement is capable.1(i.e. meaningful, arha) .
[Answer] Why is not the opponent (instead of the
disputant) called defeated, who due to

(V); 3JfMrraaldMl<iHWlHf - (R) a n d (D).


REFUTATION OF THE NFAFA-V1EW 103

insensitivity does not understand the statement


of the disputant arguing rationally? Or because
his (= disputants) capability to argue out the case
is not understood by the audience and others
due to their insensitivity, he (= disputant) is
neither to be called the winner nor defeated. And
in case the disputant is making irrelevant
statements it is nothing but Meaningless
utterance. Therefore no separate occasion of
defeat viz. Meaning-not-understood may be
proposed.

tit

trppt cfTcFTFi TJUtt;

FWSfF^TcII

M w n w i? [
5 ^ T :l ^ xi F F T P 4 :I ^ FT p iR R ftfil

64. (9) [Aparthaka: Non-sensical]


Non-sensical means an utterance which has no
integrated sense, because earlier and later words in it have
no connection. (NS5.2.10).

v In the light of NBh 5.2.10; - (R) and (0 ).


*. (V);4l*WHl?J^^WWlT'i^-(R)and(D).
104 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKIRTI

[Vatsyayana explains:] Where many words or sentences


are known to be unrelated in meaning because there is no
connection between earlier and later (words or santences),
then it is Non-sensical because it is bereft of integrated
meaning, like the sentence beginning with Ten
pomegranates.
[Dharmaklrtis response] This, they say2, is mentioned
separately from Meaningless utterance which contains
unconnected letters, because in this (= Non-sensical),
words (and not letters) are unconnected.
But in that case unconnected sentences also will have to
be mentioned separately. You cannot say that Non-sensical
as the occasion of defeat is legitimate because it covers both
(unconnected words and sentences) because in that case
(by the same token) Meaningless would also be covered
(by Non-sensical).
We have already said that it is a transgression (of reason)
to prattle for defining separate occasions of defeat
according to such peculiarities. We do not find any fault in
referring to a collection (of cases by a single occasion of
defeat). Nor do we find any special virtue in diversification.
So this (Nyaya argument) is insignificant.
REFUTATION OF TH E NFAKA-VIEW 105

^ # T f ^ l ^ u^ir<ch

65. (10) [Apraptakala: Mistimed]


Mistimed means utterance of the elements (of
argument) in perverse order. (7VS5.2.11).
[Vatsyayana explains:] The elements of argument
starting with Declaration follow an order due to their
significance in accordance with their definitions. Hence
stating the elements in perverse order is an occasion of
defeat.
[Udyotakara explains:] If one says, No, because the
proof (of the probandum) is possible in this way also, then
we say, - No, because it (= an argument in perverse order) is
like a word removed from the (standard) usage. For
instance it is not correct to say that explication of the
meanings of words is in vain because even the word gonf
used in the sense of go (= bullock) conveys an object
possessing hump on shoulders etc. (i.e. a bullock). Here
one apprehends the word go through this word (= gorxT)
and then understands the object possessing hump on
shoulders etc. In the same way one apprehends the
elements of argument such as Declaration etc. arranged in
their proper order through the elements which are
presented in perverse order and then knows the meaning
(of the argument) from the elements in proper order. That
is why we find in this world that one first takes the object of
action such as the lump of clay and then takes the
instrument.1

s. In the light of V; <T<T: - (R) and (D);


<tcl: stOT^I cffol NV. S2.ll.
106 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKl'RTl

S K I * <*$qlP<Hoqf y d lP d ^ K M I^ H y if?^ [? TTcftRl:,


^ l^ ^ R s q R W ^

j il iR k isiwfHqi"<^sinqsqRj w i ctst, i 3 ^iR c^w h,i

^ 3 "nW hT ^Pr yd lfd ^ u w i ^gr, i 3 in y rfc ^ T R i

'cklAdvl 'Ijd^dd; '^ 1 ^FII^TqM dlcl<W ^I ^ Rf%,


W R K ^ ^ 'Rf^ra^l W ?T ^ ^fl Rfxl, ^
ti w 8 f w i ^ T 5 ^ Trfdqild, cffitssf ypdqtld?

3 ST ^ F J 'T ^ R ^ s fq qdlPdRPdl

^ U*fsfq -cINohd d im ^ c ), 3pq^ dfgW^iRflPc^FI^I

Ucftffi W l ^ 3Ti TTcf *HTrfa? ^ ^ c T F n ^


Rq W I : , ^ cT qRfAdJ

31<d*W-qW Tl^SuiydlPd'dddMI

^ P W K : qr^sfq ^ ^ c i : wtRi w t Rt, s r ^ R n ^ i m


3 ^FT^I ^ R ^ T T ^ ^ I

3 3 R yPd'qfd'q'i^mR^T: -qR^ri m^Rti

66. [Dharmaklrtis response:] Your saying that it is like


a word removed from the (standard) usage, is like one mad
person narrating another mad persons statement1! We do
not see any point in (Grammarians) attempt towards
explicadon of (correct) words, if the apprehension of the
object possessing hum p in shoulders (i.e. a bullock) takes
place from the word 'gonV.
[A possible objection:] T h e explication (of correct
words) is made in order to explicate the meaning-conveying
REFUTATION OF TH E NYAYA-VIEVI 107

words, because the word lgonT does not have capasity to


convey the meaning.
[Answer] But we find in the world that there is
apprehension (of meaning) from the word gon?
also!
[Objection:] True. We do find. But we have said that it
(= the apprehension of meaning) is not direct.
[Answer] You have said that, but what you said is not
correct. Because women and Sudras do not have
apprehension of both (= the correct word as well
as the incorrect word).2 Because only he will
understand (the meaning from the incorrect
word via the correct word) who knows both, the
(correct) word and the incorrect word. But how
will be the person who knows the word nakka or
'mukka' but . does not know the word lnasa
(meaning nose) understand the correct word
from the incorrect word and then understand the
meaning? But we see in fact that the person not
knowing both the words (but only the incorrect
word) does apprehended (the meaning).
This apprehension does not take place through a
series of relations. Because if a word does not
have capasity to produce the apprehension of the
meaning, then it cannot have the capasity to
produce the apprehension of a word also.5
Because, the capasity to connote the meaning
(= arthe vacakatvam) (that subsists in a word) is
not quite a different thing from capasity to
produce the apprehension of it.
And if the incorrect word does produce the
apprehension of the correct word, then why does
it not produce the apprehension of the meaning
108 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKl'RTI

itself? We do not see any kind of dissension of it


(= incorrect word) with the meaning due to
which it would keep the meaning away.
Moreover the (incorrect) word cannot generate
the apprehension of the correct word also, unless
such a convention is made.
Because, the incorrect word does not produce
the apprehension of the correct word naturally,
because we do not see that. But it would produce
(the apprehension) only if there is such a
convention. The word operates on account of
convention.
The exertion of (postulating) a series of
apprehensions is avoided in this way.

^V9. ^rq u -
THT l t d ^q * f' 1

^ 1 ifai
w r g g c in f a b - W F T i -qWTrl

H |u ) t ||i ) c b |^ H S T ^ T T I

E F faT H c !7 , it^ v q )5 " a itp q frq % :l

fw f^ r vkw w rftte ro tw

^ rw r ciwiw 'd '^ d T ^rm

s. (R); FTFfd - (D).


REFUTATION OF THE ATKA-VIEW 109

fc r l: % fWT:? ^ t^ ^ in f^ jq ^ R :!
^ l l r *Nh^ Sc r i 1 ^ ' Pl 4 ' ^ ^ 5 ^ 'RP^?
x tr ^>fp5s^ 'sqrter: TMt, *f y^&A Hm<i^ RikI ff

' F ^ [ c^cf?] ^TfcfW TW R: ^TRt


l ^ I W i [c1<^l^lA?] R;
% ^lfaw <4A viH 4d2
W ^ I^ n A q:, ci^TR F^nfisfq f tr t :l ^ F t ^ '? K -
f^Rjif^^iT^i % rf^?i ' r f t t M ^ w r f e i ara ^
*mKMUiRieA<*)Wta yf?miA, crrart ^ TRRsrci, cin ^ f F r
K H 3Rftfffarafl ffi ^ rfc rq frft^ , R ^ R T^Ff uff.-i

67. Moreover, (the incorrect words need not convey the


meaning indirectly and correct words directly) because we
find that converse is the case. Those who do not understand
the meaning from the (correct) word are found acquiring
knowledge from corrupt words. Hence the Instruction
about words (as given in Sanskrit Grammar) is fruitless.
[A possible objection:] It is not fruitless, because it is
meant for explication of Sanskrit (= cultured) words
[Answer] What is being cultured in the case of words? We
do not see any (sign of) culturedness such as
intellect or learnedness (in them).
Nor do these (Sanskrit) words have extreme
audibility. Nor dorthey have any pre-eminence in
conveying the meaning.
Nor are they the means to religious merit,
because demerit is produced even from the

vs. In the light of V; (R) and (D).


c. (V); 'dWIWWlPH: - (R); - (D).
110 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKlRTI

Sanskrit words motivating wrong attitudes.


Conversely other words (= non-Sanskrit words)
also produce merit. The grammarians
announcem ent that just the proper use of a word
gives one the pleasure in Heaven, is merely an
utterance. The experts of reasoning do not
honour such (unfounded) scriptural statements.
Nor is it the case that ones mouth becomes
tortuous if one says, If there is only a proper use
of the word, but it does not give motivation for
acquiring merit through charity etc, then
(instead of giving heavenly pleasure) it leads to
collapse of a mountain.1 Therefore there is no
word which is cultured.
[A possible objection:] Culturendness of a word means
its having been used by learned persons.
[The counter-question:] Who are learned?
[Opponents answer:] Those who possess the qualities
such as the knowledge of what one should know.
[Dharmakirtis response:] What sort of a false conviction
they (the learned persons) are having then, which does
not require any excellence in their qualities? Because, they
use only these (= Sanskrit) words and not others! Moreover,
there is no direct witness to (the use of) these words, on the
basis of whom we can ascertain that learned persons use
only these words and not others.
We do not approve of culturedness of even a few words as
we do not see any excess of qualities (in them). Protection
of Vedas is a non-purpose according to the one who is not a
follower of their system. And even if there is some excess of
qualities (in the Sanskrit words), no effort needs to be made
for their explication.* Because the particular nature of those
words could be justified on some other basis also, like in the
REFUTATION OF T H E NYAYA-VIEW 111

case of the words in Prakrta, Apabhramsa, Dravida, Andhra


and other languages. There is no defining characteristic of
languages belonging to the respective regions. People
understand (meanings from words) in a definite way due to
the sameness (i.e. continuity) of tradition, as they also
understand deviation from the standard usage. The
apprehension of Sanskrit words also will take place in the
same way. Therefore tending to attribute defining
characteristic5 to words is an insensitive mode of
understanding.

^. 3icncircm4i)sft*iftftoi eNdni
raft '^ iu c iifd :'; -inWcU A ire RcWdlftTftsft
qreira '3 r a w : ,

ra ^ %ra raft i f t a ftrafara^

ra i^ ftftiq fti:!

^Kini r a f ^ ^ F r a f t wra! [rarai?] i i f t i


fdRci ra: ra^i s-ftt ra ?fra:, f t rai^radi :
l f t f a ^ R f t r a r a f t w r i r a f t r a T O : r a f ^ W W : ^ : , '3 r a i i W
if tl

r a f te r ^ ftftra ra fra R ftra rarai, rararar c p ra ^


iftI 3re XRRI ^TTraft ra ifts ft ra ftlftft fa?ft i f t -^fSR^ sranfvt-

In the light of V; - (R) and (D).


(R); - (D) (No support from V).
(R); ^ 1 : - (D) (No support from V)
112 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKlRTI

s'fa'qiRw ^ w w tf^ ifa ^ d lR n 3rahr-


3T ^5frnJF^: I qfiifw :
qflffa ^ 3T^f W W ^: -R^fT iRf ^ fWT:
*w nsf*T sRfhgjq^: ic^ rth j ^ ^ %r
3TT3^ 3ifq ydlctRPd ^fcT WTiM^rcri
w f^ fd l

68. (Now coming to the occasion of defeat proper:)


If in spite of the perverse order of the elements (of an
argument) there is the apprehension of the mutal relation
ship1of the sentences (in the argum ent), there is neither false
apprehension nor non-apprehension, then it is because the
argument (with the elements in perverse order) has capasity
(to convey the intended meaning).
Nor is there any convention such as the words (in the
argument) should be used in this way alone as there is no
difference in conveyance (of meaning).
[A possible objection:] That is the proper order of
elements through which the apprehension of the meaning
takes place. Hence there is no apprehension through the
elements in perverse order. The apprehension of meaning
through them takes place via the apprehension of proper
sequential order.
[Answer] The proper sequential order is not apprehended
unless the relation amongst the elements is
apprehended. And if the relation amongst the
words is apprehended as This is related here,
then what would be their order of priority or
posteriority on account of which they would be
arranged? Because when the relation is
apprehended, that itself is their order, viz. the
relationship which is apprehended amongst
them as they are. There is no rule governing the
;fu ta tio n o f t h e n y a y a -v i e w 113

order of words belonging to sentences. For


example puruso rajnah' (= Man of the king) and
rajnah. purusah' (= king's man) (both are
grammatically correct).8
Those many words constitute a sentence through
which there is accomplishment of meaning. For
example Deuadalta, gam anaya krsnam (=
Devadatta, bring the black cow.) (The order of
words = Devadatta, cow, bring, black.)Here there
is no difference in the apprehension of meaning
although the words are used freely. Hence the
adherence to order (of the elements of
argument) is insignificant (kascit).
Moreover we have explained how there can be
apprehension (of the probandum) even without
the statement of Declaration. If an implied word
(or sentence) has to be used (explicity), then it
would be a transgression (of reason). We have
said with regard to the remaining elements that
there is no rule that one should first indicate the
relation (of pervasion) and then the existence (of
probans) in the property-bearer, or that one
should first indicate the existence in the
properly-bearer and then the relation of
pervasion. Because, the knowledge of the
probandum arises in both the cases.4
If (on the other hand) (the order of the words in
the argument is so perverse that) no relation is
apprehended amongst the words, then the
proper sequential order (amongst the elements
of the argument) also will not be apprehended.
Hence this case will not differ from the (occasion
of defeat called) Non sensical. In that case it will
not be proper to mention Mistimed as a distinct
occasion of defeat.
114 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKIRTI

{. [ u . ] ' [^ n . v

T 3 ra ^ ^ T n filt:l

R 14fdmf<clHJ

^ ^(IHIHrM fa u S lM m :!

