Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Pierre Waeckerl
Degree project in
Electric Power Systems
Second Level
Stockholm, Sweden 2011
XR-EE-ES 2011:012
Potential of using Low Voltage Direct Current in local
distribution network to improve the overall efficiency
ii
Sammanfattning
Projektet studerar mjligheterna att erstta LVAC med LVDC i distributionsnt. Studien
behandlar tre olika frgor: en litteratustudie om LVAC- och LVDC-system, en studie av
huruvida vanliga lgspnningskablar av den typ man har i byggnader kan anvndas i ett
framtida LVDC-nt och en teknisk jmfrelse av frlusterna i verfring och omvandling
i LVDC- och LVAC-nt.
Litteraturstudien ger en versikt och frklaringar fr att underltta frstelsen fr
problemet. Sedan en srskild litteraturgenomgng av ldrandefenomen fr likstrms- och
vxelstrmskablar fr byggnader med lga spnningar och genomfrandet av fallstudien
som drar slutsatsen att det r lg risk fr elektriskt ldrande om man anvnder kablar
avsedda fr vxelstrm i ett likstrmssystem.
Slutligen r en jmfrelse av LVAC och LVDC utfrd p tre olika niver: 1) kabel-
frlusterna jmfrs i LVAC och LVDC och visar sig inte ge resistiva frluster ver 1% i
vanliga situationer eftersom strmfrtrngnings- och nrhet-effekter inte r av relevant
storlek vid lg frekvens (50Hz) och lg spnning, 2) en jmfrelse av olika typer av hem
och distributionsntsutformningar enfas och trefas vxelstrm kontra unipolr och bi-
polr DC dr det visar sig vara en klar frdel att anvnda DC jmfrt med vxelstrm
d man vill verfra effekt ver lngre avstnd, 3) en energifrbrukningsjmfrelse mel-
lan hushll som matas med antingen vxelstrm (AC) eller likstrm (DC) resulterar i
sm frlustbesparingar vid byte frn AC till DC eftersom inga omformare helt kan av-
lgsnas.
iii
Aknowledgments
I would first like to thank Nexans for welcoming me at the NRC in Lyon. I
learned a lot of technical and non-technical things during those 6 months. I had
a very rewarding opportunity to learn a lot about cable manufacturing, even on
some matter that are out of my study scope but fed my curiosity.
Thank you to Lazhar Kebbabi and Arnaud Allais for their valuable technical
comments, guidance and critical review of my work all along that project.
A special thanks to the other interns, Yannis, Pierre-Marie and Jrmy for their
help. I would also like to thank the Nexans technicians that helped and/or wel-
comed me: Xavier, Jean-Michel, Olivier and Yann.
iv
Contents
Abstract ii
Sammanfattning iii
Aknowledgments iv
List of tables ix
Introduction 1
v
vi CONTENTS
3 AC and DC comparison 22
3.1 AC versus DC in literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.1 AC advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.2 DC advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2 Cables under LVDC conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2.1 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2.2 Energy losses in cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2.3 Analytical calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2.3.1 Simple skin effect model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2.3.2 Skin and proximity effect coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2.3.3 Conclusion on the skin and proximity effects . . . . . . . 28
3.3 LVDC layouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3.1 Comparison generalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3.2 Transmissible power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3.2.1 Household power grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.3.2.2 Distribution power layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3.3 Results and analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3.3.1 Household power grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3.3.2 Distribution power grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.4 Energy consumption comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.4.1 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.4.2 Monte Carlo simulation theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.4.3 Simulation model and hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.4.4 Energy consumption of appliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4.5 Simulation workflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.4.6 Simulation results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.5 Conclusion of the chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4 Conclusion 49
4.1 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2 Future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
B Analytical results 53
B.1 Skin depth calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
B.2 Skin and proximity coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
B.3 Voltage drop limitation calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Glossary 73
Bibliography 74
viii
List of Tables
1.1.1 IGBT conversion losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Main appliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
B.1.1Skin depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
B.2.1Skin and proximity coefficients, 2 conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
B.2.2Skin and proximity coefficients, 3 conductors trefoil . . . . . . . . . . . 55
B.2.3Skin and proximity coefficients, 3 conductors flat . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
B.3.1Transmissible power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
ix
Introduction
The project was initiated by Nexans to explore the potential of DC distribution networks.
As a cable manufacturer Nexans produces a wide variety of cables from building cables
to High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) submarine cables. Within Nexans, the project
was conducted by the Nexans Research Center of Lyon in the MV/HV unit.
The potential of DC in the power system is the subject of many papers. But the
outcomes of each study are related to the initial assumptions of each study. The thesis
was to provide an insight to Nexans on the subject.
The project was divided in three objectives: a) a state of the art on Low Voltage (LV)
networks, with the idea to compile useful knowledge for the understanding, assessment
and comparison of LVAC and LVDC grids, b) a losses comparison between LVAC and
LVDC to provide comparative figures resulting from verified calculations about trans-
mission and conversion losses, c) cable capabilities is the last concern dealing with the
capability of existing LVAC cables to sustain LVDC stress.
The report is organised according to the above objectives. The first chapter focuses
on a state of the art to constitute a base of knowledge making easier the understanding
of LVAC and LVDC pros and cons. The second chapter is specially oriented on the
assessment of the lifetime of existing low voltage building cables designed for AC grid
under LVDC stress. As the problem of cables breakdown is a complicated issue, a
literature review is presented and its results are applied here. The last part is the energy
comparison between AC and DC with an interest for cable resistive losses, transmissible
power in some different grid layouts and energy consumption for the final consumers.
1
Chapter 1
2
1.1 Conversion technologies 3
1.1.1 From AC to DC
1.1.1.1 Historical review
The first AC to DC conversion used electromechanical means as the power electronics
did not exist. It means coupling an AC motor converting the AC power into rotational
energy with a DC generator converting rotational energy into DC power. Due to
the complexity of the motor-generator set, the technology is inefficient, expensive and
requires intensive maintenance [3].
