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Loren D. Lineberry
Humanity, as we have known it, is about to change, perhaps irreversibly. In the book, A
Crack in Creation: Gene Editing and the Unthinkable Power to Control Evolution1, Dr. Jennifer
Doudna and Dr. Samuel Sternberg extol the powers of a new biotechnology, CRISPR2; they also
raise concerns. Both of these scientists played a major role in creating CRISPR; however, both
What I propose to do in this essay is to inform and to alert. I shall discuss what CRISPR
is and what CRISPR does. Most importantly, I intend to challenge the faith-based community to
weigh and consider why CRISPR matters. Indeed, with faith-based community, I cast a wide
loop; I hope to inform and alert pastors and priests and rabbis, youth leaders, educators, and laity
concerning both the promise and the peril of CRISPR. I suspect that academic institutions,
including those with a faith-based orientation, are already confronting the problem. However, the
tendency of academics is to talk among themselves; precious little trickles down to the local level.
I hope that churches, parishes, and temples realize the threat to our moral foundations presented
by CRISPR.
What CRISPR Is
engineer living organisms, including humans. CRISPR gives scientists the means to bring human
genetic development fully under human control. The entire DNA content of a living organism,
plant or animal, is now almost as editable as the words in this text. Doudna and Sternberg write,
Using powerful biotechnology tools to tinker with DNA inside living cells, scientists can now
1
A Crack in Creation: Gene Editing and the Unthinkable Power to Control Evolution
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2017).
2
Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats
1
manipulate and rationally modify the genetic code that defines every species on the planet,
CRISPR is the power to insert, edit, or delete the genetic code for a particular trait. This
command and control of the human genome is the power to rewrite the genetic content of the
genome4. For example, CRISPR can replace a harmful genetic mutation with a healthy new
DNA sequence. Indeed, nothing in the DNA code is beyond the reach of CRISPR. Doudna and
Sternberg affirm, As the CRISPR toolbox has expanded, no letter of DNA in the genome, no
gene or combination of genes, is beyond reach.5 Ultimately, CRISPR is the power to change
biotechnology and human life forever. The reader should allow the import of the following to
sink in: Now, for the first time ever, we possess the ability to edit not only the DNA of every
living human but also the DNA of future generations in essence, to direct the evolution of our
own species.6
The question is: How do scientists actually use this awesome power? Beyond that: What
moral guidelines should shape the use of CRISPR? And finally: Does the faith-based community
Lets consider a bit more closely just what CRISPR does. As Doudna and Sternberg
acknowledge, the capabilities of CRISPR are a good news-bad news proposition. Lets take a
Agricultural benefits. In 2014, scientists at the Chinese Academy of Sciences used gene-
editing technology, including CRISPR, to produce bread wheat that was resistant to mildew.
Moreover, CRISPR has been used to genetically edit the genes in rice to produce rice that is
resistant to bacterial blight. Also, CRISPR has been used to provide corn, soybeans, and potatoes
3
Ibid., xiii.
4
The genome contains an organisms entire DNA content.
5
A Crack in Creation, 111.
6
Ibid, xvi.
2
with resistance to herbicides. What is more, a team of researchers in California is attempting to
apply CRISPR to the citrus industry by engineering plants resistant to a specific bacterial plant
Genetic engineering of plants can also produce health benefits. Researchers are currently
attempting to genetically engineer reduction in the trans fat content of soybeans. Scientists in
Minnesota have succeeded in altering soybean genes so as to produce a soybean with the fat
content of olive oil. Similar research is being carried on with potatoes. Gene-editing of a certain
type of Russet potato inactivated the gene that produces glucose and fructose. The result was
that, when these potatoes were used in the manufacture of potato chips, there was a reduction in
Doudna and Sternberg summarize the value of CRISPR for agriculture, Biotechnology
can help us shore up our food security, stave off malnutrition, adapt to climate change, and
prevent environmental degradation around the world.7 To be sure, much of this is potentially
beneficial.
Animal benefits. Doudna and Sternberg predict that livestock will also be gene edited in
the future. Already, a breed of salmon has been genetically engineered to reach market weight in
half the time of normally harvested salmon. With no changes to its nutritional content, the
Scientists have used CRISPR to create farm animals that are stronger and more muscular
than average. The upshot of this kind of research is to genetically engineer animals with high
yields of lean meat combined with low body fat. Doudna and Sternberg note, In one report,
gene-edited pigs had over 10 percent more lean meat that their unedited counterparts, as well as a
substantial decrease in total body fat and increased meat tenderness. At the same time, the meats
nutritional content and the animals development, diet, and overall health were unaffected.8
7
Ibid., 128.
8
Ibid., 133.
3
Genetic engineering of animals can produce livestock that is more disease-resistant. One
of the major diseases facing the swine industry in America is being tackled by CRISPR. It turns
out that a particular gene can hijack pig cells, opening the way for a virus to attack the pig. Once
this specific gene was identified, CRISPR was used to inactivate it. Pigs that had had this gene
deactivated were then exposed to viral particles, and they remained completely healthy.
