Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
com
SYLLABUS
Unit 1: Hrs: 06
Layered Tasks, OSI model, Layers in OSI model, TCP/IP Suite, Addressing.
Telephone and cable networks for data transmission, Telephone Networks, Dial up
modem, DSL, Cable TV for data transmission.
Unit 4: Hrs: 07
IEEE standards, standard Ethernet, changes in the standards, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit
m
Ethernet, Wireless LAN IEEE 802.11
co
Unit 5: Hrs: 06
s.
Connecting LANs, Backbone and virtual LANs, Connecting devices, Backbone
networks, Virtual LANs.
bu
Unit 6: Hrs: 07
la
Network layer, Logical addressing, IPv4 addresses, IPv6 addresses, IPv4 and IPv6
transition from IPv4 to IPv6.
yl
lls
Unit 7: Hrs: 06
Delivery, Forwarding, Unicast Routing protocols, Multicast Routing protocols
.a
Unit 8: Hrs: 06
w
Transport layer process to process delivery, UDP, TCP, Domain name system,
w
Resolution.
w
Sl. Book
Particulars Book Title Book Author
No. Publications
Data Communication 4th Ed, 2006,
1 Prescribed Books B Forouzan
& Networking TMH
James F. Kursoe, 2nd Ed, 2003,
2 Computer Networks
Keith W. Ross Pearson
Reference Books Introduction to Data
3 communication & Wayne Tomasi 2007, Pearson
Networking
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
INDEX SHEET
SL.
Particulars Page no.
No.
PART A
1 Unit 1: Introduction 01 11
layered tasks 04
The OSI model 05
Layers in the OSI model 07
TCP/IP Protocol suite 09
Addressing 10
Recommended questions 11
m
2 Unit 2: Data Link control 12 31
Framing
co
13
Flow & Error Control 14
s.
PROTOCOLS 15
Noiseless channels 15
bu
Noisy channels 19
High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) 30
la
Recommended questions 31
yl
Random access 33
.a
Controlled access 39
channelization 41
w
Recommended questions 43
w
IEEE Standards 45
Standard Ethernet 46
Changes in the standard 50
Fast Ethernet 52
Gigabit Ethernet 54
Recommended questions 57
PART B
5 Unit 5: Connecting devices 58 66
Connecting devices 59
Backbone Network 64
Virtual LANs 65
Recommended questions 66
Page 1
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
Process to process Delivery 105
co
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) 108
Transmission Control Protocol 111
s.
Recommended questions bu 119
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 2
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
PART A
Syllabus:
Section 1: Layered Tasks, OSI model, Layers in OSI model, TCP/IP Suite, Addressing
Section 2: Telephone and cable networks for data transmission, Telephone Networks,
Dial up modem, DSL, Cable TV for data transmission.
m
Recommended readings:
co
Text Book: Data Communication & Networking, B Forouzan, 4e, TMH
s.
Sec 1: Chapter 2 page 27 to 50
Sec 2: Chapter 9 page 241 to 260
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 3
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
Fig (i): Tasks involved in sending a letter
yl
In the above fig (i), we have a sender, a receiver & a carrier that transports the letter. There is a
lls
hierarchy of tasks.
.a
Middle layer: The letter is picked up by a letter carrier and delivered to the post office.
Lower Layer: The letter is sorted at the post office, a carrier transports the letter.
w
On the way:
The letter is then on its way to the recipient. On the way to the recipients local post office, the
letter may actually go through a central office. In addition, it may be transported by truck, train,
airplane, boat, or a combination of these.
Page 4
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Hierarchy:
The task of transporting the letter between the sender and the receiver is done by the carrier. The
tasks must be done in the order given in the hierarchy. At the sender site, the letter must be
written and dropped in the mailbox before being picked up by the letter carrier and delivered to
the post office. At the receiver site, the letter must be dropped in the recipient mailbox before
being picked up & read by the recipient.
Services:
Each layer at the sending site uses the services of the layer immediately below it. The sender at
the higher layer uses the services of the middle layer. The middle layer uses the services of the
lower layer. The lower layer uses the services of the carrier.
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
The OSI model shown in fig (ii) is based on the proposal developed by the International
Standards Organization (ISO) as a first step towards international standardization of the
w
protocols used in the various layers. The model is called the OSI (Open System Interconnection)
w
reference model because it deals with connecting open systems, i.e., systems that are open for
communication with other systems. The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate
communication between different systems without requiring changes to the logic of the
underlying hardware and software.
The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a network
architecture that is flexible, robust and interoperable.
The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows
communication between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven separate but related
layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving information across a network. The
principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers are as follows:
Page 5
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Layered Architecture:
The OSI model is composed of seven layers: Physical, Data link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presentation, Application layers. Fig (iii) shows the layers involved when a message travels from
A to B, it may pass through many intermediate nodes. These intermediate nodes involve only the
first 3 layers of the OSI model.
Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services of the layer just below it, layer 3 for
m
ex. Uses the services provided by layer 2 & provides services for layer 4. Between machines,
layer X on one machine communicates with layer X on another machine. This communication is
co
governed by an agreed upon series of rules & Conventions called protocols. The processes on
each machine that communicate at a given layer are called peer to peer processes.
s.