^T: 3mhmFn$fiFT$N7 ^ ^ R rafaifepiT -


faqnrfd a rir^ c n fq q R ira ^ i ara s fo m i R

69. (11) [Nyuna: Insufficient]


Insufficient means that (inferential statement) which is
destitute of one of the elements. (N S 5.2.12.)
[Vatsyayana explains:] The (inferenual) statement in
which one of the elements, such as Declaration, is lacking, is
deficient. Because the probandum is not proved in the
absence of (complete) proof.
[Dharmaklrtis response:] If it is destitute of, say,
Declaration, then it is not deficient, because we have
explained that the knowledge of probandum takes place
even in its absence.
Another one1says, it is deficient, because even in the case
of insufficiency (due to the absence of Declaration), defeat
takes place.
This is an unthoughtful statement, because he will
deserve defeat, who uses a redundant sentence (lit.
meaningless sentence) the meaning of which is implied (by
other elements of the argum ent), but the one who utters a
meaningful (nQn-redundant) sentences is not defeated.

v (R); Supported by - V; But the reading m entioned


in V - Rfrtin^Ni, and also (D).
REFUTATION OF THE NYYA-VIEW 115

Declaration is not a constituent of proof for the same


reason.

vs. [ ^ . ]
c T ^ llw n ^ F T ^ tferszf^l
tnc(i chi(ji[i ji^4chi ftw -

"SPT^Wri c^ ftWMMlfcPdl

70. (12) [Adhika: Additional]


Additional means that (inferential statement) which
contains an additional probans or instance. (NS5.2.13).
[Vatsyayana explains:] When the inferential statement
is complete with one (probans or instance) the other one is
redundant (Lit. meaningless). This is to be understood (as
an occasion of defeat) when such a rule is accepted (in the
debate).
[Dharmakxrtis response:] When the discussion is based
on (the rule of) using an inferential statement containing
(only) one probans, stating an additional probans in such a
discussion is redundant. Hence it is an occasion of defeat
(there).
In a diffuse discussion there is no fault (of this kind)
because there are no rules in it.

k. In the light of NBh 5.2.13. The word used in NBh Is SRToRFT; But Tc^TF! -
(R) and (D).
116 VADANYA YA OF DHARMAKIRTI

U 3 -] ?KTS^Tf: JiHeJxiH [^TT.^,


a. 3.V*] 3#r?q: YKtsftct?: ^ ^ f d l
SlPlr^: fTCtespfeit t^FT ffdl

3 T ? H T T ^ J T F W 3 7 8 i ^ H < ? ' t d ol-c)^q hcicqidj^ Ipif ^


VK^I^tsfq W -

W d ?TTfd ^ T # F ^ 4 Wff^TCtftfdl

^ R fo R [ f 3%TC?] ^ifafd [3fiT^T?] tTiprfcTU

^ g j d d ^psrr^ct srF<fct fF^fai

FTFmftshld W i y ^ P d ^ rf d ll

W ^T-TO fFT^^fd ^TcrfcT'Fifd.'d w f d d ^ffld'dVT<w4ftl<U^


chKulPHPdl

71. (13) [Piinarukta: Repetition]


Repetition means iteration (made in the course of
argument) of words or meaning except as a confirmatory
repetition.1(Aft 5.2.14)
[Udyotakara explains:] An example of Repetition of
words - Sound is impermanent, sound is im perm anent. An
example of the Repetition of meaning - Sound is
impermanent, sonority is subject to destrucdon.
[Dharmakirtis response:] Here Repetition of words
need not be m entioned separately. Because it is covered by
the mention of Repetition of meaning. Because, there is
no fault if the meaning is different even if the words are the
same. For instance -
The machine bought for a bit of money* is such that it
laughts when the master laughs, cries loudly when cries,
runs with a fastened Waist-band and with sweat coming out
when runs, censures a virtuous faultless person when (the
master) censures (the same), dances when dances.9
REFUTATION OF THE ATAKA-VIEW 117

Or (another example) - That which happens when this


real thing happens and does not happen when it does not
happen, is the effect of this, and the other thing is the
cause.4

w w ic k )w
yftlifra'-tFTfofd 3 T 8 i T m T i c ^ I 5 i ^ s tp c ^ q j

3 I# I ^ W ^ T :, ^ f^R?R^SMT^I

^ cf? f a n a ^ H i

HlPcm^lRicI f^q^T ^-qeT iT : yRlMI<Hi<4:,


^T: JTOs ft, ffcT ^ 4 ^ 4 ftw %[. I 'T; 'JTc^T

72. [Another type of Punarukta as stated in NS :]


That utterance is also called Repetition which expresses
the meaning again which is implied (by other utterances) l
[Dharmakirtis response:] This (type of Repetition)
occurs when the use of words in an inferential statement is
rule bound. Utterance of Declaration is an example of this.
This (type of Repetition) need not be mentioned separately
because it is covered by Repeution of meaning.
Moreover this should be called a fault in that debate
where the inferential statements are rule-bound, not in a
diffused discussion. Because, (in a diffused discussion) the
speaker somedmes says the same thing again and again by
raising the doubt that witnesses and others have not heard
(the statement) properly or understood properly. Hence
there is no deception (of the opponent or the audience)
here.
118 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKjRTI

[A possible objection:] No (it is an occasion of defeat),


because this (kind of debate) is not the proper place (for
repeutive statements). Here (i.e. in diffuse debate) the
debater is neither a teacher nor a student; so he need not be
addressed with efforts (i.e. elaborately) on account of which
the same thing would be uttered again and again. Hence
the repetition does amount to defeat.2
[Answer] That is not so, because (in such a diffuse
discussion) the witnesses are to be addressed with
efferts, because if they are not addressed with
efforts then this is regarded as a fault; (secondly)
because here the person to whom the
explanation is addressed is a student (in a broad
sense, i.e., someone worthy of being taught);
(thirdly,) because (in a disffused discussion) the
debate intended merely to gain victory is
prohibitted; (fourthly) because making the
statement thrice has been mentioned (by you);
(fifthly) because (in a diffused discussion) there
is no conventional rule regarding repetition of an
utterance.

V93. ^ f^ici ifir i Tjsp-cnw]] %

% : "fctenri ^If^TFT '<lTrcfT^I

s. (V); - (R) and (D).


t. C\0; . (R) and q ).
. (V); - (R) and (D).
REFUTATION OF THE NEAKA-VIEW 119

ifcT
yjn^Tc^, Q^m<+.iiTUii ^ iR im fir^ c ^ r^ i

^Pcf'TlfcFi f ^ t T f ^ H : ;
M m ^ i

3Ti: TrfcTTOM f w t l

73. Moreover this (= Repetition) does not differ from


Additional, hence it should not be mentioned separately.
Because, the fault of Additionality can occur in an
inferential statement where the use of words is rule-bound.
So in the case of Repetition also the word, meaning of which
is already expressed (by other words) is Addition.
Plurality of probans and Repeated utterance is not a
fault1 in a diffuse discussion. The diffuse discussion is such
that it is not specified in it that the proof of a single object is
undertaken; but it is desired to prove various objects in it or
it is desired by the audience that one employs various
probans (for proving the same object). It is a fault (in the
debate where the use of words is rule-bound. Because, in
such a debate there is no (second) apprehension (i.e. it is
not permitted to generate second apprehension) of what is
apprehended. So plurality of probans etc. and plurality of
expression (in such a debate) is a fault of proof.
The fault in Additional and Repetition is equal.
Therefore it is proper to express them in union. Just as
there is no fault (in making their union), there is no plus-
point (in mentioning them distinctly). We have said that
mentioning varieties of this kind (distinctly) amounts to
transgression (of reason).*
(Additional can be included in Repetition of words.)
Because, the second probans which applies to the object
argued out (by the first probans) is just like a synonym (of
120 VDANYYA OF DHARMAKRTI

the first probans). Because, the object of argument is not


distinct (in both the cases).
The (Repetition of) meaning5 does not differ from
arguingagain (with additional probans or instance).

t t
W . *1'' ^11I'^ i l M9x\ : I
w '^ W M ^ ii^ y fa iiiR i: hmmhh, ififi
"SfdiWQ^ [T^?]
ftw rq j

74. What has been said (by the author of NS, may be
considered now) - In the case of confirmatory repetition (=
anuvda), it is not a Repetition (as such) because (there)
some special purpose is served by repeating words. (NS
5.2.15)
[Vtsyyana explains:] For example conclusion (=
nigamana) is (defined by the author of NS in NS 1.1.39 as)
restadng the Declaration on the basis of probans.
[Dharmakirtis response:] Stating the Declaration the
meaning of which is implied (by the premises) is itself a
Repetition, what to say about the restatement of it! In this
way (stating the) conclusion is inadequate.

V9V [* * .] fadldW 'H>kl f a * fcR^qI I H i J W F j l


[^T. <v 3
c i^ q m qiR fra^H *iyr3W K *i^ ftpnsffi 'qrqsrafcfttf

(R); - (D).
v (R); supported by V, - (D).
REFUTATION OF TH E ATA FA-VIEW 121

3 tW i3Uhi ^c; fgW M r t W 'y r w n


ff f ^ ^ i f W ? sifer % "3tf^T
w p i r , ^ \ c^cn f w i f f t f r i H; T c p fa w q fw n ^ i w t
JlcgsjR?#, " f W ^ r f t m ^ \ 3TftxTC sl#f, 3T*I Hl^ll^Rl?
cir<<>4l^d^^-, Hl^K<4rd,3TR^^tlf|3 m fc l^ lH M R ^
H [ ? ^ ^ ] ^ rfw - y ^^TxiK^doij ^ l^ d ^ P W ri^ filfc ll

Piu^ mPh Ri i

75. (14) (Ananubhsana : Non-reproduction]


Non-reproduction means inability to utter the
statement (of the other debater), the meaning of which is
understood by the assembly and which is uttered thrice (by
the other debater). (A5.2.17)
[Vtsyyana explains:] The non-re-utterance of the
statement, the meaning of which is understood by the
assembly and which is uttered thrice (by the other debater)
is the occasion of defeat called Non-reproduction, because
if a debater does not (= cannot) re-utter (the other
debaters statement), on what basis will be repudiate the
opponents position?
[Udyotakara explains:] If one says- This is not an
occasion of defeat because a debate is concluded by an
answer (and not by the re-utterance)!, then we say: One
may say so - Whether one (= the respondent) is confused or
not is known from the answer; what is the significance of
uttering (the disputants statement) then? Because some
persons are capable of answering but not of re-utterance.
He (= the respondent) need not deserve defeat just for
that. If one says this then we say: No. Because, (inability to
reproduce implies) the absence of comprehension of the

In the light of NVS.2.17.


122 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAK1RTI

subject of answer. If he does not reutter, then the answer


will be implied to be without subject. If he gives an answer,
why does he not utter (the subject of answer)? So you are
saying this contradictory thing - Does not utter (the
statement) but answers it. (One might say) This is not so
(i.e. Non-reproduction is not an occasion of defeat) because
there is no declaration (to that effect). It is not declared (in
the debate) that a debater should first utter everything
(uttered by the other debater) and the answer should be
stated afterwards. (we say:) The answer should be stated
somehow. But answer without basis is improper. Therefore
it is proper to regard not re-uttering as an occasion of
defeat.

cl-irHlv>! dcjf

cT^Tf^T TTTWRT^IWTc^ dMc(^4d


q^i cnufq i ^ w&i;
tf<i)^ P n i 5 ^ W i

76. [Dharmaklrti's response:] Suppose that the


disputant incidentally announces same other topic under

(V); - (R) and (D).


REFUTATION OF TH E AfFKA-VIEW 123

the pretext of explicating the object of one's own argument,


states all the objects of inquiry on which there is dispute, in
the course of Declaration etc. and then elaborates the
discussion by introducing other topics in a special series of
topics and suppose that the opponent cannot reproduce all
that. Then what kind of failure in the opponents capasity is
there, in case he states only the answer to the subject on
which there is dispute? Because, you call the Non
reproduction of disputants statement an occasion of
defeatl Therefore it is not the case that the one who does
not reproduce the whole speach of the disputant is
(necessarily) unable to give answer.
The statements with which the proof of the enquired
object is invariably connected - such as that of existence (of
probans) in the thesis-subject and the justification of
pervasion - which are made without introducing some other
topics in that, are (i.e. have to be) definitely indicated (by
the opponent). Because, a constituent of argument is the
object of refutation. But even there it is not obligatory to
utter everything first in the same order and then to refute it.
Because in that case there will be the undesirable
occurrence of double utterance. If the opponent
reproduces (the relevant statement of the disputant) in
order to indicate the object of refutadon, then
announcem ent of the disputants statements in the same
order is of no use and hence should not be made by the
opponent. Corresponding to each indication of fault, the
object (having the fault) is mentioned, because there is an
invariable relauon of the form this has this fault.
124 VDANY Y A OF DHARMAKRTI

TQ^; 37Rftft
^ w ^ i i*n t |i 3 r m ifi wi 3t*iji

cTSSfe^f W^cR^I "3^r^cK$lf^n Pi^ m Ih Ri I cT?


m: ^ K f ^ HU^-IRd lni<1iftiIW [S'H M fl^lPTO R?]'
^ n f^ 5 * l^ < J W H ^ d ^ W * r :R ^ rfa ^ ^ f^ fe rR F T T H ^ t
'R ^ ic T , ft '^ q a iW l M '^ l^ - ^ f T^
T^vgrfjcZT, 'T&I^'JIh IcII fd>^ ^^cllS<4^q IciM'M RT^T
I ^ ii^ R R ii

77. Moreover, it is not possible to indicate all the objects


and then state the fault (in all of them) at once. Because,
faults differ from object to object. Therefore the object of
refutation which one is repudiating (at a particular time)
should be indicated at that time, not any other. Because at
the time of refuting one object indication of another object
is impossible. After it is refuted, another object which is the
object of another fault can be indicated. This is the proper
way of reproduction and refutation.
If everything (that the disputant says) is reproduced at
once, then the object (of refutation) will have to be
indicated again at the time of stating faults in it, because a
fault cannot be stated without indicating its object. This will
am ount to making reproduction twice. O ut of them (= two

9. (R); '*nr - (V) an d (D).