Power electronics made the rectification an economically feasible technique, first using
plasma technology. For HVDC transmissions, mercury arc valves were used. The mercury
arc rectifier is based upon an electric arc which, thanks to the valve environment, can
only be established in one way of the current. For lower voltages, argon gas electron tube
and vacuum tube were used. Power electronics reliability and efficiency have been greatly
improved thanks to semiconductors technologies. Nowadays, the AC to DC conversion is
performed thanks to silicon-based components.
(a) Half-wave
(b) Full-wave
(c) Graetz
To improve the power quality, other scheme exists such as the full-wave rectification.
To perform such a rectification, at least two diodes are needed: one conducting when the
current is positive (from the load point of view) and one when it is negative([5, 6] and
figure 1.1.1b). It is also possible to use 4 diodes in a Graetz rectifier as in figure 1.1.1c.
It uses 2 additional diodes but still is more interesting from an economical point of view:
compared to the full-wave rectifier, only two connections to the secondary side of the
transformer is needed.
The output of those rectifiers presents a strong electrical noise that can be reduced
with appropriate filtering units combining inductors and capacitors to remove unwanted
harmonics in the signal.
It is also possible, using the same principle to convert three-phase power to DC power
in a very efficient and clean way. Simply using full-wave rectifiers, one per phase, with
their outputs in parallel yields a signal whose oscillating frequency is six times higher
than the input one as shown in figure 1.1.2 [5, 6].
1) Diode is the simplest one. A current can only flow in one direction through a diode
[7]. That is the reason we named the rectifier in section 1.1.1.2 un-commanded.
2) Thyristors is an improved diode. The current can only flow in one direction and
thyristors allow to control when they start conducting [5].
3) Transistors are the latest of the components. They are equivalent to fully control-
lable switches.
LCC1 uses thyristors to convert power. It is the technology offering the highest
power range with the disadvantage to be more expensive [8].
VSC2 uses Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) instead of diodes or thyris-
tors. While invented in the late 1970s, the IGBT technology became interesting for
power electronics in the 2000s. The VSC are available for smaller power than LCC
with a lower efficiency [8]. Still, development is on its way and works to improve the
efficiency. The major advantage of transistors is their low cost, easing the recent
development of HVDC lines. With appropriate design VSC allow for bi-directional
power flow. If they have at least two conversion stages, they can either rectify or
invert power [9].
A method for calculation of the conversion losses for IGBT modules is found in [2].
There might be conduction losses or switching losses depending among others on
the switching frequency fsw , the nominal current Inom and the actual current flowing
through the converter. The other parameters are listed in [2]. Running the calculation
for a converter with a rated current Inom = 1200A, for frequencies varying in the range
fsw = 1.5 20 kHz and loading of 25, 50, 75 and 100% give the values displayed in table
1.1.1.
fsw Converter loading
kHz 25% 50% 75% 100%
1.5 0.89 1.68 2.61 3.68
5 2.04 3.40 4.91 6.56
10 3.68 5.87 8.20 10.68
15 5.32 8.33 11.49 14.79
20 6.96 10.80 14.78 18.91
Table 1.1.1 Conversion losses for IGBT modules in kW
1.1.2 From DC to AC
1.1.2.1 Historical review
As for rectification in section 1.1.1.1, an electromechanical conversion was first the only
way to invert from DC to AC. The vacuum tube technology was then used to convert
DC to AC, especially for the first HVDC links. The transistor is the power electronics
component that first replaced the vacuum tube at commercial scale. Nowadays, IGBT
are widely used in power electronics.
1.1.2.2 Principles
To recreate an alternating current from a direct current, we need to carry current in one
way and then in the other way. We can do that with two switches: one will conduct
1
Line Commutated Converter
2
Voltage Source Converter
the current in one way while the other is opened and vice versa. With the appropriate
frequency of switching we control the power waveform and frequency.
It is common to use pulse-width modulation3 which generates square-waves of differ-
ent width to recreate a sine wave signal. The faster the commutation, the higher the
harmonics frequency and thus the easier it is to filter them. But the faster the commu-
tation, the higher the commutation losses. A low-frequency example is shown in figure
1.1.3, with 6 oscillations per period. Nowadays, grid-tied inverters (used for photovoltaic
panels for example) reach 94-96% efficiency [5].
1.1.3 From DC to DC
1.1.3.1 Historical review
As explained in section 1.3.3 for AC to DC and DC to AC, electromechanical conver-
sion was the only way to convert DC power from one voltage to another. With power
electronics, DC to DC conversion is available at high efficiencies.
1.1.4 From AC to AC
AC power is stepped up or down using transformers
[11]. The physical principle can easily be found in
the literature. A common approximate for distribu-
tion transformer efficiency is 98%. Some experimen-
tal transformers using superconducting windings can
achieve 99.9% efficiency. But they are far from being
profitable.
Another need in all-AC systems is to control the
power flow. For example, lighting devices with a con-
trollable lighting power. In that case, the use of a dim- Figure 1.1.4 Dimmer for AC power
modulation
mer allows to control the Root Mean Square value of
a sin wave. Using a thyristor it is possible to obtain the desired output power. The
figure 1.1.4 shows the output signal of a dimmer with a cycle ratio of 12 , i.e. the thyristor
becomes conducting during one half of the wave cycle (or commute every 14 cycle).
1. Input rectifier: the input AC power is first rectified with a simple full-wave
rectifier [14]. This rectification stage is completed with an upstream (grid side)
filter to avoid harmonics on the grid and a downstream Power Factor Corrector.
This first conversion step could be saved if fed by a DC grid.
4. Output rectifier: once the voltage is at the desired level, the power is rectified to
DC [5, 13, 14]. Similarly to the input rectifier, the high-frequency inverter noise is
filtered to provide an high quality output.