Communication between machines is therefore a peer to peer process using the protocols
appropriate to a given layer.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Physical Layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one node to the
next
m
Physical characteristics of interfaces & medium, type of transmission medium.
co
Representation of bits.
Data rate.
s.
Synchronization of bits.
Line configuration.
bu
Physical topology Mesh, Star, Ring, Bus, Hybrid.
Transmission mode Simplex, Half-duplex, Full-duplex.
la
yl
Data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one node to the next.
.a
w
w
w
Framing.
Physical addressing.
Flow control.
Error control.
Access control.
Page 7
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host
to the destination host.
Logical addressing.
Routing.
iv) Transport Layer:
Transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to
m
another.
co
s.
bu
la
Service-point addressing.
yl
Flow control.
Error control.
.a
w
v) Session Layer:
w
H5 H5
Dialog control.
Synchronization.
Page 8
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
H6 Data H6 Data
Presentation Presentation
Layer To Session Layer Layer From Session Layer
m
vii) Application Layer:
co
The Application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
Mail services.
Directory services.
w
w
The TCP/IP protocol suite has four layers: Host to Network, Internet, Transport and
Application. Comparing TCP/IP to OSI model: the Host to Network layer is equivalent to the
combination of physical and data link layers, the Internet layer is equivalent to the network layer,
the Transport layer in TCP/IP taking care of part of the duties of the session layer, and the
application layer is roughly doing the job of the session, presentation, & application layers.
Page 9
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Application
Application
Presentation TELN
SMTP FTP HTTP
DNS SNMP ET
Session
Data Link
Protocols defined by the underlying networks (host-to-network)
Physical
m
1.5 Addressing:
co
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP Protocols:
s.
i) Physical addresses
ii) Logical addresses
bu
iii) Port addresses
iv) Specific addresses
la
yl
Network Logical
(Internet)
IP Address
w
Data Link
Underlying physical
network Physical
Physical Address
Each address is related to a specific layer in the TCP/IP architecture, as shown in the above fig.
Page 10
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Recommended questions:
1) List at-least 5 main responsibilities of Data link layer & Transport layer of OSI
reference model.
2) What is layered architecture? Explain the interaction between the layers using
a suitable diagram.
3) What are the responsibilities of the network layer in the internet model?
4) Name some services provided by the application layer in the internet model.
5) What is the difference between a port address, a logical address and a physical
layer address?
6) What is a peer-to-peer process?
7) What are the concerns of the physical layer in the internet model?
8) What are the headers and trailers, and how do they get added and removed?
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 11
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Syllabus:
Framing, Flow & Error control, Protocols, Noiseless channels & Noisy channels, HDLC.
Recommended readings:
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 12
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
2.1 Framing:
Framing in the data link layer separates a message from one source to a destination by adding a
sender address & a destination address. The destination address defines where the packet is to
go; the sender address helps the recipient acknowledge the receipt. Although the whole message
could be packed in one frame, that is not normally done. One reason is that a frame can be very
large, making flow & error control very inefficient. When a message is carried in one very large
frame, even a single-bit error would require the retransmission of the whole message. When a
message is divided into smaller frames, a single-bit error affects only that small frame.
i) Fixed-size framing:
In this there is no need for defining the boundaries of the frames, the size itself can be used as a
m
delimiter.
co
Ex: ATM wide area network which uses frames of fixed size called cells.
s.
bu
In this, we need a way to define the end of the frame and the beginning of the next.
Ex: LAN
la
Historically 2 approaches were used for variable size framing: Character-oriented & bit-oriented.
yl
a) Character-oriented approach:
lls
.a
Page 13
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Stuffed
Frame sent
Fla Header ESC Flag ESC ESC Trailer Flag
g
Extra 2 bytes
Frame received
Fla Header ESC Flag ESC ESC Trailer Flag
g
Unstuffed
Flag ESC
b) Bit-oriented approach:
m
Data from upper layer
co
Variable no. of bits
01111110 Header 0111101011011011110 Trailer 01111110
s.
bu
Bit oriented protocol Bit Stuffing & De-stuffing
la
Bit stuffing is the process of adding one extra 0 whenever five consecutive 1s follow a 0 in the
yl
data, so that the receiver doesnt mistake the pattern 01111110 for a flag
lls
0001111111001111101000
w
Unstuffed
0001111111001111101000
Page 14
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Flow Control:
Any receiving device has a limited speed at which it can process incoming data and a
limited amount of memory in which to store incoming data.
The flow of data must not be allowed to overwhelm the receiver.
The receiver must be able to tell the sender to halt transmission until it is once again able
to receive.
Flow control refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the amount of data that the
sender can send before waiting for acknowledgement.
Error Control:
Errors occur due to noises in the channel.
Error control is both error detection & error correction.
In the data link layer error control refers to methods of error detection and retransmission.
m
To sender should add certain amount of redundant bits to the data, based on which the
receiver will be able to detect errors.
co
2.3 PROTOCOLS:
s.