. In view of the parallel discussion of a rife r in Sec. 61.
v (V) and a parallel statem ent in sec. 33; - (R) and (D).
REFUTATION OF T H E N Y A K4-VIEW 125

reproductions) the first reproduction of everything in the


same order, is without any purpose; (on the contrary) when
the opponent has to state the fault, staung something which
is not pertinent to it, amounts to Not pointing out the
fault (= Adosodhavana). It also amounts to duplication.
Therefore reproducing everything at once should be called
a ground of defeat.
[The opponent might say:] Let it be so
[Answer] You might say We have said that Different
point is an occasion of defeat. While proving his
own argument if the disputant states some point
which is not invariably connected (with the main
point) by bringing in some context or the other
then it amounts to shifting to a Different point,
and hence he deserves defeat for that. Nothing
remains inapplicable if the context is created!
However, such a statement of him (= disputant)
is not to be reproduced. We are also not
admitting that first everything is to be stated (by
the opponent) once and then faults in that are to
be stated. But (we admit on the contrary that) the
object (of refutation) should be indicated by the
opponent (in due time), otherwise the refutation
will not stand!
126 VDANYYA OF DHARMAKRTI

THjfo:, M*rfcT? <t 8 ^1 i p M W 5-q rfqfH^fl

% qfmN^TCt ^fa^TF:, ^ =h51Ndlciy4l)ipl-c|irwi ft'elP^,


^ R ^ xRf1FnW'R : RTcf^, W ^rf'1! WT
clWWMgTb'oii, F ijwi^l H

78. (On this we say:) In that case Non-reproduction


should not be mentioned as a distinct occasion of defeat
because it is covered by Non-imagination. Non-imagination
means non-apprehension of the answer (to be given). The
one who does not indicate the object of answer is not
capable of apprehending the answer. It is not the case that
Non-reproduction does not imply Non-apprehension of
the answer. Therefore since Non-imaginauon pervades (=
covers) Non-reproduction, the occasion-of-defeat-hood that
subsists in Non-imagination, subsists in Non-reproduction
(too). For instance the property of possessing dewlaps etc.
which subsists indiscriminately in all bullocks subsists (by
implication) in Bhuleya (= the bullock named as Bhuleya)
also. Therefore only Non-imagination should be called an
occasion of defeat and not Non-reproducdon.
Moreover, which conventional rule is this viz. Non-
reproducdon of the statement stated thrice (is an occasion
of defeat)? If this pracdce (of uttering the statement
thrice) is for the opponents understanding of the
statement, why should it be stated (exactly) thrice? He (=

(R) and (V); ftrf*rodto - (D).


. (V); ffatcf (R) and (D).
c. (R); ?fti (D).
REFUTATION OF T H E AT FA-VIEW 127

the opponent) should be communicated in such a way that


he understands it. If (on the contrary) this practice is for
troubling the opponent, then too why is the statement
stated thrice? Instead of that he (= the disputant) should
first tell the statement in the ears of the witnesses and then
attack the opponent by making the statement cumbersome,
incomprehensible, speedy and abridged so that opponent is
confused in apprehending the answer and becomes silent.
Because there is no rational rule regarding the way of
troubling the opponent on account of which the
cumbersome and incomprehensible expressions uttered
speedily are prevented and thrice utterance is prescribed. It
should be said here that good persons do not tend to
trouble the opponents nor are sciences created for that.
Therefore the disputant should speak until the opponent
grasps, not necessarily three times.
If the opponent does not have capasity to understand
then the disputant who has limited capasity should avoid
him beforehand, by making (the witnesses) alert (to the fact
that the opponent cannot apprehend the meaning of
statements).

++
vsv [ * v ] [ ^ n . < a . r .v*] finara
* n f c f T K ^ d T O ftlTSWRHJ 3Tf ^ ^

U<Rldq'i<lcqi^d<Rmrd<!ld^rd failgWITOH;
d' df f d r * T uI W ^ ^ 1

3T5TRH:
"d'dtdNd ^ dfd ^ fHildWHHJ 3TTOI "03
[ ? sw fd w n ] PiMqdcdid)
128 VDANY VA OF DHARMAKJRTI

am snftrf fi?'TFpTT't, srrj'Mmi'Jl f o m ^ w ^ d i


1 "SrRpr; ^ t WS*IqwlxKIMdMIW^ 1

^71% sfaqfa'fotW cl cPT: ^8T^r^53ffcIW : f* m ?f


'dffeoilHj H f^rclK cil^cj Flj

79. (15) [Ajnna: Non-understanding]


Non-understanding occurs when (a statement made by
the disputant is) not understood (MS5.2.17).
[Vtsyyana explains:] When a statement understood by
the assembly is not understood by the opponent then it is an
occasion of defeat called Non-understanding. Because if the
meaning (of the argument) is not understood, he cannot
make its repudiation.
[Dharmakrtis response:] This (occasion of defeat) also
is covered by it (i.e. by Non-imagination) and hence like
Non-reproduction it should not be m entioned (separately) .1
Just like Non-reproduction, it is an occasion of defeat via
non-apprehension of answer (i.e. Non-imagination),
because there (i.e. in the case of Non-reproduction) the
apprehension of answer is impossible since the object (of
refutation) is not indicated; that is because reproduction
will be of no use without the context of indicating the
subject of answer; in the same way, in the case of Non
understanding also, it is an occasion of defeat, via non
apprehension of answer (i.e. Non-imagination).
Because, hpw can the one, who does not understand,
speak out the answer and the subject of answer? Therefore
not understanding the subject and not understanding the
answer is the occasion of defeat. If that is not so (i.e. if they
are not covered by Non-imagination) then in that case Non
imagination will be without any subject matter.2
REFUTATION OF TUE M'A FA-VIEW 129

Because, the one who has not understood the meaning


does not reproduce; the one who does not (= cannot)
reproduce will not be able to indicate the subject and
apprehend the answer, and hence he will not apprehend
the answer. Because the one who knows the answer and its
subject cannot fail to apprehend the answer, as both these
(= (1) Not understanding the subject (2) Not
understanding the answer) constitute the cause of the non
apprehension of the answer.
The apprehension (of answer) does take place in the
absence of these (= non-apprehension of subject and non
apprehension of answer). So you should tell me, what is the
subject matter of Non-imagination, if these two (non
apprehensions) are mentioned separately (as the two kinds
of Non-understanding)! Non-imagination (in that case)
should not be mentioned at all, because it has no (distinct)
subject-matter.

t t
o. f ff? fatWNHHIijlct

ff 3H3*ITJi faPckqH; f f f a m yfW TH :

TrrniFTFl fa ^ I I tK I:dH M I ^ f
fa w ^ T R ^ R -sFncftff w n iw r ts fe i i

farr f a m ffa fit


fa^<)d<lilH':il<rM'5l^R^Pltl^^lMI-c1<lcrl^|-tlir'1 [ifW TR B #?
I fa m t W H . [ ? faMlFF^] ^ R l H M
faTTfWPTRRsqcf^n f^ y ^ U fq
130 VADA N Y A y A OF DHARMAKRTI

WW 'Ip ^ B m W : w f f W F i ^T T ^I

3 # r ^ - ^ R ^ r f ^ t Iw ^ n w f'T i^ T F R ^
-4I ^ h PW; ^ tb fa fd l
^TfWPcfb ^ T ^ s f W ^ ^q[ : T O ifffl

80. [Naiyyikas may say:] Non-understanding does not


mean not understanding the answer, but it means not
understanding the subject-matter. Even when the subject-
matter is understood, the answer may not be apprehended
because it is not known. Hence Non-imagination has a
(distinct) subject-matter.
[Answer] Then in that case Non-reproduction will be
without subject-matter, because it is implied by
Non-understanding. The one who apprehends
the subject-matter correctly will not fail to
reproduce it. Hence Non-reproduction should
not be m endoned separately.
(Similarly Non-imaginadon too should not be
m endoned separately.) Because, not
understanding the answer is also implied. Not
understanding the answer is implied by not
understanding the subject-matter. The person
who does not understand the subject-matter,
does not understand the answer also. Therefore
there is no (disdnct) subject-matter of Non-
imaginadon.
[Naiyyikas may say;] The subject-matter of Non-
imaginadon is not knowing the answer even if the subject-
matter is known.
[Answer] Then in that case, other1 (intermediate?)
occasion of defeat will have to be mentioned by
REFUTATION OF T H E NYYA-V1EW 131

classifying Non-understanding of subject-matter


and answer further. As you are accounting for a
different occasion of defeat, by classifying Non
understanding into Not understanding subject-
matter and Not understanding the answer even
though there is no additional point (guntisaya)
(in doing so), in the same way (we ask,) why are
other occasions of defeat not being mentioned
by classifying Non-understanding into Not
understanding the whole answer8 etc.r Nor is
there any fault in mentioning the two-fold Non
understanding unitedly; on the contrary there
will be a plus-point namely economy (lit.
lightness). Therefore mentioning them unitedly
is justified. Hence no separate mention of Non
reproduction and Non-understanding is justified
because their subject-matter is the subject-matter
of Non-imagination.
Moreover, any other occasions of the defeat of
proposer or respondent, apart from Fallacies of
probans and Non-imagination, are not justified,
because everything becomes mentioned by
mentioning the two. The elaborate classification
is fuule, because it is a transgression (of reason)
to undertake to mention the subdivisions implied
by the two (= Fallacies of probans and Non
imagination) (separately) without there being
any additional point.

[^.] u W CF5rfM W ilM[ ^ . ^ A . R . ^ ] W i y -


132 VDANY Y A OF DHARMAKRT1

'iTTtHcMHH'iK'
q q q ^ q ^ iy P c I'-M I HilSWMlHll

81. (16) [Apratibh: Non-imagination]


Non-imagination means non-apprehension of answer,
(NS5.2.18)
[Vtsyyana explains:] When the other debaters
position is to be repudiated by one, but the one does not
apprehend the answer (to be given) to his (= other
debaters) argument, the one is to be called defeated.
[Dharmakxrtis response:] After the argument has been
stated (by the disputant) and when the topic-wise answer is
to be given (by the respondent), if he (= the respondent)
spends time in vain, by announcing (the disputants
statements) in the same order, reciting verses etc., out of
ignorance about the answer, then he (= the respondent)
deserves defeat because he does not know what he has to do.
Therefore this occasion of defeat is justified.

qr*ri ffafasqfi ^ fq&qt qm -^pipit


qTsiFci uRiqfc ifm

w r f q qfa q ^r^cR q
qqrfqqqTqtqtrftR: q r f c q qr%, ft
fa&q: Fifi ^ q q q fa rc w f rsjRntq; awqsfqiqqTfqqHicf

V (V); (R) a n d (D).


REFUTATION OF THE ATAFA-VIEW 133

^Tl y^cWmHWM^yPdMrlS^RtoT*i5FTri^^faracll
3lPdyy$ld414d<|U|W^M<UmddWyPdyPd^^^^fHlJi>WT-
cqq^HIM^) 3Tl^T:l

awtxi'WKl tj3 f a f a H crpnft ^ ^ i f r r h ! 'afift y f ? r w l


d<yfdMT^I ^TS^i^kfdl

82. (17) (Viksepa: Dispensation)


Dispensation means breaking the discussion due to
engagement with some work (A/5 5.2.20)
[Nyaya-explanation:]1 O ne breaks the discussion by
referring to engagement with some duty or the other - This
work which ought to be done by me is getting lost; I will
continue (lit. do) when that work is completed; The stroke
of cold is damaging my throad. One breaks the discussion
by the statement like this. This is the occasion of defeat
called Dispensation; one oneself brings the discussion to
an end when the end of the discussion should be reached by
the defeat of one of the two (debaters).
[Dharmaklrtis response:] This too is an occasion of
defeat if the proposer of the first position commits it only
through a pretentious allusion, not if there exists a genuine
(urgent) work which obstructs the.discussion of that kind.
There will be Dispensation (in the former case) because the
lack of power of the disputants own argument is identified.
In that case this occasion will be included in shifting to a
Different point. Or it will be included in the Fallacy of
probans, because it is (a case of) stating an unsound (lit.
incapable) reason. Moreover, it does not differ from (the
occasions of defeat called) Meaningless and Non-sensical
because it amounts to ones apprehension irrelevant to the
proposed argument. And we have already stated the

(R); and (D).


134 VDANYYA OF DHARMAKRTI

trangression (of reason) involved in accounting for separate


occasions of defeat corresponding to varieties of
apprehensions irrelevant to the inferential statement
(under consideration).
If on the other hand the respondent commits
Dispensation, because he does not apprehend the answer,
while he has to apprehend the answer immediately after the
orgument (is made by the disputant), then that
Dispensation (lit. apprehension of Dispensadon) gets
included under Non-imagination or Different point.