5. Regulator: located between the DC output and the high-frequency inverter, the
output voltage and current can be regulated that way.
The table 1.2.1 shows a list of most common appliance types according to Institut
National de la Statistique et des tudes conomiques, french national statistics office
(INSEE) [15]. The equipment rate is the share of household equipped with the considered
appliance.
Leakage currents is another kind of electrical fault. Due to a fault, some current does
not return to the feeding transformer through the neutral conductor but through
the ground.
All those targets have major impacts on the power grid and its future evolution. And
they all are linked together. For example, reducing the primary energy use through effi-
ciency improvements will make it easier to provide the remainder with energy generated
using renewables.
d
e=
dt
1.4.2.2 Electronics
While the typical consumption profile of appliances in power grid has been the same for
over a century, this situation is changing with the widespread use of electronics at home
and offices.
The concerned appliances are televisions, video recorders, personal computers, phones
and others (see table 1.2.1). As of INSEE 2008, 97% french households owns a television
and over 90% owns a telephone (land-line or mobile). Those figures only take into account
the households but every offices are equipped with computers and photocopiers. The
figure 1.4.1 shows the increase in sales of Information and Communications Technology
(ICT). There is an obvious trend to get equipped with electronics.
A common characteristic of all those appliances is that they consume DC power.
Thus, fed by AC power, the first steps of the power conversion cycle is to rectify using
Switched-Mode Power Supplies (see section 1.1.5). Using DC to avoid some conversion
steps would save some power in the conversion. But a centralized conversion would be
necessary to rectify AC power from the grid
Figure 1.4.1 Sales of ICT units from 1990 to 2009, INSEE 2010
Power grids in the countries members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD) are ageing. In France, most of the 220kV-grid was deployed
between 1900 and 1938. It was reinforced in the 70s with a 400kV-grid to transport the
power generated by nuclear power plants. The grid topology and material is 40 years old.
The necessary refurbishment and strengthening of national grids is a major opportu-
nity to adapt its topologies to new consumption and generation trends. One opportunity
with direct current is to save on consumption and losses to make available some trans-
mission capacity without building new lines. If DC systems saves on losses, they would
postpone the expansion of the grid until the consumption increase reaches the new max-
imal transmissible power.
Another concept and root of the smart grid is the shift from a centralised toward a
distributed grid. In the current grid, there are plants on one side of the power lines
opposing to loads on the other side. This is a centralised scheme.
But the increasing share of renewables is changing the context. An increasing number
of small units may provide significant amounts of electricity near the consumption sites.
But their power output is fluctuating. Ensuring power grid equilibrium becomes a great
challenge.
1.4.3.3 Micro-grids
A micro-grid is, by definition, formed when an electrical region capable of autonomous
operation is islanded from the remainder of the grid [19]. Compared to todays systems,
the major point is the ability to ensure autonomous operation. Nowadays, when the
feeding point of a consumption area breaks down, the concerned area is not anymore
supplied with power even if some local units generate the sufficient amount of power
within the area. The reason is simply that the area is not equipped with the systems
necessary to ensure the required safety and quality. Two major challenges with micro-
grids can be defined [20]:
Breakdown
1
small inclusions of gas in the insulation during the manufacturing process
18
2.1 Description of ageing phenomena 19
Degradation
Figure 2.1.1 Breakdown and degradation phenomena sorted by electric field and time to breakdown
[21]
R2
seq = R2 ln (2.2.1)
R1
If s is the real insulation thickness, we have R2 = R1 + s and s 1 mm. Thus the
radius ratio can be rewritten in equation 2.2.2.
R2 s
=1+ (2.2.2)
R1 R1
As s R1 (see table A.2.1) in our case study, we can simplify seq using Taylor series
in equation 2.2.3.
R2
seq = R2 ln
R1
s
= R2 ln 1 +
R1
s
(R1 + s)
sR1 R1
s2
s+
sR1 R1
s (2.2.3)
sR1
We can assume that seq 1mm, which allows to assume that the electric field in the
insulation is proportional to the voltage with unit V /mm.
From the point of view of breakdown phenomena, we are in the range 0 to 1 kV /mm
or 0 to 1 106 V /m. Comparing this value with the inventory of breakdown and
degradation phenomena from figure 2.1.1, there might only be thermal breakdown and
water treeing leading to breakdown.
The calculations showed that risks of breakdown or degradation are very low. Ther-
mal breakdown and water treeing degradation were identified as the two possible causes
for breakdown. The first phenomenon thermal breakdown can be limited or avoided
through a good thermal design of the cable or sufficiently high safety coefficients to ac-
count for possible hazardous electrical installations. There is nothing different compared
to AC cables. The second phenomenon water treeing may occur in presence of an
aqueous liquid in contact with the cable insulation. This might be easily avoided with
appropriate electrical installations.
That calculation was only a simplified approach of the complex problem of breakdown.
As any simplification, it means some phenomena may not be considered in the study.
Still, from the point of view of normal operation, existing low voltage building cables for
AC distribution systems are suitable for future DC ones. The primary function of hte
insulation is more likely to be a protection against chemical threats.
Cables they were studied in terms of ageing in chapter 2 and they will be studied in
terms of efficiency in section 3.2,
Conversion power conversion is present at every stage of the transport and distribu-
tion and especially when considering DC in the actual all-AC distribution power
grid. The conversion will be estimated from articles to perform a consumption
comparison,
Appliances the appliances are the reason of the distribution power grid. The rise of
pure DC technologies is also a reason for the questions around LVDC. The power
consumption of appliances will be compared in AC and DC systems.
22
3.1 AC versus DC in literature 23
Safety of users and components is ensured by fuses or circuit-breakers fuses are now
forbidden for private installations. Those components were described in section
1.3.3. The safety is a big advantage for AC, mostly thanks to a century of research,
developments and installations.