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication.
bu
A protocol defines what, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated.
The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics & timing.
la
Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, i.e., the order in which they are
presented.
yl
Timing refers to when data should be sent & how fast they can be sent.
Protocols are implemented in software by using any of the common programming
.a
languages.
w
Protocols
w
i) Simplest protocol:
Page 15
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Design:
Sender Receiver
m
Request from
Event: network layer
co
Repeat forever Repeat forever
s.
sender site receiver site
bu
Notification from
Event: physical layer
{
waitForEvent(); //Sleep until an event occurs
lls
}
w
Page 16
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Sender Receiver
A B
Request Frame
Arrival
Request
Frame
Arrival
Request Frame
Arrival
m
Time Time
co
ii) Stop - & - Wait Protocol:
s.
Assumptions in this protocol are:
bu
Data transfer is unidirectional.
la
Both sender & receiver network layers are always ready.
Receiver doesnt have enough storage space.
yl
Design:
w
Sender Receiver
w
ACK Frame
Request from
Event:
network layer
Page 17
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
cansend = true;
}
co
}
s.
Receiver-site algorithm for the Stop-&-Wait Protocol:
bu
While(true) //Repeat forever
{
waitForEvent(); //Sleep until an event occurs
la
if(event(ArrivalNotification)) //data frame arrived
{
yl
}
}
w
w
Sender Receiver
A B
Request Frame
Arrival
Arrival ACK
Request Frame
Arrival
Arrival ACK
Time Time
Page 18
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Assumptions are:
m
frame is received.
co
Data frames uses Sequence numbers, to avoid duplication of frames.
Range of sequence numbers = 2m 1.
ACK frame uses Acknowledgement number, & always announces the sequence number
s.
of the next frame expected.
bu
Timers are used in case of loss of ACK frames.
Design:
la
Sn Next Rn Next
yl
frame to frame to
send receive
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
lls
Sender Receiver
Data frames
Get Deliver
.a
Network Network
data data
seqNo
w
Receive Send
w
Receiv Send
Physical frame fram Physical
e frame ackNo
frame e
w
Sender-site algorithm:
Page 19
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
if( not corrupted AND ackNo == Sn) // valid ACK
{
co
Stoptimer();
purgeframe(Sn-1);
cansend = true;
s.
}
}
If(Event(Timeout))
bu
{
StartTimer();
la
ResendFrame(Sn-1);
}
yl
}
lls
Receiver-site algorithm:
.a
{
w
{
ReceiveFrame(); //receive frame from the physical layer
if(Corrupted(Frame))
sleep();
if(seqNo == Rn)
{
ExtractData(); //extract data from a frame
DeliverData(); //deliver the data to the n/w layer
Rn = Rn +1;
}
SendFrame(); //Send an ACK frame
}
}
Page 20
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Flow diagram:
Sender Receiver
Rn
A B
Sn
0 1 0 1 0 Initially
Start Request Frame 0
0 1 0 1 0 Rn
Sn
Stop Arrival
ACK 1 0 1 0 1 0 Arrival
0 1 0 1 0
Sn
Start Request Frame 1
0 1 0 1 0
Timer-out
Sn Lost
restart Timeout Frame 1
0 1 0 1 0 Rn
Sn resent
Stop
ACK 0 0 1 0 1 0 Arrival
Arrival 0 1 0 1 0
Sn
Start Request Frame 0 Rn
0 1 0 1 0
Sn
ACK 1 0 1 0 1 0 Arrival
Timer-out
Timeout Frame 0 Lost
restart 0 1 0 1 0 Rn
Sn
resent
ACK 1 0 1 0 1 0 Arrival
Stop Arrival 0 1 0 1 0 Discard, Duplicate
m
Time Time
co
ii) Go-Back-N ARQ Protocol:
Bandwidth-Delay product.
s.
bu
Pipelining.
Sequence numbers range from 0 to 2m 1.
la
Sliding window is an abstract concept that defines the range of sequence numbers that is
the concern of the Sender & Receiver.
yl
Timers timer for the first outstanding frame always expires first, we resend all
lls
frames.
w
Page 21
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
1 1 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Sf Sn
m
1 1 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
co
3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
s.
Receive window for Go-Back-N ARQ
bu
a) Receive window
la
Rn Receive window, next frame expected
yl
13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1 15 0 1
lls
4
Frames already Frames that cant be received until the
received & window slides
.a
acknowledged
w
Rn
w
13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1 15 0 1
4
Design:
Page 22
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Sender Receiver
Data frames
Network Get Deliver Network
data data
seqNo
ACK Frame
Data link Data link
m
co
Event: Repeat Repeat
Request from forever forever
s.
Algorithm for Algorithm for
network layer
sender site receiver site
Time
bu
Out
Event:
Page 23
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Sender-site algorithm:
Sw = 2m 1;
Sf = 0;
Sn = 0; //Frame 0 should be sent first
While(true) //Repeat forever
{
waitForEvent(); //Sleep until an event occurs
if(event(requestTosend)) //there is a packet to send
{
if(Sn Sf >= Sw) //If window is full
Sleep();
GetData(); //get data from n/w layer
MakeFrame(Sn); //make a frame
StoreFrame(Sn); //copy of frame
SendFrame(Sn); //send the frame
m
StartTimer();
Sn = Sn + 1; //Mod-2 addition
co
if(timer not running); //cant send until ACK arrives
StartTimer();
s.