+t
3. TTcfer yftmfd:, ^

STfwgr

^ W T h ^ S ^ q ^ T T tF T W q ; 3 F W ^
civH^fN t^T^TW fd^Tl: #
^ ? if ^ifcNclfdl

T J ^ T f a * P S I r* jtl> T ; 3 T j q w * n t

83. [The O pponent says:] But not everyone necessarily


apprehends through proof and refutation, so that every
improper apprehension, which either the disputant or the
opponent has, is included either in Fallacies of probans or

5. (R); fqqic;i'lRR^(V) and (D). This reading seems equally tenable.


y. (V); (R) and (D).
REFUTATION OF THE NY KA-VIEW 135

Different point or Non-imagination. Because debate is


possible by way of unregulated diffuse discussion also (i.e.
without mutual opposition or without any definite
position).
[Answer] No. Because that is impossible. There can be a
debate between the two debaters holding
contrary hypotheses on the same issue, because
there is absence of opposition between the two
persons holding non-contrary hypotheses or
those holding no hypotheses. There (= in the
debate between the two debaters holding
contrary hypotheses), one of the debaters
necessarily makes the first beginning of speech.
Because any (two) persons with sound mind are
not inclined to make the beginning at once
because such a practice will be unsuccessful,
because then understanding and grasping each
others statements and answering them will be
impossible. The debater (with sound mind)
should surely state the proof after presenung his
own hypothesis. Otherwise others will not
apprehend. The opponent too should state the
fault connected with it (= proof). There will be
the occurrence of Fallacies of probans and Non
imagination (respectively) if the two debaters
(disputant and opponent respectively) have
improper apprehension. Therefore any
presentation of either first position or second
(contrary) position, if it is based on logic, does
not fall beyond (the jurisdiction of) the two faults
(: the Fallacies of probans and Non-
imaginadon).1
Negative debate (vitanda)* is ruled out by the
same argument. Because there is no debate in the
absence of hypotehsis.
136 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKIRTI

*. qqr qiq ft*+><ficwi h q fo , 3qn=q^i


'Alfthftl^WnTft, cl^T qii t ^ T W R I ^ : ?

3 T ^ ^ F ^ < im R fq

p r o ^ ^ sTTwrm^i

W m ^ W F R q i 3WTq^fl^crq'Hftft f t w ^ l i f t f t l

84. [An objection:] But if a debater after stating the


hypothesis in a debate does not say anything or chatters
something different (i.e. irrelevant) because of frustration,
how is this case included in Fallacies of probans?1
[Answer] We have said so (i.e. that it will be included in
Fallacies of probans) with reference to staung
probans which is not justified. But we have also
said that defeat (of the disputant) does occur in
the cases of not stating (the proof). Because they
are the cases of not staung a constituent of
p ro o f (= asddhanangavacana)s after stating the
hypothesis in debate.
This explains in what way Additional,
Repetition and also5 the statement of
Declaration etc. are occasions of defeat (lit. the
occasion-of-defeat-hood of ....). That is because
the power of argum ent is said to consist in not
stating something which is already stated. That is
because it produces an apprehension of what is
not apprehended. It is not because the (Nyaya-)
definition of argum ent is like that. It (= stating
Declaration etc.) is an occasion of defeat because
it is a statement of a non-constituent of proof
(asddhanangavacana).
REFUTATION OF THE /WAFA-VIEW 137

k- [<.3

w - *raisfc: fcgrt> ^r cf '5rf% w rftfc ri ^ w r y


^Nrv^WTi^ <T T R ra^ WTcmf5TPTTcftf?[ Hdl^l
PlUfj^HiHRl I

3T #f ^ ^Ncell^ilO WTfq Wc(, ^ ^ "^ldlcAcirHy:,H


dTMIvIM 4f4^ ftid ^ H P w i t . ^ H ^ r ^ i . a i ^ R ^ l c H f t
4V<4h ^TTc^l

^ szrf^rarrirci t Ri ^ i
$ qmKKI 3#T odd^KI cTfcrsffTI

3T8T cT^q^W^MJI^fd, T^Rpr ^cTcr?nyfit'Tc^ot'* cTciTTSFl PiTTgl^l


WcJl'iMfol^l cTc^TTtHfa^MclwiH<RUJPIH l^xHWiclMfWcl
clN ^ H<if'ilM^M<-4H^8H,Ji)'il'c^lRRll

85. (18) [Matanujna: Permitting (opponents) view]


Permitting (opponents) view means implicating a
fault in the opponents position while accepting the fault in
ones own position. (NS5.2.11)1
[Nyaya-explanation:*] The one who says, This fault is
committed by you too without ruling out (ones own) fault
indicated by his opponent, permits the opponents view,
because he implicates the fault in the opponents posiuon
by accepting it in his own posiuon. For example, when one
(= the opponent) says, You are a thief, because you are a
m an, the disputant would say to him You too. This is an
occasion of defeat called Permitting the (opponents)
view.

s. (V); T O I ^ ftE : - (R) and (D).


s. (V); dytiyfimrf) i - (R) and (D).
138 VADANYA YA OF DHARMAKl'RTI

[Dharmakirtis response:] In this example also, if the


disputant means, You too will be a thief, because you are a
man. But you do not accept yourself to be so. Therefore this
(= because a m an) is not a sound probans, then there is
no fault. Because it am ounts to refutauon of the
disapproved presentation of probans (made by the
opponent), by attributing thief-hood to his (= opponents)
self.
[A possible question by a Naiyayika:] Why is the
variability of (probans-probandum-) relation not pointed
out (= na vyabhicaritah) in his (= opponents) argument in a
straight forward manner instead of accusing him (in a
crooked way)?
[Answer] This (question) is insignificant. Because such
(crooked or indirect) linguistic practices are also
(well-accepted) in people.
[Objection:]But suppose he (= the disputant) is
(actually) accepting his (= o pponents) infliction (and not
poindng out the variability of relation)
[Answer] In that case too the disputant deserves defeat,
because he does not apprehend the answer to be
given to his (= opponents) argument, not
because he (= the disputant) inflicts his own fault
upon the other debater. Because if his (=
opponents) argum ent is faultless, then
accepting it is nothing but not apprehending an
answer (to it). Therefore since the defeat has
fallen upon him beforehand due to this reason
only, inflicting a fault on the other debater is
not to be required (for declaring him defeated).
REFUTATION OF TH E M'A FA-VIEW 139

. [ ^ . ] 'HUyiHWirHU^: ['^1.'^. H-
3. 'T M tou ^ t ^ T : l cTFltfm ftfyra
W R 5 # T :I ^ F qrrsTEi:' I c^ tF Rjcq,
Tt H O T : W ^ mW f ^ W ' l ^ l
arsnfq ^ 'd ^ 4 ^ % , stt-
shnFRRralNW ^N^Rmi
^d4 WRT^rrT^yPclMK'liq/ \ ci4H m -
fVrTPTr^n

86. (19) [Paryanuyojyopeksana: Neglecting the


objectionable]
Neglecting the objectionable means not claiming the
defeat of the one (= the other debater), who has reached
the defeat. (N S5.2.22).
[Vtsyyana explains:] The word paryanujojya (=
objectionable) means the one who should be objected by
confirming his defeat. Upeksana of him (= Neglecting him)
means not raising the objection when the defeat has been
reached. This (occasion of defeat) should be spoken out
(i.e. declared) by the council when it is asked, Who is
defeated.? Because, the one who has reached defeat will
not expose his own wrong.
[Dharmakirtis response:] In this case also if the
respondent does not object to the proposer of proof, who
has reached defeat, then it is nothing but the case of Non
imagination, because there is non-apprehension of answer
on his (= respondents) part. Therefore Neglecting the
objectionable is not a separate occasion of defeat. If,
however, the logic (of debate) is concerned, then there is
neither victory nor defeat of either of the debaters here,

. (V); (D); ^Vivn^vfgfqRTV (R).


140 VADANYA YA OF DHARMAKlRTI

because ( (1) the proposer has not won because) due to the
fallacy of proof there is no (proper) argument and because
( (2) the proposer has not been defeated because) (his) real
faults have not been pointed out (by the respondent).

'in?#? ^ 4

3tt Pwigsrra ^ P p j^ifa,


WmMzft; ^TPTTCT ^cmJTgvlW^T WiTTRT-

WHi$rarqsfai?u ^TCiwfcPTi^n^i

rfFTT^rft ^

87. [A possible objection:] Suppose the respondent


discovers some fault but does not discover some other....
[Answer] In that case he does not deserve defeat because
he apprehends an answer.
[Objection:] He does deserve defeat, because he fails to
discover some real fault.
REFUTATION OF TH E NYYA-VIEW 141

[Answer] It is not the case that all the faults must be spoken
outjust because they are real. Nor is one defeated
just because there is non-statement (of some
fault). Because even a single (real) fault vitiates
the proof like the statement of a single probans.1
That is as follows (= yatha). When there exist
many probans for one (provable) object, all the
probans are not employed since the object is
proved by a single probans. Therefore the one
who points out (only) one fault does not deserve
defeat for not pointing out some other fault; as
(we have argued) before.
Now if the proposer does not claim the defeat of
the respondent who has reached the defeat,
there is neither victory nor defeat of either of the
debaters as in the earlier case. It is not the victory
of the disputant (= proposer) who does not set
aside the respondent from his argument when he
(= the respondent) utters a fallacious refutation,
because it amounts to non-justification of (ones
own) argument on the part of the disputant. That
is because he (= the disputant) does not justify
the constituents of his argument by
demonstrating the impossibility of all faults. Nor
is it the victory of the respondent, because he
does not point out any (genuine) fault.2
Therefore, Neglecting the objectionable is not a
ground of defeat in this way also.

t +
. [*<>.] " a q f to fw ft f T U ^ R r ^ T l fTT^VTPpfn:!1
[^n. A.^. 3 3 ] HTTWiyW
STfYfcT qt f a >1^1dl c|cKlcq: |
142 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKlRTI

cfSTTI ^ < ^ < | c H d ^ u i * 4 l ic K ' W i -


Hfil'qilfl'd^hWTTRrc# 5 lfc l^ f^ 5 ^ f? T ^ ^PJ^cT %c^T?ft

fa Tlffalftcl ^ P F i m s r f a f a P i^ ld ffifl

w r f t ^ % ^ ^ ^ f ^ i 3 T ^ f t lfwiF<ron^qf t ^ r w T
iHilS**lHcfa d<=kT<*ll:, d^W|omOPklHi%fin

88. (20) [Niranuyojanuyoga: Objecting against the non-


objectionable]
Objecting against the non-objectionable means
objecting to a non-occasion of defeat as an occasion of
defeat (Aft5.2.22)
[Vatsyayana explains:] The debater who because of his
wrong understanding of the defmidon of occasion of
defeat, says to the other debater, You are defeated, even if
it is not an occasion of (the latters) defeat, should be called
defeated, due to Objecting against the non-
objectionable.
[Dharmaklrtis response:] Here too if the respondent
charges the proposer of the argument, with the faults which
are not there, then he does not become like that (i.e.
defeated), though he attributes, that is, points out the
occasion of defeat in the case of a non-occasion, that is, in a
faultless argument. But he becomes defeated due to Non
imagination when the fallacious nature of his answer is
brought out by the other debater, because he (=
respondent) does not apprehend the answer, which is
defined as pointing out a real fault. Therefore it (=

(V); rs n W F tM Iw i - (R);
REFUTATION OF TH E NKAK4-VIEW 143

Objecting against the non-objectionable) is not a different


occasion of defeat from that (= Non-imagination).
If on the other hand the other debater (= proposer)
charges the respondent who points out some fault in the
(proposers) argument, with stating a pseudo-fault, then he
(= the proposer) is defeated for stating a fallacious
argument when the genuine character of the fault is
brought out (by the respondent).
In this way also it does not differ from the fallacies of
probans. O ne has to mention inevitably the fallacies of
probans as an occasion of defeat in order to take other cases
into account.1Once they are mentioned, mentioning the
other types (such as Objecting against the non-
objectionable) is redundant.

t t

f^ ta rl cl*T T T fiit f ^ T R T :,

tl* T T ^ T JfR ), :'


^11

H 1 1 ^ :,
F ffcTI #5-q ^

(V); (R) and (D).


144 VDANY YA OF DHARMAKl RTI

89. (21) [Apasiddhanta: Deviant thesis]


Deviant thesis means first taking up a thesis (of ones
own discipline for proof), and then making a point in
debate without (following o n e s) discipline (Aft5.2.24).
[Vtsyyana explains:] Deviant thesis may be known
to be committed by one who after declaring some object as
having such and such nature, makes a point in debate,
going contrary to the declared thesis. For example a
debater, accepting the thesis that There is no destruction
of the existent; nor does the non-existent came into
existence declares the thesis, The original Nature (=
Prakrti) of the Manifest (objects) is one (Lit. single-ended).
Because, the modifications of the Non-manifest are seen to
be inter-connected with a single origin). For example it is
seen that plates etc. made from mud have a single original
nature (namely mud). In the same way the various
manifestations are known to be inter-connected with
pleasure, pain and delusion. Therefore they have the single
(common) nature called pleasure etc. (i.e. Prakrti).
He, having said this, is asked (by the opponent), How
should one define original nature and modification?
(The disputant answers-) When one (lit. another)
property ceases and another property occurs, that which is
constant (through-out this transformation) is the original
nature. And the other thing (lit. property) (which ceases or
occurs) is modification.
Here he (= the disputant) is making a point in debate by
going contrary to the proposed thesis, without (following
his own) discipline. Because, he has declared-
The non-existent does not appear and the existent does
not disappear.
REFUTATION OF THE AY/1 FA-VIEW 145

^0.