Voltage control of the overall system. While reactive power is an issue as it reduces the
power-carrying capacity of a given cable, it presents the huge advantage to allow for
a separate control of voltage without modifying the active power as in DC systems.
Knowledge and experience are obvious advantages for AC systems. With over a
century of operation, an extended knowledge of system sizing, construction and
operation has been built.
Storage and Uninterrupted Power Supply are provided thanks to batteries relying
on DC power. Using a DC grid would reduce the conversion steps but not completely
remove the power conversion unit.
Variable speed drives are similar to wind turbine with a reversed power conversion
process. Using DC grid would save conversion steps but not entirely remove the
power conversion unit.
Voltage control is also an issue in DC systems, especially when combined with AC ones.
DC systems offers more choice and thus increase the need for further calculations.
On the other hand, a combination of AC and DC might - if correctly piloted -
increase the voltage stability thanks to the capacity of AC-DC converter to either
consume or produce reactive power at interfaces [9, 22, 24].
Power quality could also be improved through DC grids. Even though AC-DC con-
version is a major source of power harmonics, using centralized AC-DC conversion
station would allow a better control over the filtering practice, thus limiting the
undesired harmonics in the systems.
3.2.1 Methodology
When talking about cable efficiency, we want to compare the amount of losses. For a
cable, the losses are closely related to the impedance.
The assessment of the cable efficiency is presented in two steps:
Skin effect is caused by the time varying magnetic field of the conductor. It
is thus an auto-induction phenomena. It is characterized by the skin depth
defined for good conductors in equation 3.2.2, where is the conductor
resistivity, the current angular frequency ( = 2 f ) and = 0 r the
absolute magnetic permeability of the conductor.
r
2
= (3.2.2)
To assess those two effects standards define the AC effective resistance RAC as the
DC resistance RDC increased of ys by the skin effect and yp by proximity effect.
Dielectric losses are losses related to the dielectric nature of the cable (insulation
and conductor). Standards [25] states that the dielectric losses can be neglected at
low voltage.
Due to those different losses, the cable resistivity will be modified. The cable will have
to dissipate the heat generated by Joule heating in the conductor. That heat transfer,
precisely defined in [25], will lead to an increase of the temperature of each component of
the cable. When one of the components reaches its limit temperature, the current carried
by the cable is named the ampacity.
For this simplified calculation, we consider a single cable fed with 50Hz-AC power. The
skin depth is given in equation 3.2.2. The geometric layout of a simple cross-section is
shown in figure 3.2.1.
In order to run a comparison between AC and
d DC we want to calculate the effective sections in AC
(SAC ), and DC (SDC ). As no varying-field exists in
DC mode, the effective section is not modified and
therefore SDC is given by the simple expression in
equation 3.2.3.
d2
SDC = (3.2.3)
4
d
J(d) = JS e (3.2.4)
d < 2 ,the skin effect is out of concern as the penetration depth exceeds the diam-
eter,
d = 2 , the skin effect still does not impact the AC effective resistance but this is
the key point,
d > 2 , the skin effect increases the effective resistance.
The skin effect is effective at f = 50Hz if and only if SAC < SDC . This corresponds to
dlim = 18.45mm or SAC = SDC = 267.38mm2 . The table B.1.1 and figure B.1.1 shows a
synthesized view of the impact of the skin effect on a circular cross-section effective area.
The results of that first simplified approach shows the low impact of the skin effect
for LV installations. The low frequency employed in those installations combined with
the low value of magnetic fields generates very low Eddy currents. In the light of that
calculation, we can conclude that in our field of interest skin effect can be neglected.
2 cables the sum ys + yp does not go over 5 105 . If we introduce the definition of ys
and yp in the resistive losses, we have in equation 3.2.10.
PJoule,AC = RAC I 2
= (1 + ys + yp ) RDC I 2
= (1 + ys + yp ) PJoule,DC (3.2.10)
This means that skin and proximity effects in simple one-phase household configu-
ration do not increase the losses by more than 5 103 %.
3 cables no difference appears between the trefoil and flat configuration. The sum ys +yp
is larger than above, as shown in figure 3.2.3b the proximity coefficient yp is the one
making the difference. This is due to the three-conductors of a three-phase system.
The sum of the two factors is less than 1 102 of losses increase up to 120mm2 .
But this is already a large cross-section area allowing to transmit up to 120kW
under 230V for a three-phase system. For comparison, typical cross-section area of
70mm2 [2] are used in distribution systems. Still, at such a level, 2.46 102 kW are
dissipated as resistive losses at full load. At the price of the french regulated power
market 0.115e/kWh this corresponds to around 24e per year assuming the
cable is at full load all the year. This is to be compared with the 120 000e that
could be retrieved for the selling of the whole cable capacity. With that hypothesis
favourable to the DC case, the economical difference is not significant enough at
the scale of the distribution grid to finance the shift from AC to DC.
(a) 2 conductors
Master thesis
(b) 3 conductors
29
Figure 3.2.3 Chart representation of ys + yp for 2 and 3 conductors configurations
30 AC and DC comparison
I1 I1
Z1 R1
U1 +U
N N
I1 I1
(a) AC single-phase (b) DC unipolar
I1 Z1
P1
I2 Z2
V2 P2
I3 Z3
V1 P3
V3
return conductor N
I1 + I2 + I3
(a) AC three-phase with return conductor
R1
I1 R1
I1
+U
+U +U
+U
I1 + I2 return conductor N I1 + I2
return conductor
N
+U U
+U U
I2 I2
R2 R2
(b) DC Unipolar (c) DC Bipolar
Zcable 2L
R(L) = (3.3.1)
S
Figure 3.3.3 A simple scheme of a load
fed by a single-phase system where R is the cable resistance in , the specific
resistivity at 80 C in m, L the cable length
in m and S the cable cross-section area in m. As
demonstrated in section 3.2, the cable resistance is not much changed by the AC varying
magnetic field. But in AC-fed system, cables have a certain reactance causing voltage
drop. The reactance X is calculated according to equation 3.3.2, where L is the cable
length, the power pulsation and ` the linear inductance. From literature ` = 1 mH/km
[2].