}
if(Event(ArrivalNotification)) //an ACK has arrived
bu
{
Receive (ACK); //Receive the ACK frame
if(corrupted (ACK))
la
Sleep();
if((ackNo > Sf && (ackNo <= Sn)))
yl
Purgeframe(Sn-1);
Sf = Sf + 1;
.a
}
StopTimer();
w
}
If(Event(Timeout))
w
{
StartTimer();
w
Temp = Sf;
While(Temp < Sn)
{
SendFrame(Sf); //sendframe(temp);
Sf = Sf + 1; //temp = temp+1;
}
}
}
Receiver-site algorithm :
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
Stop-and-Wait ARQ is actually a Go-Back-N ARQ in which there are only two sequence
numbers and the send window size is 1.
co
i.e., m = 1; 2m 1 = 1
Instead of sending N frames when just one frame is damaged, a mechanism is required to
lls
send
1 1 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Frames already Frames sent, but Frames that
Frames that can be
acknowledged not acknowledged sent cant be sent
Send window, size Ssize = 2m 1
Page 25
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
1 14 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
3 5 Frames that can be received and stored 0 1 2 3 4 5
Frames already for later delivery. Colored boxes, already Frames that
received
received cant be
Rsize = 2m 1 received
Design:
m
ng send receive
co
Sender Receiver
Data frames
Get Deliver
s.
Network Network
data bu ACK or NAK data
seqNo
Data link Data link
ackNo
la
or Receive Send
Receiv Send
Physical e frame nakNo frame frame Physical
yl
frame
lls
.a
Event:
Repeat Repeat
w
receiver site
Time
Out
Event:
w
Page 26
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
Sender-site algorithm:
s.
Sw = 2m-1 ;
bu
Sf = 0;
Sn = 0; //Frame 0 should be sent first
la
While(true) //Repeat forever
{
yl
{
if(Sn Sf >= Sw) //If window is full
.a
Sleep();
w
Sn = Sn + 1;
StartTimer(Sn);
}
if(Event(ArrivalNotification)) //an ACK has arrived
{ Receive (frame); //Receive the ACK frame
if (corrupted (frame))
Sleep();
if (FrameType == NAK)
if (nakNo between Sf & Sn)
{ resend(nakNo);
StartTimer(nakNo);
}
if (FrameType == ACK)
if (ackNo between Sf & Sn)
Page 27
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
Receiver-site algorithm :
co
Rn = 0; //Frame 0 expected to arrive first
Naksent = false;
s.
AckNeeded = false;
Repeat( for all slots)
bu
Marked (slot) = false;
la
While(true) //Repeat forever
{
yl
ReceiveFrame();
if(Corrupted(Frame) && NOT NakSent)
w
{
SendNAK(Rn);
w
Naksent = true;
w
sleep();
}
if(seqNo < > Rn && NOT Naksent)
{ SendNAK(Rn);
Naksent = true;
if((seqno in window) && (!Marked(seqno)))
{ StoreFrame(seqNo);
Marked(seqNo) = true;
while(Marked(Rn))
{ DeliverData(Rn); //deliver the data to the n/w layer
purge(Rn);
Rn = Rn +1; //Slide window
AckNeeded = true; }
if(AckNeeded)
Page 28
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
{ SendACK(Rn);
AckNeeded = false;
NakSent = false; }
}
}
}
}
Piggybacking
When the data transfer is bidirectional, i.e., from node A to node B and from node B to
node A, the control information also needs to flow in both the directions.
Efficiency can be improved if the control information can be passed to the other end
along with the data itself which is flowing to that end. This concept is called as
piggybacking.
m
Flow diagram:
co
Rn
s.
Initial Sf Sn Sender Receive Initial
r 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 A B
Sn
bu
0 Sf
Request Frame 0 Rn
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 Initial
la
Sf Sn
ACK 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Arrival
Arrival
0 1 2 S3 4 5 6 7 0 Frame 0
yl
1 Sf n
Frame 1 delivered
Request
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
lls
Sf Sn Lost
2 Request Frame 2 Rn
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
.a
Sf Sn
3 NAK 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Arrival
Request Frame 3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 Rn
w
Sf Sn
Frame 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Arrival
1 Arrival
w
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 resent Rn
ACK 4
Sf Sn
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Arrival
w
Arrival 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 Frames 1, 2, 3
delivered
Time Time
Page 29
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
Frame format :
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
Page 30
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
11 110 SABME Set asynchronous balanced mode (extended)
co
00 000 UI UI Unnumbered information
00 110 UA Unnumbered acknowledgment
s.
00 010 DISC RD Disconnect or request disconnect
bu
10 000 SIM RIM Set initialization mode or request information mode
00 100 UP Unnumbered poll
la
11 001 RSET Reset
11 101 XID XID Exchange ID
yl
Recommended questions:
w
w
Page 31
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Syllabus:
Recommended readings:
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 32
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
3.1 Introduction:
Data link layer has two sub layers: Upper sub layer Data link Control & Lower sub
layer Multiple access Control.