*Tffdl 3Ti ^TT^5^fcT, ^ S F I 1 fawFftfcll

^ <TT*1 T R ^ l ^ c R I ^ ' IcRiq^^^iHi^' ^ [ \


cl'^l ftl d^c^iH ldJ
TI^^msif^TcT^rftfcTl

^ i ^ n g r q f M s r ^ ^ w n w ^ TRfoi ckt^ f^pi % q f a -


i^Hiyui^Ri ftrs

90. When it is objected to (by the opponent) as - There


is no cessation of occurrence of the existent except
disappearance and there is no occurrence of the non
existent except appearance, at that time if he (= the
Sahkhya disputant) accepts that the existent loses itself and
the non-existent gains itself, then it is a case of Deviant
thesis. If he does not accept, then his position is not
proved.
[Dharmakirtis response:] Here (i.e. in the above
example) too there is no point being made in debate
without (following ones own) discipline. For justifying what
he (= the Sahkhya disputant) has submitted viz. Non
existent does not come into existent and existent is not
destroyed, he says this viz. The original nature of the
Manifest is one, because the inter-connection is seen. (This
can be explained as follows.) In this argument the single
original nature means (the three strands-) pleasure, pain
and delusion. The Manifest has its origin in these undivided
(three stands). Because it (= the Manifest) is seen to be
inter-connected with it (= the original Nature). The
Manifest is of that nature because it (= the Manifest) is
observed to be non-different (from the Nature). Hence it is
146 VDANY Y A OF DHARMAKRTI

proved: Because it is not accepted that pleasure etc. come


into existence or that they are destroyed, everything which is
of that nature, neither comes into existence nor is
destroyed.

t t

W ^ s T R ^ :,
^ M ^ f% r4 T iy u iq c i^ ^ d ^ slf cR ^T ^'R T ,
c Z R m f^ R te n f^ f , ^ R fd l

fif clFT TPFRWtei;<# TWt ^ft ntfl ^S^RTW^i


T O h f^ rfd l
iq A d ff

T n f ^ f a f W P l i f ^ ' ^ : , c T r q i : ^ I ^ T 5 J " R fq I lfim ^ W lf,

^IFf fW:,

91. In this debate, he (= the Naiyyika) himself who, not


pointing out a fault in the probans stated by him (= the
Snkhya disputant), asks for the definitions of
modificadons and original nature, condnues the debate
without relation with the proposed topic and without
following the discipline.

. (V); 'pTT TTt^T - (R); VET - (D).


*. (V); FitFRhRmT (R) and (D).
s. (R); id'HRl'Jui^ - (D).
REFUTATION OF TH E NY FA-VIEW 147

Here it may be objected: Manifest means that which is


subject to occurrence and cessation. Pleasure etc. are not
like that. If the Manifest is interconnected with pleasure
etc., then it has the same nature as the pleasure etc. Hence
its definition as something subject to occurrence and
cessation becomes vitiated. Now the nature (of the
Manifest) cannot be the same as that of pleasure etc. which
are bereft of that property (viz. that of being subject to
occurrence and cessation) because then the definition of
the Manifest becomes cor.tradicated. Therefore the probans
viz. because the Manifest is seen to be interconnected with
pleasure etc. is unproved.
In this way his (= Sankhya disputants) thesis is refuted by
pointing out a fault in his argument.
[Answer] Here he (= the Naiyayika opponent) instead of
demonstrating the story of the fault in the
argument (directly), deceivers (the disputant)1
and projects his own fault on the other debater
(i.e. the disputant).
[A possible objection:] The same fault (viz.
Unprovedness) is being stated (by the opponent) in this
way.
[Answer] This is the province of the prophetic persons (lit.
astrologers); (because, common) people are not
capable of apprehending the meaning which is
not expressed by words. The same allegorical
principle of the picture drawn by a buffoon
(which we referred to before)2applies here also.
Here the (disputants) defeat takes place in the
way stated (by us) because of the statement of a
non-constitutent of proof viz. the Unproved
probans, which is employed before, and not
because a point is made in the debate without
following discipline. Hence this (occasion of
148 VADANYAYA o f d h a r m a k i r t i

defeat) should not be mentioned separately


because it is included in Fallacies of probans.

+t

PuW H lfH I 1% 5 ^ y iJlRlT%TI^ %c^T'TRTT f^TWHWTTTSR),


W WluilPH ftw -
w rc F T ffti

SfflfT eTf8rRT?f^<IW^,

qiFTFT fW W FTM T, ^ i ^ u f r g f t R i i

92. (22) [Hetvabhasa: Fallacies of probans]


Fallacies of probans as expressed before (are the
occasions of defeat).
[Vatsyayana explains:] Fallacies of probans are the
occasions of defeat. (Here the question may arise-) Do the
fallacies of probans assume the title of occasions of defeat
due to some other defining feature as means of knowledge
assume the title objects of knowledge (on account of some
other feature and not by virture of their being means of
knowledge)?1Hence (Aksapada) says - The utle occasion of
defeat is due to the same defining feature of Fallacies of
probans as expressed before.
[Dhannaklrtis response] Here too it is a matter of
concern because (they say:) As expressed before. Are the
fallacies of probans to be construed as occasions of defeat in
the same way as they are classified (in Nydyasutra), or in
some other way? The issue, if discussed here will take us too
far and hence we do not stretch it.
REFUTATION OF THE NYYA-V1EW 149

This much is acceptable here - The fallacies of probans, in


so far as they are reasonably so, are occasions of defeat.

TKfiRRrftq T ffe TTofhcTrl


W tW N i PdiHi^id cT ^ 5 -4 ,

c i i ^ i ^ -?[pq TJofTCWWIHHJ

[^rriR^HNlWchlRi^KUIHIH,]

93. This logic of debate, which tears the curtain of the


darkness of ignorance covering the philosophical vision of
people, has been constructed by good persons engaged with
the well-being of others. But these (other) misguided
intellectuals (= durvidagdha) are converting this light of
philosophical vision into darkness. I have made this effort,
therefore, to brighten it (= the light) (again).
The treatise called The Logic of Debate is complete.
[This is the work of the honourable Acarya Dharmaklrti].
Notes

[The notes are numbered according to the section


number occurring first and then the note-number within
the respective section of the Translation.]
(1.1) 'Nigraha' literally means arrest, and nigrahasthdna
the place of arresting or the point of arrest. In this context
'nigraha' means defeat and 'nigrahasthdna' means point of
defeat or occasion of defeat.
(1.2). By improper methods the author means the ways
such as chala,jdti and improper points of defeat. (See. V).
(1.3) I have used the words asddhandngavacana and
adosodbhdvana in the translation without translating them
because DharmakTrti himself interprets these words in
various ways. For example asddhandngavacana means (i)
Non-justification of a constituent of proof or (ii) Non
statement of a constituent of proof or (iii) Statement of
what is redundant as a part of proof or (iv) Statement of
what is a non-constituent of proof i.e. a fallacious
constituent of proof or (v) statement of something
irrelevant to what is sought to be proved, (i) and (ii) can be
clubbed together as insufficient proof (iii), (iv) and (v) can
be clubbed together as the three kinds of statements of non
constituents of proof. Adosodbhdvana means (i) Not
pointing out the fault of the disputant or (ii) Pointing out
non-fault as fault.
152 VDANYYA OF DHARMAKRTI

(1.4) Artha literally means object or matter (to be


conveyed) but in the context of inference it rather means a
state of affairs or a proposition to be proved.
(1.5) According to Dharmakirti, statement of the
inferential sign (linga, probans) with its three characteristics
(riipas) constitutes the argument or proof (sdhana). The
argument should be further justified (samarthana) by
pointing out that the probans does possess the three
characteristics. Asddhandngavacana here means either non
statement of a constituent of proof or non-justification of a
constituent of proof.
(3.1) A proof contains two statements according to
Dharmakirti (i) The statement of paksadharmatd (which
states that the probans exists in the thesis-subject) and (ii)
The statement of vypti (= pervasion, which states that
whatever has probans, has probandum). Here Dharmakirti
is saying that whether one states vypti as the first premise
and paksadharmatd as the second or the other way about is
immaterial as to the establishment of the thesis.
(4.1) I have translated pramdna as evidence or means
to knowledge depending upon the context.
(4.2) Sntarksita explains - f w f t l jdWHHW W :
Meaning- In the absence = In the absence of sddhya
(probandum) in spite of the existence of probans.
(4.3) Literally - The entity which has as its defining
feature, the absence of the description that it has some
capasity, is indescribable.
(5.1) The idea is this. Suppose, we want to justify the
thesis, Sound is momentary on the basis of the probans
being real. For that we have to justify the statement of
vydpti\iz. Whatever is real is momentary. For doing this we
have to be sure about the evidence (pramdna) which falsifies
the negation of vypti. The negation of vypti could be
KOTES 153

stated as something is real, yet not momentary. We want to


show the absence of such a non-momentary real object. It
does not suffice to say that non-momentary real object does
not exist because we have not seen any such thing so far.
Because every kind of non-apprehension does not prove
non-existence. So we have to produce some additional
proof which may be given as follows - The real by definition
has capasity to function. So we have to show the absence of a
non-momentary thing having capasity to function. Non
apprehension (anupalabdhi) of a pervading characteristic
{Vyapaka) can be an evidence for the absence of the
pervaded characteristic ( Vyapya). Succession or lack of
succession is the pervading characteristic and capasity to
function is the pervaded characteristic. That is, there is the
pervasion of the form, wherever there is capasity, there is
either succession or lack of succession. So the non
apprehension of either succession or no succession in a
non-momentary thing proves the non-existence of capasity
in it and non-existence of capasity implies unreality.
(5.2) The infinite regress would occur if one vyapti is
proved on the basis of another and that on the basis of the
third and so on and so forth.
(6.1) The opponent seems to argue that the non
apprehension would be useful according to you, because
non-apprehension of the pervader would prove the non
existence of the pervaded. But this non-apprehension
would not be useful if the pervasion itself is not proved.
(6.2) Arvdk-darsana may mean either someone having
down-word vision or having proximate vision.
(7.1) While elaborating the point Dharmakirti is
repeating the point which he had made earlier.
Santaraksita, rightly points this out. But he gives an
alternative interpretation of the passage in order to avoid
the charge of repetition. He interprets this as response to
154 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKIRTI

the opponents objection viz. How is a probans not faulty if


it is supported by a falsifying evidence. I am, however, not
following Santaraksitas interpretation here. As a matter of
fact Dharmakirti is repetitive in his elaboration of
svabhavanumana.
(7.2) Here the word matra cannot be taken to mean
only.. Because then ,'HT?F1*i4Mhi'q<i: would imply
Only that which has probans has probandum . But this is
not pervasion proper but the converse of it. Santaraksita is
aware of this when he says - ^

But matra can be translated as all or whole as I have


done.
(8.1) Santaraksita explains: Samarthesu tadhetusu refers
to other causal conditions (but not the cause) For example
air, fuel etc. are causal conditions of the smoke, but fire is
the cause.
(8.2) The idea may be explained with reference to
smoke-fire example .as follows. For establishing negative
concomitance between smoke and fire, it does,not suffice to
demonstrate that when fire (= the cause) is, not there smoke
(= the effect) is also not there. Because, one may doubt that
smoke may not be there, because, say, fuel was not there. So
one has to show that other conditions (such as fuel, air)
being present, smoke is not there when fire is not there.
(9.1) upalabdhilaksanaprapta literally means that which
has arrived at the condition of apprehension. By implication
it means apprehensible, i.e. which fulfils the condition of
apprehensibility.
(9.2) Santaraksita interprets pratipattuh as prativadinah (=
of the opponent). He suggests that the object, the absence
of which is proved by the disputant on the basis of non
apprehension should be apprehensible by the opponent.
NOTES 155

That is, it does not suffice if it is apprehensible by the


disputant himself but not apprehensible by the opponent. I
have however translated pratipattf as knower.
(9.3) The practice of non-existence means either the
linguistic practice in terms of non-existence or any practice
which is concerned with non-existence of a certain object. It
may also indicate the cognition of non-existence.
(9.4) The three fold remoteness of the object is (i)
remoteness in space (ii) remoteness in time and (iii)
remoteness by self-nature of the object. As Santaraksita
explains-flrfaifa ...|
(12.1) Dharmaklrti has said .... Because, if the object of
this kind exists and the other conditions of apprehension
are present, then there will not be non-apprehension (See
Sec. 10) so the apprehension of the object which is possible
because the object fulfils the conditions of apprehensibility
and because other conditions are also present, gives rise to
the practice of existence.
(13.1) These examples are given by Dharmakirti to show
that many a time cognition or description of an object may
not match with the true nature of the object. Sometimes an
object is described as real, but in fact itis unreal because it is
no more. (For example, King Mahasammata). Sometimes
the object is unreal because it is an event which is yet to
happen (For example, Saiikha elevating sacrificial post).
Sometimes the object is a non-entity (e.g. the horn of a
hare). Sometimes the object is one but it is described in too
many words because it has multiple functions. (For instance
colour which is perceptual and is restrictive because it
prohibits the existence of other objects in its own location).
Sometimes the object is in fact complex but it is described
by a single term. (For example pot which is a cluster
(sanghata) of many objects is called by a singular term
because its function (to carry water etc.) is singular.)
156 VADA N Y A Y A OF DHARMAKlRTI

(14.1) I have suggested in place of 37%^


in the light of V. seems to refer to the
relation of samavaya which relates itself with many relata.
Especially in the case of avayava-avayavi - reladon samavaya
relates one composite object (avayavin) with all its parts
(avayavas).
(14.2) An endless series (infinite regress) would occur, if
samavaya is accepted for explaining one-many relation.
Because, then samavaya (which is one) will have to be
related with many relata, by another samavaya and so on ad
infinitum.
(14.S) Vaisesikas think that although pot is an outcome
of a collection of many elements it is a different object from
the collecdon of those elements. (It is avayavin and not
mere samghata). The pot is related with its elements by the
reladon called samavaya. If pot were not a different object,
we would not have used a different word for it. Here
Dharmaklrti argues that use of a different word does not
imply the existence of a different entity. The same endty can
assume different descriptions or nomenclatures in
accordance with different functions. Similarly many things
having a common collecdve function may assume a singular
name.
(16.1) Vaisesikas hold that substance (dravya) is the
substratum of many qualities out of which rupa (colour)
could be one. If one and the same substance can be related
as the substratum with many qualiues, why cannot one and
the same word, say, pot be related as the name with many
objects which are the constituents of the pot?
(16.2) There is a pun on the word It means (1)
false and also (2) the ghost of falsehood. The word arfaMvi
(= involvement, adherence, being possessed) applies to
both.
NOTES 157