X(L) = 2L ` (3.3.2)
The voltage along the line UAC (L) will vary from the nominal voltage UAC,0 according
to equation 3.3.3.
q
UAC (L) = [UAC,0 (L) R(L) I]2 [X(L) I]2 (3.3.3)
The maximal power Pmax,V a load at distance L can consume with respect to the
5% voltage drop limitation is calculated in equation 3.3.4 for an AC single-phase system.
2
0.05 UAC (L)
PV,1 (L) =
|Zcable |
2
0.05 UAC (L)
=p (3.3.4)
R(L)2 + X(L)2
The second limitation in transmissible power Pmax,1 arise from the cable ampacity
Imax,1 . Equation 3.3.5 shows how to calculate Pmax,1 .
In configuration 2, the same calculations steps for household DC system are performed
without the reactive impedance of the cable.
The limitation Pmax,2 associated with the cable ampacity Imax,2 is know from equation
3.3.7.
The voltage level at distance L from the load is given in equation 3.3.8 with UDC,0
the nominal voltage at feeding point.
The maximal current the cable can carry with respect to the voltage drop condition
is IV,2 , calculated in equation 3.3.9.
From those values, the maximal power a load can consume at a distance L from the
power source without exceeding the 5% voltage drop condition is PV,2 , calculated in
equation 3.3.10.
where VAC is the line-to-neutral voltage, UAC the line-to-line voltage and cos the power
factor. In order to compare AC and DC layouts, the line-to-neutral voltage will be used.
Due to the line impedance, the voltage drops along the line. The voltage at distance L
from the load for an equilibrated three-phase systems is calculated according to equation
3.3.13.
q
VAC (L) = [VAC,0 (L) R(L) I]2 [X(L) I]2 (3.3.13)
where the real part of Zcable,3 , R3 (L) is defined in equation 3.3.15 as the resistance of 3
conductors with a cross-section area S for each conductor for a length L. We consider
an equilibrated three-phase system i.e. no current in the return conductor.
L
R3 (L) = 3 (3.3.15)
S
For a short power line L < 50 km the reactance can be defined as in equation
3.3.16. is the power pulsation, ` the line linear reactance and L the line length.
X3 (L) = 3 ` L (3.3.16)
From equations 3.3.15 and 3.3.16, the line impedance Zcable,3 can be calculated in equation
3.3.17.
Z3 = 3 L + j ` (3.3.17)
S
The maximum current flowing in the line with respect to the voltage drop limitation
I V,3 is defined in equation 3.3.18.
V AC
I V,3 = 5% (3.3.18)
Z
The maximum complex power S V,3 that can be transmitted is calculated in equation
3.3.19.
S V,3 = 3 V AC (L) I V,3
5% VAC (L) ej
= 3 VAC
Z
3 5%
= VAC (L)2 ej (3.3.19)
Z
This gives in equation 3.3.20 the maximum real transmissible power with respect to
voltage drop limitation PV,3 .
PV,3 = < S V,3
3 5%
= VAC (L)2 cos
|Z|
5%
= r VAC (L)2 cos (3.3.20)
2
L + ( L)2
S
The voltage drop limitation can be calculated with equation 3.3.23 where is the
conductor resistivity in m, L the load distance in one way in m and S the cable
cross-section area in m2 .
R1 = R2 = I2 = I1 I1 + I2 = 0
With that hypothesis, the return conductor has a similar usage as the neutral conduc-
tor of AC three-phase systems as it carries imbalanced power. In a DC Bipolar scheme,
the ampacity is not modified and so does Pmax,5 in equation 3.3.25.
But the absence of current in the return path of an ideal bipolar system reduces
the voltage drop by half. The maximal transmissible power according to voltage drop
conditions can be calculated with equation 3.3.26.
37
Figure 3.3.4 Synthesis of the power limitation capacity (in kW) for a single-phase building installation
Nexans Research Center, Nexans, Lyon
38
AC and DC comparison
EPS lab, KTH, Stockholm
Figure 3.3.5 Transmissible power versus load distance for the three distribution configurations with 120mm2 conductors under 500V
Pierre Waeckerl
Figure 3.3.6 Transmissible power limitation change for the three configurations with single conductors of 400mm2 cross-section area
39
40 AC and DC comparison
3.4.1 Methodology
The expected outcome is a difference of consumption of power for a representative set of
households.
The study will start by sorting the appliances of importance in the comparison. Then,
the way to model the power consumption is defined in the light of the available data. This
is the only necessary data and decisions to make to design the Monte Carlo simulation.
But in order to get results, the power consumption of each appliance in AC and DC
is requested.
Figure 3.4.1 The layout of a basic Monte Carlo simulation called simple sampling
Some improvements are available to increase the efficiency or the accuracy of the
simulation. Most of those improvements apply on the randomization of the inputs [28,
29, 30, 31, 32].
1
In an explicit function, the value of the outputs can be related to the inputs with a mathematical
function
1. A household, picked in the types of household from table 3.4.1. In order to sta-
tistically describe the household input, different possibilities are available in the
National Databases of INSEE [15]: a) type of household (couple with child, cou-
ple without child, ...), b) age of the representative member c) job type. As the
consumption is likely to be more dependent on the size of the household, they are
described by type in the simulation (table 3.4.1). The type of household is the input
UD .
The table 3.4.2 shows the choice for each appliance represented by 13 inputs {UP i }{i1...13} .
The outputs are the AC and DC consumption when used in on- or standby- mode
(see section 3.4.4).