The upper sub layer is responsible for flow and error control.
The lower sub layer is responsible for multiple access resolution.
When the nodes are connected using a dedicated link, lower sub layer is not required, but
when the nodes are connected using a multipoint link (broadcast), multiple access
resolution is required.
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
At each instance, a station that has data to send uses a procedure defined by the protocol
to make a decision on whether or not to send.
w
Page 33
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
i) ALOHA
The earliest random access method, was developed at the university of Hawaii in early
m
1970.
It was designed for a radio (wireless) LAN, but it can be used on any shared medium.
co
The medium is shared between the stations. When a station sends data, another station
may attempt to do so at the same time. The data from the two stations collide and become
s.
garbled.
bu
a) PURE ALOHA
la
The original ALOHA protocol is called pure ALOHA.
Each station sends a frame whenever it has a frame to send.
yl
Since there is only one channel to share, there is possibility of collision between frames
lls
Time
Even if one bit of a frame coexists on the channel with one bit from another frame, there
is a collision and both will be destroyed.
Page 34
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
Station has a
Start
co
frame to send
s.
bu K=0
Wait TB time
(TB = R * Tp or R *
Tfr Send the
frame
la
yl
?
15
Yes Yes
w
Abort Success
w
Be E
gi B nd
n
Be E
gi A nd
n
Be E
gi C nd
n
t Tfr t t + Tfr time
Throughput
Page 35
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
G = average number of frames generated by the system during one frame transmission time.
b) SLOTTED ALOHA
Collision Collision
m
duration duration
co
Frame 1.1 Frame 1.2
Station 1
Time
s.
Frame 2.1 Frame 2.2
Station 2
bu Time
Time
Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 3 Slot 4 Slot 5 Slot 6 Slot 7
.a
A collides with C
Be En
gi B d
n
Be En
gi A d
n
Be En
gi C d
n
t Tfr t t + Tfr time
Page 36
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Throughput
G = average number of frames generated by the system during one frame transmission time.
The chance of collision can be reduced if a station senses the medium before trying to use
it. CSMA requires that each station first listen to the medium before sending. CSMA is
m
based on the principle sense before transmit or listen before talk.
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
CSMA can reduce the possibility of collision, but it cant eliminate it. The reason for this
w
is shown in the above figure, a space and time model of a CSMA network. Stations are
w
connected to a shared channel. The possibility of collision still exists because of the
propagation delay.
Persistence strategies
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
The CSMA method does not specify the procedure following the collision. CSMA with
collision detection augments the algorithm to handle the collision.
m
co
In this method, a station monitors the medium after it sends a frame to see if the
transmission was successful. If so, the station is finished. If, however, there is a collision,
s.
the frame is sent again.
bu
D) Carrier Sense Multiple Access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA)
la
The basic idea behind CSMA/CD is that a station needs to be able to receive while
yl
transmitting to detect a collision. When there is no collision, the station receives one
lls
signal; its own signal. When there is a collision, the station receives two signals; its own
signal and the signal transmitted by the second station.
.a
Collisions are avoided by deferring transmissions even if the channel is found idle. When
w
an idle channel is found, the station does not send immediately. It waits for a period of
w
time called the interframe space or IFS. Even though the channel may appear idle when it
is sensed, a distant stations signal has not yet reached this station. The IFS time allows
w
the front of the transmitted signal by the distant station to reach this station.
Page 38
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
In controlled access, the stations consult one another to find which station has the right to
send. A station cant send unless it has been authorized by other stations.
.a
w
a) Reservation:
w
w
In the reservation method, a station needs to make a reservation before sending the data.
Time is divided into intervals. In each interval, a reservation frame precedes the data
frames sent in the interval.
b) Polling:
Polling works with topologies in which one device is designated as a primary station and
the other devices are secondary stations. All data exchanges must be made through the
primary device even when the ultimate destination is a secondary device.
Page 39
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
The select function is used whenever the primary device has something to send. The poll
function is used by the primary device to solicit transmissions from the secondary device.
c) Token Passing:
m
co
s.
bu
la
In the token-passing method, the stations in a network are organized in a logical ring.
yl
Token management is needed for this access method. Stations must be limited in the time
they can have possession of the token. The token must be monitored to ensure it has not
lls
Page 40
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
3.4 CHANNELIZATION
In FDMA, the bandwidth is divided into channels. Each station is allocated a band to
send its data. Each station also uses a band pass filter to confine the transmitter
frequencies. To prevent station interferences, the allocated bands are separated from one
another by small guard bands.
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
In TDMA, the stations share the bandwidth of the channel in time. Each station is
allocated a time slot during which it can send data. Each station transmits its data in its
assigned time slot.
Page 41
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
CDMA differs from FDMA because only one channel occupies the entire bandwidth of
the link and it differs from TDMA because all stations can send data simultaneously.