Other benefits of genetic engineering are on the horizon. Researchers are modifying
genomes in pigs so that the animals may be raised on less food. Other researchers are altering the
genetic makeup of chickens in order to remove allergens in eggs. Similarly, research is being
Even this brief survey unveils some benefits of genetically engineering animals. Poorer
countries in particular could surely benefit by increasing their food supply, raising more and
healthier meats, producing disease resistant animals, and eating less allergenic foods. But these
Medical benefits. It is in the world of healing the sick that much of CRISPRs power
emerges. What has already been accomplished in lab animals is stunning. Scientists in China
have cured a lab mouse of cataracts; since then, researchers have used CRISPR to cure live mice
of muscular dystrophy.
Meanwhile, working solely with cultured human cells, scientists used CRISPR to repair
the DNA mutations that cause sickle cell disease, hemophilia, cystic fibrosis, and
immunodeficiency. Doudna and Sternberg report that clinical trials are underway aimed at curing
HIV/AIDS.9 The potential for CRISPR in the world of healing seems without limit. Research
papers have been published providing an expanding list of diseases for which potential genetic
cures have been developed using CRISPR. These include dwarfism, Alzheimers, congenital
9
Ibid., 157.
10
Ibid., 181.
4
Beyond doubt, one of the most exciting medical benefits of CRISPR involves its potential
in the fight against cancer. To date, a cancer patient typically faces one of three options: surgery,
option. Doudna and Sternberg relate the success of immunotherapy in the case of Layla
Richards.11
Layla was a one-year-old patient suffering from acute lymphoblastic leukemia; hers was
one of the most aggressive cancers her physicians had ever seen. Layla had not improved with
chemotherapy, bone marrow transplantation, and antibody-based drugs. Eventually, her doctors
offered to keep her comfortable until she died. But, Layla wasnt finished yet.
Laylas physicians decided to try a new technology using a cell editing technique that
was a precursor to CRISPR. Layla received edited T cells; these T cells could target cells that
contained the molecular signature of leukemia. Layla underwent the cell transfer, and her
leukemia began to respond. When she improved, Layla underwent another bone marrow
Thus far, I have rehearsed the benefits of CRISPR biotechnology, and they are
considerable. However, Doudna and Sternberg wrote A Crack in Creation not only to extol the
exciting possibilities of CRISPR technology, but also to issue a warning. CRISPR could have
Extinction of a species. Using CRISPR technology, a British team created gene drives
that spread genes for female sterility.12 If this technology were used in the mosquito population,
for example, it would eventually lead to outright extermination of an entire mosquito species.
11
Ibid., 176-77.
12
Ibid., 148-52.
5
First, it is unknowable just how the extermination of a specific species might disrupt the
balance in a regions ecosystem. Even scientists who are pursuing CRISPR research in this area
Second, and most alarmingly, it is unknowable just who might latch onto this
extermination technology and put it to nefarious purposes. Doudna and Sternberg report that a
biotech watchdog organization worries that gene drives what they call gene bombs could
be militarized (emphasis mine) and weaponized (emphasis mine) to target the human (emphasis
mine) microbiome or major food sources (emphasis mine).13 If the world is aghast at the
chutzpah of Kim Jung Un of North Korea now, imagine what could happen if he got hold of this
technology.
entrepreneur who wanted to offer parents the first healthy CRISPR baby.14 Ostensibly, the plan
was to customize DNA mutations in order to eliminate any possibility of genetic disease.
Sternberg demurred; he expected that this scientist intended to offer a wider variety of genetic
enhancements; a designer child if you will. There are two dangers with this.
To begin with, editing the human genome in a heritable way could have unforeseen
consequences in the future. Dr. Doudna worries that using CRISPR to enhance a human being
might well change the course of our species history in the long run, in ways that were
impossible to foretell.15 However, and note this well, Dr. Doudna is of the opinion that altering
the DNA in a human genome is not a matter of if, but when and how.16
Beyond that, there is this: Dr. Doudna recounts a dream she had that concerned CRISPR
and editing the human genome.17 In her dream, Dr. Doudna was asked to teach someone how the
gene-editing technology worked. She walked into a room to meet her student, and there sat
13
Ibid., 152.
14
Ibid., 185-87.
15
Ibid., 188.
16
Ibid.
17
Ibid., 199-200.
6
Adolph Hitler. When she saw Hitler, she reawakened with her heart racing. Dr. Doudna felt as if
she had had a premonition; indeed, she had. The danger implicit in genetically enhancing
humans is this: The ability to refashion the human genome was a truly incredible power, one that
could be devastating if it fell into the wrong hands (emphasis mine). The thought frightened me
even more because, by this point, CRISPR had been widely disseminated to users around the
Adverse social consequences. Lets assume for a moment that enhancing the human
genome becomes available. Lets assume that parents want to offer their unborn child every
possible advantage. CRISPR can offer exceptional levels of human physical endurance, extra-
strong bones, leaner muscle and greater muscle mass, and lowered requirements of daily sleep.