The presented model is highly simplified. The following simplifications have been
made:
The approach of household equipment is much simplified. Only the household type
is considered.
The appliance usage has also been simply described. This is related to simplifica-
tions on the energy consumption described in section 3.4.4.
Concerning the variance reduction techniques, the following ones have been chosen:
Correlated sampling is used as the objective is to compare two systems with the
same inputs [31].
Regarding the calculation accuracy, a stopping rule based on relative tolerance was
implemented [29]. With losses of conversion estimated at 2.5% per step [22], an accuracy
of 0.1% seemed necessary to exploit the results.
Pure AC appliances require AC power to work. For the sake of simplicity, only
variable drives appliances are accounted as they are the more widespread.
Figure 3.4.2 Power conversion at the input of pure AC appliances if fed with AC or DC power
Pure DC appliances require DC power. From [1], the power conversion can be
considered as:
Figure 3.4.3 Power conversion at the input of pure DC appliances if fed with AC or DC power
The resulting efficiencies are summarized in table 3.4.3 by type of appliance and type of
feeding power type.
The conversion efficiency for each appliance is summed up in table C.5.1. This table
also include consumption approximation taken from typical appliance on sale in general
stores and INSEE statistics [33].
A household
A set of equipments
Usage patterns
The equipment consumption
With all those inputs, we can calculate the yearly consumption of each appliance for
the household, this is the role of the model.
Then, the outputs described in figure 3.4.4 are:
the consumption difference between AC- and DC- fed systems in on-mode of appli-
ances
the consumption difference between AC- and DC- fed systems in standby mode of
appliances.
The expected value of the collected outputs are the results of the simulation.
46
E [PAC,on ] E [PAC,standby ] E [PDC,on ] E [PDC,standby ]
Household type h Nh
kWh
D1 - Single person 0.31 318 948.62 110.23 898.77 70.16
D2 - Mono-parental family 0.074 98 1354.33 142.97 1278.25 87.15
D3 - Couple without child 0.248 265 1256.21 141.77 1195.91 85.87
D4 - Couple with child 0.315 350 1531.81 204.19 1450.48 119.91
D5 - Others 0.053 46 1194.18 179.34 1132.01 93.40
Overall 1 1077 1251.64 153.74 1186.70 92.22
Table 3.4.4 Yearly consumption by type of household, sorted by standby-, on-, AC- and DC-mode
AC and DC comparison
D2 - Mono-parental family 0.074 98 -76.08 20.30 -55.81 41.38
EPS lab, KTH, Stockholm
Before analysing those results, it must be noted that they only concern the real power
consumption. This means that the following concerns are ignored:
The reactive power in AC mode because the end-users pay for the active power,
Figure 3.4.5 Graph of the results from table 3.4.5, the length of error bars is the standard deviation
Conclusion
This work approached various aspects of the distribution power grids and especially the
comparison between existing well-known AC grids and promising DC ones.
Chapter 1 gave an insight on advantages, drawbacks and limitations of AC and DC
systems. The omnipresence of DC power in every common appliance was demonstrated.
While power grids rely on AC power, all the appliances listed as the most common
ones rely on DC power either to power them or just as a step in the power conversion
process [15]. Another key component of low voltage private distribution grids, protection
systems designed for all-DC systems already exists, but they are not available on the
shelf as DC systems are not as common as AC ones.
Chapter 2 completed the literature review with a special look at electrical ageing of
cables. The comparison of the levels of electric field in the insulation with the ranking
of the ageing phenomena pointed out the possible breakdown phenomena. The study
shows no difference of possible electrical ageing phenomena between AC and DC ageing
for low voltage building cables. The degradation of cables is more likely to be a result of
chemical ageing than of electrical ageing.
Chapter 3 ran a technical comparison between AC and DC grids with the will to
provide reliable figures in the trade-off. Our first interest was to pay attention to resistive
losses in the cable. This especially meant to compare skin and proximity effects. The
result was to show no major difference between AC and DC for low voltage distribution
systems. In common configurations 2 or 3 phases the effective resistance of the set
of cables is increased by 1% in AC compared to DC, which is an insignificant reduction
in favour of DC. It would only be in very intricate configurations with cable bunches
that proximity effects might become disturbing enough to favour DC. From the point
of view of possible distribution layouts, DC showed some advantages. The voltage drop
in cables under DC conditions is much lower than in AC. Finally, a comparison of the
power consumption of end users concluded to the absence of significant power savings
when using DC instead of AC. Despite hypotheses favourable to power conversion in DC
systems (see section 3.4.4), the simulation concluded to only 5% of power savings for
appliances making a difference between AC and DC i.e. the heating was not included in
the power consumption, for a typical consumption of 3000kWh per year and per household
(including every possible consumptions), the saving for using DC decreases to 2%. The
power is saved on the power rectification that occurs at each appliance input when used
in AC grid. Approximately the same savings 5% can be obtained by a smart design
of appliances i.e. by putting the switch on the good side of the power conversion unit.
49
50 Conclusion
4.1 Discussion
The major hypothesis for the Monte Carlo simulation is the existence of more efficient
power conversion units for a DC system than for an AC one. The hypothesis reflects
the idea that shifting to DC systems will not happen while power conversion is not more
efficient. In the light of that hypothesis, the expected result has to be in favour of DC.
But the result did not show a significant improvement of the energy efficiency despite
that hypothesis.
the consumption model developed here is simplified. A more detailed one would be
necessary to integrate more complex consideration like hour precision to account for
price variation, electric vehicle loading or unloading to shave power peaks, renewable
energy sources, etc,
the cost aspect has been considered in a simple manner in the study because of
its complexity: material savings on conversion technologies, investment postponed
thanks to the avoided reactive power, etc. The investment costs are the main topic
to oppose to power savings. If the economical gain in losses of active power is not
higher than the cost for AC/DC central converters, then the DC technology is not
feasible for grid operators. But the economical trade-off is a more complicated topic.