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Chip sequences
Page 42
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
1)
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
2)
w
Page 43
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
3)
m
co
s.
bu
la
Recommended questions:
yl
6. Compare and contrast a random access protocol with a controlled access protocol.
w
Page 44
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Unit 4: Hrs: 07
Syllabus:
IEEE standards, standard Ethernet, changes in the standards, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit
Ethernet, Wireless LAN IEEE 802.11
Recommended readings:
m
Chapter 14 page 421 to 434
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 45
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 46
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 47
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 48
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 49
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 50
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 51
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 52
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 53
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 54
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 55
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 56
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
Recommended questions:
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 57
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
PART B
Unit 5: Hrs: 06
Syllabus:
Recommended readings:
m
Text Book: Data Communication & Networking, B Forouzan, 4e, TMH
co
Chapter 15 page 445 to 463
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 58
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Application Application
Gateway
Transport Transport
Network Router or three-layer switch Network
Data link Bridge or two-layer switch Data link
Physical Repeater or
Hub
Physical
Passive Hub
PASSIVE HUB
* A passive hub is just a connector.
m
* It connects the wires coming from different branches.
* Its location in the Internet model is below the physical layer
co
REPEATERS
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
* Signals that carry information can travel a fixed distance & faces attenuation.
w
* A repeater receives a weakened signal, regenerates the original bit pattern and sends the
refreshed signal.
w
w
Repeater Vs Amplifier
* An amplifier cant discriminate between the intended signal and noise, it amplifies
equally everything fed into it.
* A repeater doesnt amplify the signal, it regenerates the signal.
REPEATERS
Page 59
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
ACTIVE HUBS
m
co
* An active hub is actually a multi-port repeater.
s.
* It is normally used tocreate connections between stations in a physical star topology.
bu
* Hubs can also be used to create multiple levels of hierarchy.
* The hierarchical use of hubs removes the length limitation of 10Base-T.
la
BRIDGES
yl
* A Bridge operates in both the Physical and the Data link layer.
lls
frame.
* Compared to the repeaters, a BRIDGE has a filtering capability forwarding &
w
dropping of frames.
w
Page 60
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
BRIDGES - Filtering
m
Transparent bridges
co
* A Transparent bridge is a bridge in which the stations are completely unaware of
s.
bridges existence. bu
* If a bridge is added or deleted from the system, reconfiguration of the stations is
unnecessary.
la
* According to IEEE 802.1d, a system equipped with transparent bridges must meet three
criteria.
yl
1. Forwarding.
lls
2. Learning.
3. Loops should not be present.
.a
Learning Process
w
w
w
Page 61
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Loop Problem
m
co
s.
bu
Spanning Tree
la
B LA B
yl
N1
1 2
lls
LA B LA
N2 3 N3
.a
B LA B
w
N4
4 5
w
a. Actual b. Graph
system representation
w
B LA B
B LA B N1
N1 1 2
1 2
LA B LA
LA B LA N2 N3
N2 N3
3
3
B LA B
B LA B N4
N4 4 5
4 5
c. Shortest path d. Spanning tree
Page 62
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
* Alternate method to prevent Loops in the system with redundant bridges.
co
* Filtering frames is done by the source station, to some extent by the destination station
also.
s.
* A sending station defines the bridges that the frame must visit.
* The frames contain not only the source and destination addresses, but also the addresses
bu
of the bridges to be visited.
* The source gets the addresses through exchange of special frames with the destination
la
prior to sending data frames.
yl
* Frame Format.
w
* Bit order.
* Security.
* Multimedia support
TWO-LAYER SWITCHES
* A Two-layer switch is a bridge with multiple ports and a design that allows better
performance.
* As a bridge, two-layer switch makes a filtering decision based on physical address of
the frame it received.
* It is more sophisticated it can have a buffer to hold the frames for processing.
* Ex Cut-through switches.
Page 63
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
* A ROUTER is a three-layer device that routes packets based on their logical addresses.
* A router normally connects LANs & WANs in the internet and has a routing table that
is used for making decisions about the route.
* the routing tables are normally dynamic and are updated using routing protocols.
** A Three-Layer switch is a router, but a faster and more sophisticated.
GATEWAY
* A GATEWAY is normally a computer that operates in all five layers of the internet
model and seven layers of the OSI model.
* A Gateway takes an application message, reads it and interprets it means it can be
m
used as a connecting device between two internetworks that use different models.
co
* A network designed to use the OSI model can be connected to another network using
the internet model.
s.
* Gateways can provide security. bu
la
5. 2 BACKBONE NETWORK
yl
lls
2. Bus backbone.
w
w
Page 64
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
VLAN
1
la
VLAN
2
yl
VLAN
3
lls
.a
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
Recommended questions:
co
1. What is the difference between a forwarding port and a blocking port?
2. What is the basis for a membership in a VLAN?
s.
3. What is the difference between a bus backbone and a star backbone?
bu
4. How does a VLAN reduce network traffic?
5. How is a hub related to a repeater?
la
6. How does a repeater extend the length of a LAN?
7. What is a transparent bridge?
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 66
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Unit 6: Hrs: 07
Syllabus:
Network layer, Logical addressing, IPv4 addresses, IPv6 addresses, IPv4 and IPv6
transition from IPv4 to IPv6.