(16.3) Here the opponent intends to say that riipa as


riipa may be common to many objects, although the
function of riipa in one object is different from that in
another object. Here we still use the same word riipa for
different occurrences of riipa, although every occurrence
corresponds to a different pragmatic function.
(16.4) That is to say, if a particular colour is common to
many objects of the same type, it will not have different (i.e.
exclusive) function differing from object to object, but it
will be one and the same in the case of all objects and
consequently the colour occurring in various objects can be
mentioned by a single word.
(16.5) The point is: We do have perceptual knowledge of
distinct colour-apprearances in spite of the inclination of
our opponents to claim that the colour is common to all
collections having that colour.
(17.1) Literally: Cover, Shell.
(17.2) Dharmakirti intends to say: If according to you
(i.e. the Vaisesika) the pot exists as a distinct entity apart
from its consdtuents such as colour, then the pot should be
percepdble independently of any colour. But we never
perceive a pot bereft of all colours. So the Vaisesika view that
pot is disunct from its colour, must be false.
(17.3) Dharmakirti is giving these examples for
supporting his own argument that if pot exists distinctly
apart from its consdtuents, then it should appear as disdnct,
bereft of its colour etc. Odour and taste of the same eatable
are distinct although they are located in the same eatable,
and they also appear disdnctly. Similarly the touch of wind
and the touch of suns heat also appear distinctly and they
are distinct, although they are objects of the same sense-
organ. Similarly pot and its colour should appear
independently of each other if they are disdnct endries.
158 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKJRTI

(17.4) A person who tries to purchase


things without paying their price. Here pot as conceived by
Vaisesikas is compared with such a person. Pot as conceived
by Vaisesikas tries to obtain distinct perceptible existence
without paying its price, that is, without exhibiting its own
distinct nature.
(18.1) This completes one unit of discussion which
begins from section 13. The claim that was made in section
13, was that all cognitions, verbal usages or distinctions and
identities among the same do not prove the existence of the
corresponding objects or distinctions or identities among
the objects (respectively). Dharmaklrti established the claim
with special reference to the existence of pot as an entity
distinct from its colour etc. He established that although a
different word pot is used for the collection of colour etc.,
it does not establish the distinctness of the entity called pot.
He is here concluding the discussion by generalising the
claim with reference to all cognitions, verbal usages etc.
(18.2) Here the Vaisesikas seem to be arguing that in
fact the composite object such as pot is perceptual (so there
is no need to infer its existence), but we are providing
arguments for its proof because sometimes it is not clearly
perceived when its perception is dominated by some other
object (say, colour). Dharmaklrti is saying that it is not
proper to argue in this way. Because at least sometimes the
perception of a composite object should not be dominated
and when it is not dominated, the colour etc. should be
identified as disdnct from the composite object. But in fact
it is never identified'distinctly. So your attempt to provide
inferences for proving.composite object (= Avayavt) is not
satisfactory.
(18.3) In section 12 DharmakTru referred to three
reasons on the basis of which existence may be established -
cognition, verbal usage and pragmatic function. Here he
arrives at a conclusion with regard to cognition and verbal
NOTES 159

usage. He claims that they cannot always (unconditionally)


establish the existence. In the next section he is considering
the question with reference to pragmatic function.
(19.1) Here Dharmaklrti is claiming that although the
collection of threads which is called cloth is different from
the collection of threads which is simply called a collection
of threads and not a cloth, because their causal conditions
(pratyayas) are different, although both of them belong to
the same series of modifications (santati of samskaras). The
collection of threads which is called cloth is nothing over
and above collection of threads. It has a different function,
because it is a product of different causal conditions. The
difference in function does not establish the distinct
existence of a composite whole (avayavt) over and above its
parts.
(19.2) That is to say, according to Dharmaklrti, just as
the sameness or distinctness of pragmatic functions cannot
establish same or distinct existences of an object, similarly
sameness or distinctness of cognition or appellation too
does not establish sameness or distinctness of the
existences. In fact Dharmaklrti has given an independent
argument for the latter part of his position in sections 13 to
17.
(20.1) The earlier statement about non-apprehension
was made in the section 9.
(20.2) Here Dharmaklrti is suggesting that just as non
existence of pot can be proved on the basis of its qualified
non-apprehension (i.e. non-apprehension qualified by
fulfillment of the condition of apprehensibility), similarly
many other Vaisesika pad.drth.as such as composite objects
(avayavT), universals (samanya), Inherence (samavaya) etc.
could be proved to be non-existent on the basis of qualified
non-apprehension.
160 VDANY Y A OF DHARMAKRT1

(20.3) This concludes one major argument regarding


the nature of non-apprehension as the reason for proving
non-existence. This argument started from section 9. In this
Dharmaklrd was mainly combadng Vaisesikas. In the next
section he is stardng his argument with Snkhyas.
(21.1) This opponent is a Shkhya philosopher
according to Sntaraksita. This whole section (21) is
devoted to the discussion of the objection of Snkhyas
according to which everything is existent either in manifest
or non-manifest form, so that the question of non-
apprchension as the reason for proving non-existence does
not arise.
(21.2) The idea is this: According to the Shkhya
opponent the linguisdc pracdce of non-existnece is
untenable. But this position may cause disorder in his
systmatisation. The Shkhya opponent wants to remove the
disorder by taking recourse to disappearance and
appearance of the states of a thing. For instance he would
say: The curd was not npn-existent in the milk; only it was
non-manifest. Now Dharkamird argues; Even the idea of
Not being manifest is untenable if the practice of Non-
existence is not accepted. Because, the disdncdon between
manifest and non-mnifest state is nothing but the
distinction between existence and non-existence of
manifestation.
(21.3) By positive evidence (vidhi) Sntaraksita
understands the varieties of contrary apprehensions such as
Svabhvaviruddhopalambha' (For example: - This thing
cannot be wet with water because it is full of fire) and by
negative evidence (pratisedha) he understands the variedes
of non-apprehensions such as Vypaknupalabdhi (For
example - Here there is no smoke because no fire is seen.)
(22.1) 'Vyabhicra' denotes a case where probans exists
without probandum. Here Non-availability of inference is
NOTES 161

the probans and the absence of the object is the


probandum. Here Dharmaklrd points out that sometimes
an object may be present- but no inference for proving it
may be present. Hence there is Vyabhicara.
(22.2) - (Lit-) the cessation of perceptions
by all beings. Here Dharmakirti is pointing out that that an
object is not perceived by any being (saruapratyaksanivrthih)
cannot be proved (asiddha). This is a response to the
opponents argument which may be expressed as follows,
The object is absent because no one perceives it. Dharmaklrd
claims that this probans cannot be proved.
(22.3) Here Dharmakirti is stating the general rule
regarding the knowledge of non-existence (rather,
regarding the correct practice of non-existence). Suppose
that there is a pramana P which necessarily proves E (=
existence an object of specific nature). The specific nature
of the object is such that if the object exists then it must be
known through P. If the object has this specific nature then
the non-availability of P can lead to the knowledge of Non -
E (Non-existence of the object). That is, if E implies
availability of P then Non-availability of P implies Non-E.
(22.4) A Sahkhya philosopher, for instance, may claim
that the curd which is latent in milk fulfils the condition of
apprehensibility. Yet it is not perceived in the milk, but it is
inferred to be there. So non-apprehension should include
non-availability of inference also. Dharmikirti is denying
this position because for him if curd is apprehensible, but
not apprehended perceptually in the milk, then it is non
existent there.
(23.1) Santaraksita interprets it as cessation of one
excess and generation of another excess and explains this
Sahkhya argument as follows: When we say that milk has
become curd now, we are saying that curd was in non
manifest state, now the non-manifest state has ceased to
162 VDANY YA OF DHARMAKRTI

exist and the manifest state has come into existence. He


seems to accept the reading n place of
*; But he himself refers to the other reading
also 4tR: W 'iHdVN: If we synthesize both the readings,
we could possibly reconstruct it as follows -ih cri^:!
ii,<+)lid^hPi<^rqi The translation follows this reconstructed
reading.
(23.2) I have translated anvaya as continuous capasity
or continuity, This continuity is the continuous capasity to
get destroyed and to be generated.
(23.3) We call something as milk (and not as curd) and
something as curd (and not as milk). If there is continuity
(anvaya) without any change, then there will be no
significant distinction between the two practices.
(24.1) Two modalities correspond with two view points
from which a change can be described. State is one
modality and capasity is another. States get generated and
destroyed. They are many in number and are perceptible.
But the capasity is continuous, without generation or
destruction. It is one and imperceptible. So a thing is
subject to generation etc.; it is many and perceptible from
state point of view. But it is continuous, one and
imperceptible from capasity point of view. This appears to
be the Skhya view. The languages of parydyas
(modalities), however, suits more to the Jaina approach
than to Skhya approach. (I have not followed
Sntaraksitas interpretation, according to which, the
oneness of state and capasity is one modality but their
distinction is the absolute truth (WTIfcT?<J ^T3^).
(24.2) According to Skhya system pleasure, pain and
delusion (= sukha, duhkha and moha) are the different
strands that constitute Prakrti. They are irreducible to each
other. The difference between them can be established on
NOTES 163

the basis of their distinct cognitions or appearances.


Similarly Purusas (conscious beings) are many and distinct
from each other. Their difference can be established on the
basis of our experience to the effect that cognitions and
awareness that one person has are different from those
another person has.
(24.3) ntaraksita comments that according to
Dharmakirti akti (capasity, power) of a thing cannot arise
from a thing because it is always present in the thing.
Otherwise akti will be indistinguishable from a stte. A
state of a thing can be said to arise from a thing. akti,
however is not identical with the thing which is the locus of
akti.
(25.1) According to Buddhists properties and
substances are not distinct reals. Still one and the same
thing can be said to have different properties relative to
different points of view. (The different points of view
correlate with the different kinds of things from which the
given thing needs to be excluded or differentiated. For
example when a pot is characterised as impermanent, the
pot and its characteristic namely impermanence are not two
distinct reals. The pot may also be characterised as black.
Again the pot and black are not two distinct reals. Still
im permanence and blackness do not mean the same
thing. Because the pot is described as impermanent subject
to the inquiry about the pot whether it is permanent or not,
And it is described as black subject to the inquiry about its
colour.
But this alternative view-point is not available to a
Skhya philosopher.
(25.2) Skhyas say that the conscious substance
(Purusa) does not undergo any transformation whereas
Prakrti does. But if cessation and arisal of one thing can
amount to transformation of another thing then the former
in Prakrtican amount to the latter in Purusa.
164 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKlRTI

(25.3) A Buddhist may approve of the linguistic usage


Mud has been transformed into a p ot. But he would
interpret it in such a way that the distinction between mud
and pot is explained in terms of a cause-effect series (hetu-
phala-santdna). This way is not open to the Sankhya thinker.
The,, transformation according to him implies oneness
between cause and effect.
(25.4) "3*1*1*17 h R ui h : This reading is not satisfactory.

Perhaps ' 0^Hi5*f*T*lTp7 "3 h R ui i h : ' is the correct reading here


because Santaraksita says - 4cnFTl$Wtlf3 "3 mRu|IH:
(That is, Dharmaklrti sums up by saying - Therefore there is
no transformation in both the cases).
(26.1) Here Viveka (= differentiation) probably means
qualification which differentiates one thing from its
transformation. Nirviveka = unqualified.
(26.2) Sankhya thinkers hold that a subtle (or non
manifest) object is not directly apprehended though it
exists. (Sauksmyat tadanupalabdhih- Sankhyakdrika, verse 8.) A
fist is non-manifestly existent in the fingers; hence it is not
apprehended.
(26.3) The reading 4 37^*77 is not clear
enough. My translation follows Santaraksitas inter
pretation. "EpPTlii:!
(27.1) According to Sankhya every effect is made up of
three gunas (strands) - Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. So every
effect (product, manifestation) is pre-existent in the form of
three gunas according to them. And the cause already
consists of three gunas. So the Sankhya thinker, who accepts
pre-existence of all effects in their causes in the from of
three gunas will have to accept that anything can be
produced from anything.
NOTES 165

(27.2) Santaraksita here refers to an argument - *tfTcTT^


s#5FT, 'Sild^nfM (The source is unknown) If
generation of an existing thing is accepted, then a born
thing can be born (again, i.e. without getting destroyed).
The reading suggests that Dharmaklrti
might be following Madhyamikas here. But Santaraksita
refers to as the reading, which removes this
feeling.
(29.1) We can say that by introducing the notion of
Svabhavanupalabdhi Dharmaklrti is reducing difference to
mutual non-existence (Anyonyabhava in Nyaya
terminology), a kind of absence. He would say that pleasure
is different from pain means pleasure is non-existent in
the form of pain. And we can talk of this kind of absence
because we can say, If pleasure would have existed as pain,
then it would have been apprehended in the form of pain.
But it is not so apprehended. So pleasure does not exist as
pain. That is, it is different from pain.
(29.2) This part of
the statement seems to be corrupt. Perhaps this was a part of
some commentary, but projected into the text by some
copy-writer. Any way, this statement-part has not been
commented upon by Santaraksita.
(31.1) 4ef>*i ^ does not make a good sense. I
have accepted 4^ i stfct^n The same reading
seems to have been accepted by Santaraksita when he says -
4^n*Hi=Mq: yid*ll mihIRi etc. in his commentary.
(31.2) Here the available reading of Dharmaklrtis
argument does not seem to be clear and satisfactory.
(33.1) Here the reading seems to be corrupt and
incomplete. The translation is tentative.
166 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKlRTI

(33.2) Literally - ..... of the savants approved by good


persons.
(34.1) That is, he can give another performance which
cannot be repeated by the disputant and hence the
disputant gets defeated.
(34.2) That is to say, bringing irrelevant topics in the
course of debate is as irrelevant and improper as offering
gifts and beating with a rod for proving o n es point.
(35.1) According to the doctrine of Pratltyasamutpada all
products (samskdras) are dependent on many conditions
(pratyayas). Pratyayas are of four kinds: Hetu, Alambana,
Anantara and Adhipati. O ut of them Hetu is the cause
(Nirvartaka: the sufficient condition) (See Madhyamakasastra
1.4. with Prasannapada) Every composite object or a product
is dependent on the cause and other conditions. This
dependent or conditioned character of everything is
necessarily linked up with its unpleasant character and also
with its impermanence.
(35.2) *Ufadlfc'jlf'JiJiiiiyci'W can be read as
i.e. ufaeflfal: srfW^cTFT as I have
done. If we accept 1 as the reading, then the
statement would imply that stating what is enquired by the
opponent too is an occasion of defeat. But this would be
inconsistent with another statement by Dharmakirti -
1 (= If there is an enquiry then there is no
fault.) (See section 33). The point is, even if a characteristic
is relevant, it should not be expressed separately if it
necessarily follows from the argument, except when there is
an enquiry about that characteristic from the side of the
opponent.
(35.3) If the disputants argument is faulty, but the
opponent does not point out the fault then neither does the
disputant win (because his argument is faulty) nor does the
NOTES 167

opponent win (because he fails to discover the fault). This is


prima facie inconsistent with adosodbhavana (rather its first
kind which will be explained in section 36) as an occasion of
the opponents defeat. For a discussion of this problem see
the Introduction.
(36.1) Santaraksita interprets.^ f ^ R l 'a s HnqtiRHc) f w )
(That is, the object that is enquired). That is to say, the non
discovery of fault in the statem ent/argum ent regarding un
enquired object is not an occasion of defeat.
(36.2) I prefer tat to tatah which was accepted by Rahul
Sankritryayana and makes better sense. Here tat refers to the
occurrence of adosodbhavana.
(37.1) The words TFT and faWT are found in R. In
Monier Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary the
word TiH is given along with the comment that it is probably
a wrong reading for ^TRFT. The meaning of is given as
defiling, vitiaung, disgracing, spoiling. The word fanm-i is
not given in the Dictionary but it probably means the same
as'TOl or^lRR.
(37.2) Santaraksita adds - W d lfc fa : %*Ict 3P*IT?K:I
He implies that the debate between the two debaters
desirous of victory involves the use of quibbling etc.,
according to Naiyayikas. Such a debate is not legitimate (=
yogavihita, nyayya) according to Dharmakirti. Santaraksitas
interpretation also implies that Dharmaklru was not critical
about any debate between debaters desirous of victory but
only if it involved quibbling and other practices of cheating.
In fact Dharmakirti seems to be revising the Nyaya concepts
of victory and defeat to make them more conducive to
academic spirit instead of getting rid of them completely.
(37.3) The point is this - The disputant should follow
the norms of logic while arguing his position. The intention
168 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKJRTI

behind it should be to enlighten the opponent or to


pervade him rationally and not to mislead or confuse him. If
the opponent follows the argument advanced by the
disputant, well and good. But if he does not follow it, the
disputant should not try to confuse him or the audience by
way of quibbling and other cheating practices. The purpose
behind participation in debate should not be to cause non
apprehension or misapprehension (i.e. apratipatti or
vipratipatti) but to remore them and avoid their arisal.
(38.1) Jatis are pseudo-refutauons which are generally
counter-arguments based on analogy. Sadharmyasama is a
counter-argument based on positive analogy,
Vaidharmyasama is the one based on negative analogy. A list
of twenty four such jatis is given in NS for my discussion of
which see my Inference and Fallacies discussed in Ancient India
Logic (published by Indian Books Centre), Chapter VII, Part
II.
(38.2) ... dTcWNsai'iHi^ - The available
reading is not satisfactory. The translation is tentative.
(39.1) Dharmaklrd, from this secuon onwards, critically
discusses the 22 Nyaya-nigrahasthanas as they are defined
and explained by Gautama, Vatsyayana and Udyotakara.
While responding to each Nyaya-nigrahasthana he first
quotes the Nyaya-aphorism, then some selected portions
from the commentaries by Vatsyayana and Udyotakara
(Nyayabhasya and Nyayavartika respecuvely) and then gives
his response. But while quoting Nyaya position he does not
always make it clear as to which commentary he is quoting.
It may also be noted that Dharmaklrd does not always quote
the commentaries very accurately but he seems to cite an
abridged and even rephrased version of them. Sometimes
he makes a free combinadon of Nyayabhasya and
Nyayavartika and states it as the Puruapaksa.
NOTES 169

(41.1) Here I have accepted the available reading1nrqi


yidHtlciift But I suspect that the original reading should
have been which is more consistent
with the answer given by Dharmaklrti.
(42.1) This Nyaya explanadon is a free combination of
Nyayabhasya 5.2.3. and Nyaya-vartika 5.2.3.
(43.1) Here Dharmaklrti is referring to the Nyaya
definition of hetu viz. TITSTOISR (NS
1.1.34).
(47.1) Here Dharmaklrti is referring to Udyotakaras
statement. But the statement in Nyayavartika is different
from the one referred to by Dharmaklrti. The original
statement runs - M * t: V:
qrrsiTfebf 'Fm i [<hi cr^ Here
Udyotakara is referring to three different cases and
including them in Pratijnavirodha.
(i) - (Contrary Reply) Example -
Suppose a Vaisesika is the disputant. He might argue -
Sound is impermanent because it is perceptible through
sense-organs. And suppose a Buddhist is the opponent. He
points out - Your probans is inconclusive. Because,
Universal which is accepted by you, is perceptible but not
impermanent according to you. Here the opponent
(Buddhist) is accusing the disputant (Vaisesika) of
Inconclusiveness (Anaikantikadesana) and pointing out a
counter-instance which the disputant will have to accept but
the opponent himself does not accept. (Because Buddhists
do not believe in the existence of universals i.e.jatis)
(ii) ^ This case is similar to the
case (i). Here Vaisesika disputant makes the same argument
irrespective of his own position. In this example there is no
mention of the opponent.
170 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKIRTI

(iii) In the above two


cases the counterinstance was acceptable to one party but
not to the other. But if the counter-instance is accepted by
both the parties, then the probans will be inconclusive.
Dharmaklrti understands the first case in a different way.
In his presentation probably Buddhist is the disputant and
Vaisesika is the opponent. The Buddhist argues that sound
is impermanent because knowable through senses and
Vaisesika produces Universals as the counterinstance.
In this discussion Udyotakara has used the term viruddha
in a broad sense and not in the strict sense of the viruddha -
hetvabhasa.
(48.1) In this argument the word w 1 should be
supplied. So the argument will be -
'W f I 5li-diw I <rir*T: cl^^uMRlR.'eWH)
^ S ^ T ^ I ( UuM RlRck1H) t
(48.2) In Nyayabindu, Dharmaklrti discusses the fallacy
called istavighatakrt in the case of which the probans proves
the opposite of the intended probandum. This fallacy was
acknowledged by Dinnaga as a special type of Viruddha. But
Dharmaklrti includes it in Viruddha in general.
(48.3) - Remote in some respect (or -
remote for some reason). For example Dharmaklrti himself
talks of remoteness of three kinds in Sec. 9.
(49.1) This is an answer to a possible objection that a
Naiyayika could raise. The Nyaiyayikas possible objection is
- Buddhists also use many probans for proving one and the
same probandum. Similarly there is nothing wrong in
pointing out many faults in one and the same argument.
(49.2) Dharmaklrti distinguishes between svalaksana (a
self-characterised particular) and samanyalaksana
(universal). The meaning (connotation) of a word is
NOTES 171

universal in nature. A universal is not ontologically real.


Svalaksana is ontologically real, but it is not the meaning of a
word. The statement Self does not exist does not mean to
deny the meaning of the word self, but it means to deny
the existence of any ontologically real entity called self.
(51.1) This example is given for showing that an
instance need not be given always in the form like so and
so1, but it could be given even in the ablative form (pancamt)
meaning because so and so.
(51.2) Sntaraksita comments :
PFTWTfac*!*f: I
(51.3) Sataraksita refers to a verse of Yogacara
Buddhists -

Efrron : II
Meaning: Since atoms of earth get conjoined with the
mud (= A tryanuka of earth composed of six atoms?) at once,
therefore -since the atom has no dimensions, it will be
united with all the atoms in the same point of space and
hence the cluster of atoms will be of the size of an atom
only.
(52.1) This case of contrariety is called contrariety of
probans (to the Declaration) based on falsification of
Declaration by Dharmaklru in section 50. The earlier type
of contrarity was contrariety of Declaration and probans to
the means of knowledge as referred to by Dharmakirti in
section 47.
(53.1) The idea is this: The contrariety between probans
and Declaration may take form of two fallacies - Contrary
probans and Unproved probans. It probans exists in the
locus, then probandum does not exist there due to
contrarity. If on the other hand probans does not exist in
172 VADANYA YA OF DHARMAKIRTI

the locus, then it is a clear case of Unproved probans. In the


example Everything is discrete because terms denoting
reals stand for collections the Unproved probans is
apparent immediately, which is the cause of the occasion of
defeat. Contrariety may be discovered later when it has no
significance.
(54.1) See Section 46.
(54.2) Presumably it is the same argument as Everything
is discrete because the term real is applicable to an
aggregate only. See section 46.
(55.1) ^ us l c ) I n Sanskrit literature we find the
use of many popular maxims (laukika-nyaya) Nyaya in this
sense is a maxim or principle expressed in the form of an
allegory. I have called it allegorical principle in the
translation. Bhandalekhya-nyaya is not mentioned in any
standard Glossary of nyayas. But it could be explained in the
light of Santaraksitas interpretation as follows. A buffoon
(Bhanda) draws amusing suggestive sketches (alekhya) and
thereby indicates different realistic pictures by playing a
gimic. He may use the same sketch for indicating different
pictures at different times. Udyotakara is playing a similar
gimic according to Dharmaklrt. Though the definition of
Contrary Declaration (Pratijnavirodha) primarily applies to
contrariety between Declaration and probans, Udyotakara
extends the scope of this nigrahasthana to other kinds of
contrariety, for example, the contrariety between
Declaration and Instance. In doing this he plays the same
gimic as is suggested by the term Bhandalekhyanyaya'
according to Dharmaklru.
(55.2) Here Dharmaklrti means probandum by
Paksikrtadharma' and probans by paksadharma.
(55.3) The idea is this. A contrary instance is that where
there is absence of probandum. If probans exists in the
contrary instances exclusively, that is, only in contrary
NOTES 173

instances and not in any other instances, that is, in non-


probandum-possessing instances only and not in
probandum-possessing instances then we could say, Here
probans is pervaded by the absence of probandum . That
makes it a case of contrary probans.
(55.4) The example is, (following Santaraksita) - Sound
is impermanent, because it differs from experience to
experience, like space, unlike pot. Here space is given as a
positive instance but actually it is a contrary instance
(viruddha-drstanta) in the sense that it does not possess
probandum (impermanence). Here the probans does not
exist in this contrary positive instance, but it exists in the
opposite (i.e. non-contrary) instance. The non-contrary
instance is that which possesses probandum. Here pot is the
non-contrary instance and probans (i.e. the quality of
differing from experience to experience) exists in it. In fact
here the major part of the argument is not fallacious but
instances are fallacious because what should have been
given as positive instance is given as negative instance and
vice versa.
(55.5) The Contrariety of Declaradon to the instance
here means non-existence of the Declared property, that is
the probandum, in the instance. Such a non-existence
would be fallacious if it is in the positive instance, not if it is
in the negative instance.
(56.1) According to Naiyayikas (i) Pratijna (ii) Hetu (iii)
Drstanta (iv) Upanaya and (v) Nigamana is the correct order
of the elements in an argument, that is, an inference for
others. So if probans and instance both are faulty, the fault
in the probans will count first, and since the debater is
defeated by the first fault, the fault in the instance, which
counts later, will be superfluous.
(57.1) Here the argument under consideration is - The
sound is permanent because knowable through senses (See
174 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKlRTl

the note 47.1) A Buddhist proposes this argument and a


Vaisesika or Mimariisaka opposes it by pointing out that
Universals like cowness are knowable through senses, but
permanent. So the knowability through senses has a variable
relation with impermanence.
(57.2) The idea is this. If the disputants argument is
well established, then cowness cannot succeeded as
counterinstance, whether cowness exists or not and if the
argument is Inconclusive, then it is Inconclusive whether
cowness exists or not. So this kind of Pratijnavirodha, if it is
an occasion of defeat, is covered by the fallacy of probans
viz. Inconclusiveness.
(59.1) I have suggested (.e. siftijiflcl ^ ) in
place of <1 ^ which does not make any consistent
sense. However the meaning of the statement is not still very
clear.
(60.1) Santaraksita explains the qualified probans as
(The reading
seems to be corrupt. It should be hRhiui^I'H^) The
translation follows this explanation.
(62.1) Kapolavddita seems to mean Kapola-tadita or
Kapolatadana. Monier-Williams gives the meaning of the
latter expression: Striking the cheeks (as a token of
confession of fault).
(62.2) Kaksya means upper garment. I have accepted this
as the correct reading in place of Kanksya. The word Kanksya
as used in the available text is not found in Monier Williams
Dictionary.
(63.1) * This reading seems to
be corrupt, as Santaraksita quotes it differently as,
NOTES 175

(64.1) The sentence ru n s^?T <;ifsMiiH, qd'jHI:, g)uSH'JiiP>i'i,


TclcTf i ^ , 3Tr ^-bchAdc^ $Rraf: ^ ftcnssrfa# (Free
translation - Ten pomegranates, six cakes, bowl, skin of a
goat, a lump of ground sesamum, now this is Yajus of the
Ruruka-school, protection of a girl child, her father is not
frozen).
(64.2) The word Kila (= they say) perhaps refers to
Udyotakaras explanation - ^
(Nyayavartika 5.2.10).
(65.1) TFT: cTt^l
Udyotakara seems to mean by this statement that the order
of words is adjusted in accordance with meaning. The
meaning is the karma (= object) of action (viz., knowing).
It is taken into account first. Then the words are
apprehended in their proper order. Apprehension of words
is the Karana (instrument) of the knowledge of the
sentence-meaning. [As Visvanatha puts it in his Karikdvali -
... 1181II]

(66.1) That an incorrect word conveys the meaning via


the correct word, is originally the view referred to by
Grammarians. (Bhartrhari, for instance, refers to this view
in Vakyapadiya, Brahmakanda, verses 147-155). The
grammarian who holds this view is speaking non-sense
according to Dharmakirti. And Naiyayika is another mad
person (according to Dharmakirti) who is narrating and
using the faulty perspective of the grammarian. It is to be
noted, however, that grammarians position on the issue of
corrupt words (apabhramsas) is rather complex. In
Vakyapadiya 1.152 Bhartrhari says that in certain cases the
corrupt word conveys its meaning via the correct word. But
in 1.53 he says that when corrupt words become customary
among the speakers of lower starta (women, sudras etc.),
the corrupt words are directly meaningful, whereas the
correct words fail to convey their meaning. Of course
176 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKIRTI

grammarians give some sanctity to correct (sadhu) words.