Many different points of view should be considered: the end-user, the grid owner,
the grid operator, the cable manufacturer, the appliance producer, the authorities,
etc.
~ =
E
V (A.1.1)
V
E(r) = (A.1.2)
R2
r ln
R1
51
52 Ageing phenomena complements
Analytical results
B.1 Skin depth calculation
SDC d SAC
mm2 mm mm2
1.5 1.38 1.5
2.5 1.78 2.5
4 2.26 4
6 2.76 6
10 3.57 10
16 4.51 16
25 5.64 25
35 6.68 35
50 7.98 50
9.23
70 9.44 70
95 11.00 95
120 12.36 120
150 13.82 150
185 15.35 185
240 17.48 240
300 19.54 299
400 22.57 387
500 25.23 464
Table B.1.1 Comparison between the conductor diameter and the skin depth in AC, from equation
3.2.2
53
Nexans Research Center, Nexans, Lyon
54
EPS lab, KTH, Stockholm
Analytical results
Figure B.1.1 Synthesis of the skin effect impact on effective resistance in AC and DC, from table B.1.1
B.2 Skin and proximity coefficients 55
Cross-section
ys yp yp + ys
mm2
1.5 4.35E-07 3.61E-07 7.96E-07
2.5 1.21E-06 1.10E-06 2.31E-06
4 3.09E-06 3.07E-06 6.16E-06
6 6.96E-06 8.09E-06 1.51E-05
10 1.93E-05 2.30E-05 4.23E-05
16 4.95E-05 6.89E-05 1.18E-04
Table B.2.1 Skin and proximity coefficients for 2 conductors [26]
Cross-section
ys yp yp + ys
mm2
1.5 4.35E-07 4.14E-07 8.49E-07
2.5 1.21E-06 1.50E-06 2.70E-06
4 3.09E-06 3.87E-06 6.97E-06
6 6.96E-06 1.05E-05 1.74E-05
10 1.93E-05 3.57E-05 5.50E-05
16 4.95E-05 1.07E-04 1.57E-04
25 1.21E-04 2.69E-04 3.90E-04
35 2.37E-04 5.81E-04 8.18E-04
50 4.83E-04 1.20E-03 1.68E-03
70 9.46E-04 2.56E-03 3.50E-03
95 1.74E-03 4.73E-03 6.48E-03
120 2.78E-03 7.92E-03 1.07E-02
150 4.33E-03 1.23E-02 1.66E-02
185 6.58E-03 1.85E-02 2.51E-02
240 1.10E-02 3.10E-02 4.20E-02
300 1.72E-02 4.77E-02 6.48E-02
400 3.02E-02 8.25E-02 1.13E-01
Table B.2.2 Skin and proximity coefficients for 3 conductors with a trefoil shape [26]
Cross-section
ys yp yp + ys
mm2
1.5 4.35E-07 4.14E-07 8.49E-07
2.5 1.21E-06 1.50E-06 2.70E-06
4 3.09E-06 3.87E-06 6.97E-06
6 6.96E-06 1.05E-05 1.74E-05
10 1.93E-05 3.57E-05 5.50E-05
16 4.95E-05 1.07E-04 1.57E-04
25 1.21E-04 2.69E-04 3.90E-04
35 2.37E-04 5.81E-04 8.18E-04
50 4.83E-04 1.20E-03 1.68E-03
70 9.46E-04 2.56E-03 3.50E-03
95 1.74E-03 4.73E-03 6.48E-03
120 2.78E-03 7.92E-03 1.07E-02
150 4.33E-03 1.23E-02 1.66E-02
185 6.58E-03 1.85E-02 2.51E-02
240 1.10E-02 3.10E-02 4.20E-02
300 1.72E-02 4.77E-02 6.48E-02
400 3.02E-02 8.25E-02 1.13E-01
Table B.2.3 Skin and proximity coefficients for 3 conductors with a plane distribution [26]
Voltage level
12V 24V 48V 120V 230V 326V
V
Cross-section
1.5 2.5 1.5 2.5 1.5 2.5 1.5 2.5 1.5 2.5 1.5 2.5
mm2
Maximum current
21.31 28.77 21.31 28.77 21.31 28.77 21.31 28.77 21.31 28.77 21.31 28.77
A
1m 0.256 0.345 0.511 0.690 1.023 1.381 2.557 3.4519 4.900 6.616 6.946 9.378
2m 0.131 0.218 0.511 0.690 1.023 1.381 2.557 3.452 4.900 6.616 6.946 9.378
5m 0.052 0.087 0.209 0.349 0.838 1.3807 2.557 3.451 4.900 6.616 6.946 9.378
10m 0.026 0.044 0.105 0.175 0.419 0.698 2.557 3.452 4.900 6.616 6.946 9.378
June 29, 2011
20m 0.013 0.022 0.052 0.087 0.209 0.349 1.309 2.181 4.808 6.616 6.946 9.378
50m 0.005 0.009 0.021 0.035 0.084 0.140 0.524 0.873 1.923 3.206 3.864 6.440
100m 0.003 0.004 0.011 0.018 0.042 0.070 0.262 0.436 0.962 1.603 1.932 3.220
Table B.3.1 Transmissible power with respect to ampacity and voltage drop conditions in function of the appliance distance
Master thesis
57
Appendix C
" L
# L
X X
Var h MXh = h2 Var [MXh ] (C.1.1)
h=1 h=1
In order to reduce the variance, the strata should all be homogeneous Var [MXh ].
This means that the output of all the elements of the strata is the same. Stratified
sampling might as well reduce the accuracy if the samples are not properly selected. The
strata can be chosen and defined with the help of a strata tree [32].