Recommended readings:
m
Chapter 20 page 582 to 605
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 67
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 68
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 69
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 70
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 71
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 72
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 73
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 74
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 75
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 76
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 77
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 78
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
IPv4 Datagram format:
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 79
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 80
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 81
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 82
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 83
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
Page 84
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
Page 85
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 86
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 87
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
Page 88
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 89
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
Recommended questions:
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 90
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Unit 7: Hrs: 06
Syllabus:
Recommended readings:
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 91
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
7.1 Delivery:
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 92
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
7.2 Forwarding:
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 93
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
7.3 Unicast Routing Protocols
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 94
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 95
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 96
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 97
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
2. Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 98
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
Page 99
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 100
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 101
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 102
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Recommended questions:
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 103
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Unit 8: Hrs: 06
Syllabus:
Transport layer process to process delivery, UDP, TCP, Domain name system,
Resolution.
Recommended readings:
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 104
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
source host to the corresponding process running on the destination host.
* The Transport Layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery.
co
* Two processes communicate in a client/server relationship.
s.
Client/Server Paradigm bu
* The most common method of achieving Process-to-Process delivery is Client/Server
Paradigm.
la
* A process on the local host, called a client needs service from a process usually on the
yl
* Local Host, Local Process, Remote Host, Remote Process must be defined for
.a
communication.
w
Addressing
w
w
* To choose among the multiple processes running on the Host, Port numbers are
required.
* The destination port number is needed for delivery, and source port number is needed
for reply.
Page 105
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
* In the Internet model, the port numbers are 16-bit integers: 0 to 65535.
* The client process defines itself with a port number, chosen randomly, called
EPHEMERAL (temporary) port number.
* The server process must also define itself with a port number, but not chosen randomly.
The server uses the Universal port numbers called WELL-KNOWN port numbers.
IANA ranges
m
co
* WELL-KNOWN ports: The ports ranging from 0 to 1023 are assigned and controlled
by IANA.
s.
* REGISTERED ports: The ports ranging from 1024 to 49, 151 are not assigned or
bu
controlled by IANA. They can only be registered with IANA to prevent duplication.
* DYNAMIC ports: The ports ranging from 49, 152 to 65,535 are neither controlled nor
registered. They can be used by any process. These are the Ephemeral ports.
la
yl
Socket addresses
lls
.a
w
w
w
* A Transport layer protocol needs a pair of socket addresses: the Client socket address
and the Server socket address.
* The IP header contains the IP address & the UDP or TCP contains the port numbers.
Page 106
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Multiplexing:
* many-to-one relationship at the sender site.
* protocol accepts messages from different processes, differentiated by their assigned
port numbers.
* adds the header, & passes the packet to the network layer.
m
co
De-multiplexing:
* one-to-many relationship at the receiver site.
s.
* protocol accepts datagram from the network layer, checks errors, drops the header and
delivers each message to the appropriate process based on the port number.
bu
la
Connectionless Vs Connection-oriented service
yl
Connectionless:
lls
* Ex: UDP
connection-oriented:
w
* a connection is first established b/w the sender and the receiver, data are transferred and
w
Reliable Vs Unreliable
Reliable:
* Reliable protocol guarantees successful data transmission by implementing flow &
error control mechanisms
Unreliable:
* doesnt guarantee successful data transmission. It doesnt implement any error or flow
control mechanism
Page 107
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
7 Echo Echoes a received datagram back to the sender
9 Discard Discards any datagram that is received
co
11 Users Active users
13 Daytime Returns the date and the time
s.
17 Quote Returns a quote of the day
bu
19 Chargen Returns a string of characters
53 Nameserver Domain Name Service
la
67 Bootps Server port to download bootstrap information
68 Bootpc Client port to download bootstrap information
yl
Page 108
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
* if the source host is client, the port number is an ephemeral port number requested by
process & chosen by UDP software running on the host.
co
* if the source host is server, the port number is an well-known.
s.
Destination port number: bu
* used by the processes running on the destination host.
* it is 16-bit long: 0 to 65,535
la
* if the destination host is client, the port number is an ephemeral port number requested
by process & chosen by UDP software running on the host.
yl
Total Length:
.a
* it is 16-bit long, defines the total length of the user datagram plus data.
* 16-bits can define a total length of 0 to 65,535 bytes, but the total length needs to be
w
much less, because a UDP datagram is stored in a IP datagram with a total length of
w
65,535 bytes.
w
Checksum:
* used to detect the errors over the entire datagram.
* calculation & inclusion of the checksum in a user datagram is optional.
* if the checksum is not calculated, the field is filled with 1s.
UDP operation
Connectionless service:
* there is no connection establishment and no connection termination.
* each user datagram is an independent datagram, there is no relationship between the
datagrams even if they are coming from the same source process and destined for the
same process.
Page 109
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Queuing
m
Daytime client Daytime server
co
s.
bu
Outgoing Incoming Outgoing Incoming
la
queue queue queue queue
yl
lls
Page 110
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Queues at server:
* at the server site, a server asks for incoming and outgoing queues using its well-known
port number, when it starts running.