They attach some religious merit to them. Dharmaklrti
rightly criticises this view.
(66.2) Since a very long time women and sudras were
not allowed to use the cultured language (Sanskrit) of the
Brahmins. Majority of them were quite ignorant about most
of the so-called correct words. The words well-formed
according to Paninian Grammar were supposed to be the
correct words or the standard words (sadhu-sabda) . Other
words were non-standard words (asddhu-sabda). Non
standard words did not strictly belong to Sanskrit language.
They could belong to the so-called Prakrit (= natural,
vulgar?) language or Apabhrarhsa (corrupt) language.
(67.1) The reading is likely to be corrupt. The
meaning is not clear.
(67.2) The idea is this. Grammarians and Naiyayikas
following them attribute some special sanctity to Sanskrit
words in virtue of their well-defined (i.e. grammadcally well-
formed) character (= sadhutva) . This is the same as
correctness or culturedness (Sanskritness) of these words,
which is supposed to owe its status to the rules of Sanskrit
grammar. This view is not acceptable to Dharmaklru.
According to him we judge correctness or incorrectness
of them, not due to any well-defined or essential character
of words but due to some other reason. The other reason is
the tradition of word-usage at the hands of experienced
persons. Santaraksita calls it And this cause of
correctness is common to Sanskrit and non-Sanskrit
language alike. So there is no special sanctity of Sanskrit
language.
(67.3) The tendency to attribute a well-defined character
to words is the tendency to attribute a fixed character to
them independent of usage or convention.
NOTES 177

(67.4) In A f w f a : one is additional and


may be omitted for the sake of consistent meaning.
(68.2) In fact the word to word translation o f T T 3 :
would be Man kings (when the actual meaning is Kings
m an). This translation is not permitted in English. But in
Sanskrit such a reversal of words is allowed and makes a
good sense without any oddity.
(68.3) In Sanskrit the order of words is generally
unimportant. The semantical position of words is fixed by
the suffixes attached to them and not by their syntactical
order. In English the order of words generally plays a
discisive role in fixation of meaning. For instance Cow
bring the black will either make no sense or at least will not
make the same sense as Bring the black cow. But
TTlTlK3TFPT\ 3TFRT all make the same
sense in Sanskrit.
(68.4) According to Dharmaklrti the argument (i.e. the
inference for others) consists of two steps: one indicates
pervasion between probans and probandum and the other
indicates existence of probans in the property-bearer
(dhamii). The property-bearer is to be proved to be
possessing probandum as its another property. These two
steps could be presented in any order. Declaration or
conclusion is not necessary as a step in the argument
because they are entailed by the two steps mentioned above.
(69.1) This is a reference to Udyotakara according to
Santaraksita.
(71.1) In the five-membered inferential statement of
Nyaya, Conclusion (= the last element) is the repetition of
Declaration (= the first element). But this repetition is
permitted by the author of NS, because it is Anuvada (= a
repetition which explains or confirms the earlier
178 VADANYA YA OF DHARMAKJRTI

statement). The repetitions which are not confirmatory like


this are not permitted.
(71.2) Here probably the metaphor of a machine is used
for denoting a slave.
(71.3) Here the word hasati (= (1) laughs (2) when
laughs), dhavati/pradhavati (= (1) runs (2) when runs),
nindati/pranindati (= (1) censures (2) when censures),
nrtyati/pranrtyati (= (1) dances (2) when dances) are used
twice but in two different senses.
(71.4) Here the word bhavati is used twice in two
different senses ((1) happens (2) when (it) happens).
(72.1) This is a restatement of the Nyaya aphorism
3TifcNv[Fl 'W l< ^ (MS5.2.15).
(72.2) According to Naiyayikas an elaborate discussion
which is not regulated by the rules of victory and defeat is
permitted if it is between a teacher and disciple or between
two co-disciples (See AS 4.2.48) but not between others. The
debate between others should be regulated by the
constraints of nigrahasthanas. It should not be diffuse and
repetitive.
(73.1) The original reading is corrupt and confusing. I
am following V in the translation. Santaraksita too takes this
statement as elliptical and adds - 1

(73.2) Dharmaklrti has said this in sections 62 and 64.


(73.3) Here my translation follows Santaraksitas
commentary. He takes * ; '5=1: yidHK'iiq^ f*ra^' to mean

(79.1) I suggest 'arsrfcT'T^' in place of *3T%f?T the


latter being not sufficiently clear. But I have translated
following the available reading somehow.
NOTES 179

(79.2) That is, either Ajnana is an occasion of defeat via


Apratibha or Ajnana is not an (independent) occasion of
defeat at all because its scope is pervaded by Apratibha. Here
I have suggested srsrf^JRT' in place of as an
alternative reading, the former being consistent with later
discussion. (See the last sentence of the same section)
(80.1) *Pnl^Mi-*Kiii ^i^iiV will be grammatically more
correct and semantically consistent, than
But the word 3RRfel might be there
in the original text which might refer to intermediate
occasions of defeat. By incorporating it an alternative
reading may be suggested - cht*uPh

(80.2) The other such sub-divisions would be not


understanding the half of the answer, not understanding
one third of the answer, similarly, not understanding the
whole subject-matter, not understanding the half of the
subject-matter etc.
(82.1) This Nyaya-explanation as quoted by Dharmakirti
here is a free combination of Nyayabhasya and Nyayavartika
on NS 5.2.20.
(83.1) In other words, whether it is an argument
presented by the disputant or the response given by the
opponent, it is regulated by the two-fold negative check:
Fallacies of probans and Non-imagination.
(83.2) Vitanda, means the kind of debate where the
debaters present no position of their own, but they only try
to refute the other deb aters position.
(84.1) Naiyayikas objection is this: You have said that all
the occasions of defeat committed by the disputant could be
included in Hetvabhasa and all the occasions of defeat
committed by the opponent could be included in Apratibha.
But we are now citing a case which is an occasion of defeat
180 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKlRTI

committed by the disputant but which is not included in


Hetvabhasa.
(84.2) Here 1 ' is to be taken in broad sense.
Not stating a constituent of argum ent covers both
3R fPfR (Not stadng) and 'sR nfaqR ' (stating something
else)
(84.3) The w o r d i n ' is interpreted as
*53* (= lik e ) bySantaraksita.
(85.1) I am interpreting this to be an occasion of defeat
of the disputant who indirectly permits the opponents
(refutative) argument. Here the word p could be
interpreted as opponent. But the roles of disputant and
opponent are transferable.
(85.2) This Nyaya-explanation is a free combination of
Nyayabhasyaand Nyayavdrtika on JVS5.2.11.
(87.1) The idea is this: Just as a single sound probans is
sufficient for proving the probandum is spite of there being
many such probans, pointing out a single mistake is
sufficient for vitiating the proof in spite of there being many
such mistakes in the proof.
(87.2) Here the word "3PI does not make any clear
sense. It could be a misreading.
(88.1) This translation corresponds to the reading
1 The reading accepted by Dvarikadas Shastri
is 1 which would be translated as in order to
conclude the topic ( o foccasions of defeat) .
(91.1) Here the textual reading
UdK^-f' seems to be read by Santaraksita as some what like
this: 'aqmfocH 3WcT ... ydlW ^. \I
have, however, tried to translate in accordance with th
textual reading.
NOTES 181

(91.2) See section 55.


(92.1) Santaraksita explains: The pramanas are defined
as means of true cognition. The same pramanas are prameyas
(objects of knowledge) also. But they are not so by virtue of
the same definition, but by virture of their feature that they
are objects (karma) of the cognitive act. Similar question
can arise with regard to hetvabhasas. They are defined (by
Vatsyayana) as (Non-probans
appearing as probans) and classified by Aksapada into five
kinds. Is this well-defined character of hetvabhasas to be set
aside in favour of an alternative- definition a n d /o r
classification when we construe them as occasions of
defeat? Nyaya answer is in the negative.
Glossary
o f technical terms used in Vdanyya

3T51H ( - - Non-understanding
- transgression (of reason)
aiftRBT-excess
- (1) Not pointing out a fault (2) Pointing out a
non-fault as fault.
srftW ( - Piiis**IPT) - Additional
( - Pii4t*lH) - Non-reproduction
(^ei-dl^TRT) - Positive instance without positive
concomitance
- Occurrence of (vicious) infinite regress.
SFfTvlf^T - non-apprehension
- non-apprehension
- confirmatory repetition
( - %C^T^TRT) - Inconclusive probans
- accusation of Inconclusive probans
- (1) positive concomitance (2) continuity, continuous
capasity
184 VDANY YA OF DHARMAKlRTl

3FR1^[ - incorrect word, corrupt word


( - PiiiWF) - Deviant thesis
3P7T*fai ( - - Non-sensical
3Trfcrf%- non-apprehension, non-understanding
3Tfi ( - PiilWR) - Non-imagination
3iy<5rfcii-c('M ( - ki^ iiTRT) - Posive instance without the
indication of positive concomitance
3Rra^lT ( - fSWT) - Mistimed
- function, pragmatic function
3T^H<?cki - Repetition of meaning
3if^TT ( - PiiJ^fR) - Different point
- Shifting to a Different point
37^1^-element (of argument), step (in argument)
- the one who claims that instance is a
different element of proof from probans
composite whole
37^Fn - state
3ra^rai?R - the linguistic practice of non-existence, the
practice of non-existence
- (1) non-statement or non-justification of a
constituent of proof (2) statement of a non
constituent of proof.
arfes ( - %c5(T^ra) - Unproved probans
srfafe - unprovedness
- Application (of instance to the thesis-case)
- apprehensible, (the object) fulfilling the
condition of apprehensibility.
GLOSSARY 185

w4f>3 - effect as reason


tJeT - (1) quibbling (2) cheating
14^ - probans with triple character (1. existence in
thesis-case, 2. existence in similar cases, 3. non
existence in dissimilar cases)
^JT - (1) refutadon, (2) fault
- fallacy of instance
property-bearer
- invariable relation
PiMHH -Conclusion
Piiiet^lFT - occasion of defeat
(- - Objecting against the non-
objecdonable
(- - Meaningless utterance
- (1) logic (2) rationality (3) an allegorical principle
- Insufficient, Deficient
- Deficiency
XT^T- (1) subject of the thesis, property-bearer, (2) position
- the statement that the probans characterises the
thesis-subject.
hRuiiM- transformation

( - f=TW?siR) - Neglecting the objecuonable


xri5^- audience, assembly, council
- Repetition
- proposer o f the first position
H'jiici - Nature, original nature
186 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKlRTI

lifdill - Declaration
3lf<T3RR - Another Declaration
(- - Contrary Declaration, (Lit.-)
Contrariety o f/to Declaration.
( - Pme**iR) -Renunciation of Declaration
yicweilH ( - iHneWH) - Declaration-abandonment
opponent, respondent
- diffuse discussion
yMiui - evidence, means to knowledge
- object of knowledge
- (1) occasion, context, (2) undesirable consequence
'iusi<rl<2H'<t(<l - the allegorical principle viz. (one plays a
gimic)like the picture drawn by a buffoon
(- - Permitting opponent's view.
eiiMq - economy, (Lit.-) lightness
- inferential sign, probans, reason
TK - debate (Dharmakiru), discussion between teacher and
disciple or co-disciples for knowing truth (Nyaya)
disputant, proposer (of the first position)
fasfa ( - Plil^<flPt) -Dispensation
- debate between persons desiring victory (even by
cheating practices)
facial - negative debate (debate in which the other's
position is confuted without establishing one's own)
fayfdMfrT - non-apprehension, non-understanding
fsRTS - contrary, contradictory
( - ^M'TTiT) - Contrary probans
GLOSSARY 187

fafci - contrariety, contradiction


- subject-matter, object
- diffuse discussion
TP?!7! - argument containing dissimilarity (i.e.
negative concomitance)
- the Manifest (Sahkhya)
- negative concomitance, absence
- variable relation
- pervader
- pervaded
- pervasion
^TF2! - pervaded
- capasity
- Repetition of words
' l^ e practice/linguistic practice of existence
"iFFl - convention
"iRsfa -justification
- (1) argument, proof (2) probans
FdEFRIoR - inferential statement, argument
- fallacy of argum ent/probans
- element of argument, step in argument
Tfirn - argument containing (the statement of)
similarity (i.e. positive concomitance)
- probandum, provable
( - <jei'Ui*IRT) - Positive instance lacking
probandum
188 VADANYAYA OF DHARMAKlRTI

- self-nature
- self-nature as probans
- the self-characterised particular
- Declaration contrary to its own
utterance
t l - probans, reason
fjcq-iK ( - Pin^WH) - Another probans

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