Additionally, CRISPR could potentially confer lifelong resistance to HIV; could reduce the risk
for Alzheimers, for type 1 and type 2 diabetes, and for certain kinds of cancer.19 If these kinds of
advantages are one day available, what parent would not consider them? It turns out, not every
parent could.
The danger is this: since only the wealthy could afford these enhancements, society
would be divided along genetic lines. Dr. Doudna tells us that recent gene therapies come with a
million dollar price tag.20 Obviously, wealthy families, initially at least, would benefit.
Moreover, since these benefits would be passed on, class distinctions on the basis of genetics
would be passed from one generation to another. If you think that our world is unequal now,
just imagine it stratified along both socioeconomic and genetic lines. Envision a future where
people with more money live healthier and longer lives thanks to their privileged set of genes.21
One can only imagine a future society in which genetic differences exacerbate prejudices.
18
Ibid., 199.
19
Ibid., 230-31.
20
Ibid., 231.
21
Ibid., 232.
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Why CRISPR Matters
CRISPR matters to Drs. Doudna and Sternberg. Both have initiated a series of
conferences intended to probe the ethical issues surrounding CRISPR. But, with these two
scientists, there is a twist: They are of the opinion that scientists ought not to be the only ones
debating the ethics of CRISPR. Since CRISPR may threaten the moral foundations of our world,
Dr. Doudna writes, I absolutely agree that society as a whole rather than scientists individually
or even as a group should decide how any given technology is used.22 But, theres more, a
In 2015, Dr. Doudna called for an international meeting to probe both safety and ethical
matters relative to the CRISPR technology. She decided that this meeting should be attended by
a variety of leaders, including religious leaders.23 That faith-based thinkers should be invited to
weigh in on the ethics of CRISPR technology is a golden opportunity. Normally, when moral
issues arise, the faith-based community is politely shunned. But now, one of the scientists
responsible for creating CRISPR in the first place is requesting faith-based input. We have a
golden opportunity to have a say on why CRISPR matters; we have a golden opportunity to
CRISPR matters philosophically. Beyond any reasonable doubt, the threats associated
with CRISPR permit the faith-based community to question modern societys basic philosophical
stance: Atheism.24 CRISPR matters because men and women without a transcendent moral
compass may soon wield the power to change the human race irreversibly. Can the faith-based
22
Ibid., 204.
23
Ibid., 211.
24
I am not casting aspersions on either Dr. Doudna or Dr. Sternberg; they were
completely silent on their faith commitments. Rather, I am addressing society as a whole from
this point forward.
8
CRISPR matters because it grants the faith-based community the opportunity to raise
questions concerning atheistic materialism.25 At one level, materialism excludes God from
public debate since, it is affirmed, man is incapable of transcending sensory experience, the
material world. The threats that CRISPR poses may well open the door of opportunity for the
faith-based community to respond to this assumption. At another level, materialism asserts that
man simply has no other environment beyond that of the physical world. The faith-based
community might weigh and consider introducing society to the fact that there is a world beyond
rationalism. In a nutshell, rationalism is the assumption that by human reason alone man
discovers the why and wherefore of things. The faith-based community might mention that
human reason created the moral crisis implicit in CRISPR. The splendid isolation of human
reason is a pretext for ignoring a more transcendent outlook; the faith-based community has a
skepticism. For decades, atheists have been suspicious of any mention of God. That is, atheists
and agnostics have claimed that interjecting God into mans life is detrimental to mans freedom
and development. Skepticism of God is a prerequisite for a happy and fulfilled life. The faith-
based community could remind mankind that CRISPR has the capacity for irreversible
CRISPR matters theologically. I intend to raise only one theological matter: the question
of interests. The theological question is: Is man intended to represent Gods interests or mans?
25
On these points, see Cornelio Fabro, God In Exile: Modern Atheism, translated and
edited by Arthur Gibson (New York: Newman Press, 1968), 5.
9
The passage says, Let us create man in our image, according to our likeness.26 The
theological crux here is image and likeness. To begin with, there are no grounds whatsoever
for cleaving image from likeness as though each term has its own content. The fact that the
Hebrew as written does not have a conjunction should be noted. To be sure, the second term,
likeness, is written in apposition to the first noun, image. Thus, we may provisionally read
the collocation as our image (which is tantamount to) our likeness. The question now is: What
The Divine image includes man as Gods counterpart, His complement, His colleague,
His viceroy, His witness, His proxy and His agent. What is more, if the Egyptian sources are of
any value, there is an element of rulership involved in the nature of the Divine image. David
Clines summarizes the theological point, Man is created not in God's image, since God has no
image of His own, but as God's image, or rather to be God's image, that is to be deputized in the
created world for the transcendent God who remains outside the world order.27 To make a long
story short, theologically man is created in Gods image in order to represent the interests of God
on earth.
CRISPR now gives mankind the power to create in mankinds image, thus turning
Genesis 1:26 on its head. But Genesis affirms that mankind populates planet earth in order to
represent Gods lordship. Mans function is to represent Gods interests. We must do so, lest we
26
The translation is the authors.
27
David J.A. Clines, The Image of God in Man, Tyndale Bulletin 19 (1968): 101.
10