* the queues remain open as long as the server process is running.
Incoming queue:
* when a message arrives for a server, UDP sends the received user datagram to the end
of the incoming queue.
* all the incoming messages for one particular server process, whether coming from the
m
same or a different client, are sent to the same queue.
* if there is no such queue, UDP discards the user datagram and asks ICMP to send a port
co
unreachable message to the client.
* an incoming queue can overflow, in case, the UDP drops the user datagram and sends
s.
the port unreachable message to the client.
bu
Outgoing queue at the server:
la
* when a server wants to respond to a client, it sends messages to the outgoing queue.
* UDP removes one by one and, after adding the UDP header, delivers them to IP.
yl
* an outgoing queue can overflow, in that case, the OS asks the server to wait before
lls
Use of UDP
w
* UDP is suitable for a process that requires simple request-response communication with
w
TFTP.
* It is a suitable transport protocol for multicasting.
* UDP is used for management processes such as SNMP.
* UDP is used for some route updating protocols such as Routing Information Protocol
(RIP).
Page 111
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
TCP services:
i) Process to process communication:
* TCP provides process-to-process communication using the port numbers.
ii) Stream Delivery Service:
* TCP is a stream-oriented protocol allows sending process to deliver data as a stream
of bytes and allows the receiving process to obtain data as a stream of bytes.
m
co
TCP Services
s.
Sending and Receiving buffers: bu
* because the sending & receiving processes may not write or read data at the same
speed, TCP needs buffers for storage.
* two buffers for sending and receiving.
la
Segments:
* the IP layer, as a service provider for TCP, needs to send data in packets, not as a
stream of bytes.
* at the transport layer, TCP groups a number of bytes together into a packet called a
Segment.
* TCP adds a header to each segment and delivers to the IP layer.
* the segments are encapsulated in the IP datagram and transmitted.
Page 112
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
* when a process at site A wants to send and receive data from another process at site B,
the following occurs.
co
1. the 2 TCPs establish a connection between them.
2. data are exchanged in both directions.
s.
3. the connection is terminated.
v) Reliable service:
bu
* it uses an acknowledgement mechanism to check the safe and sound arrival of data.
la
TCP Features
yl
i) Numbering system:
lls
BYTE NUMBER:
* the bytes of the data being transferred in each connection are numbered by TCP.
.a
SEQUENCE NUMBER
* after the bytes have been numbered, TCP assigns a sequence number to each segment
w
* the sequence number for each segment is the number of the first byte carried in that
segment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT NUMBER
* each party uses an acknowledgement number to confirm the bytes it has received, i.e.,
acknowledgement number defines the number of the next byte it expects to receive.
* the acknowledgement numbers are cumulative.
Page 113
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
m
co
s.
bu
la
* the segment consists of a 20- to 60- byte header, followed by data from the
yl
application process.
lls
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
a time.
* these bits enable flow control, connection establishment and termination, connection
abortion, and the mode of data transfer in TCP.
Flag Description
m
co
ACK The value of the acknowledgment field is valid.
PSH Push the data.
s.
RST The connection must be reset.
bu
SYN Synchronize sequence numbers during connection.
la
FIN Terminate the connection.
yl
receiver. The sender must obey the dictation of the receiver in this case.
w
ix) Checksum:
* 16-bit field contains the checksum, and its inclusion in TCP is mandatory.
w
x) Urgent pointer:
w
* this 16-bit field, which is valid only if the urgent flag is set, is used when the segment
contains urgent data.
* it defines the number that must be added to the sequence number to obtain the number
of the last urgent byte in the data section of the segment.
xi) Options:
* there can be up to 40 bytes of optional information in the TCP header.
TCP connection
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Connection Establishment
* The connection establishment in TCP is called Three-way Handshaking.
Client Server
A: ACK flag
S: SYN flag
Active open
Seq:8000 Passive open
m
A S
co
SYN
Seq:15000
ack: 8001
s.
A S bu
SYN + ACK * Simultaneous open
Seq:8000 * SYN Flooding attack
Ack: 15001
la
A
yl
ACK
Time Time
Data Transfer
lls
.a
Client Server
A: ACK flag
P: PSH flag
w
Seq:8001
w
Ack: 15001
w
A P
Data: bytes 8001 9000
Seq:9001
Ack: 15001
A P
Data: bytes 9001 10000
Seq:15001
Ack: 10001
A P
Data: bytes 15001 17000
Seq:10000
Ack: 17001
Time A Time
Page 116
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Connection Termination
* Any of the two parties involved in exchanging data can close the connection.
Client Server
A: ACK flag
F: FIN flag
Active close
Seq:x
Ack: y
A F
FIN
m
Passive close
Seq:y
ack: x+1
co
A F
s.
FIN + ACK
Seq:X
bu
Ack: y+1
A
la
ACK
Time Time
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 117
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Computer Communication Networks 06EC71
Recommended questions:
m
co
s.
bu
la
yl
lls
.a
w
w
w
Page 118
vtu.allsyllabus.com