Once the strata are chosen, the sample allocation optimization is a question to be
solved. A possibility is to use the Neyman allocation nh to minimize the variance. The
formula, displayed in equation C.1.2.
h Xh
n h = n PL (C.1.2)
k=1 k Xk
and n is the total number of samples
p
where, Xk = Var [Xk ]
They are different problems with the Neyman allocation method. The expectation
value E[Xh ] and the standard deviation Xh might not be known for example. A sample
allocation method running simulation in successive batches exists and is therefore named
batch allocation method.
58
C.2 Batch allocation method 59
E8 - TV Weekly Duration 3 40 7 41 10 32 0 30 0 25
E9 - Landline phone Daily Duration 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
E10 - Cellphone Daily Duration 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24
E11 - Internet modem Weekly Duration 0 30 0 23 0 22 0 20 0 26
E12 - Desktop computer Weekly Duration 0 30 0 23 0 22 0 20 0 26
E13 - Laptop Weekly Duration 0 30 0 23 0 22 0 20 0 26
Table C.4.1 Usage description of each appliance by household type, INSEE 2006 [33]
Master thesis
61
Nexans Research Center, Nexans, Lyon
62
C.5 Appliances consumption
PAC PDC
AC DC
Appliance Category On Standby On Standby
% kW or kWh
E1 - Vacuum-cleaner Pure AC 92 95 1.5 0 1.45 0
E2 - Refrigerator Pure AC 92 95 0.035 0 0.034 0
E3 - Freezer Pure AC 92 95 0.04 0 0.039 0
E4 - Dishwasher Pure AC 92 95 1 0 0.97 0
E5 - Microwave Pure DC 86 94 1 1 103 0.91 1 103
E6 - Washing machine Pure AC 92 95 1.5 0 1.45 0
E7 - Dryer Pure AC 92 95 2 0 1.94 0
E8 - TV Pure DC 86 94 0.15 0.5 103 0.137 0
E9 - Landline phone Pure DC 86 94 0 7 103 0 6.4 103
E10 - Cellphone Pure DC 86 94 0.01 0 0.009 0
E12 - Internet modem Pure DC 86 94 0.021 0.018 0.019 0.017
E13 - Desktop computer Pure DC 86 94 0.205 0.01 0.187 0
E14 - Laptop Pure DC 86 94 0.01 2 103 0.009 0
Table C.5.1 Power consumption of the set of appliances [2]
1 %%%%%%%%%%
2 % EnEff_ACDC.m file for Monte Carlo simulation
3 %%%%%%%%%%
4 % This is the main file for the Monte Carlo simulation of AC
5 % and DC consumption for various dwellings type.
6 % Nexans Research Center 2011, Pierre Waeckerl
7 % pierre.waeckerleext@nexans.com
8 %
9 %
10 % This file loads the appropriate data
11 % from MonteCarlo_data.xlsx and run the corresponding macros
12 % in the following process:
13 % Choosing dwelling types
14 % For each dwelling, define the appliances
15 % For each appliance, define the utilisation
16 % For each appliance, calculate the yearly consumption
17 % For the whole data sample, reshape data to exhibit
18 % the interesting characteristics.
19 %
20 % This process intends to compare AC and DC consumption.
21 % This model is therefore limited to
22 % that and only that purpose.
23 %
24 % The Monte Carlo simulation uses stratified sampling with
25 % Neyman batch allocation and correlated sampling
26 % for the consumption comparison. The expected result is
27 % not an absolute value but a difference between the AC and DC
28 % dwellings.
29 %
30 %
31 % The following functions are used in the program
32 %(see their own documentation for more information):
33 % Create_Dwelling
34 % Dwelling_simul
35 % batch_alloc
36 % rule_stop
37
38 clear all
39
40 %%%%%%%%%%
41 % Data import
42 % From MonteCarlo_data.xlsx
43
44 % Import the dwelling categories :
45 % their statistical repartition.
46 % The Excel file details which number is
47 % associated with each dwelling constitution type.
48
49 % Not cumulated data, this corresponds to strata weight
50 Dwellings_repart = xlsread('MonteCarlo_data.xlsx',...
51 'Dwelling','J3:J7');
52
53 n_dwtype=size(Dwellings_repart,1);
54 % Number of types of dwellings
55
56 % The summary of the values in each strata to decide
57 % the batch allocation for the following loop.
58 Batch_state=zeros(n_dwtype,15);
59
60 Batch_state(:,1)=Dwellings_repart;
61
62 Results=[];% Detailed register of results for
63 % each individual dwelling
64
65 % Import dwellings equipment rates, appliance types (Ex)
66 % in rows, dwelling type in column.
67
68 Equipment_rate = xlsread('MonteCarlo_data.xlsx',...
69 'Equipment','D3:H15');
70
71 n_equip = size(Equipment_rate,1);
72
73 % Import the consumption patterns order as follow:
74 % Calculation code / AC standby power / AC consumption /
75 % DC standby power / DC consumption /
76 % Utilisation description (min/max for each 5 dwelling types)
77
78 Consumption_def = xlsread('MonteCarlo_data.xlsx','Usage',...
79 'D4:R16');
80
81 %%%%%%%%%%
82 % Create the starting batch of 100 dwellings
83 % (20 dwellings per strata)
84
85 N_start = 20; % Starting number of dwelling per strata
86 Batch_state(:,2)=N_start*ones(n_dwtype,1);
87
88 Results = Create_Dwelling(Results,Batch_state(:,2),n_dwtype);
89
90 % For each dwelling, define their equipment,
91 % define the equipment utilisation,
92 % calculate the consumption and store the results in 'Results'
93
94 for i=1:size(Results,1)
95 [E_ac_stby, E_ac_on, E_dc_stby, E_dc_on, E_stby, E_on]=...
96 Dwelling_simul(Results(i,1), n_equip,...
97 Equipment_rate, Consumption_def);
98
99 Results(i,2:7)=[E_ac_stby, E_ac_on, E_dc_stby, E_dc_on,...
100 E_stby, E_on];
101
113 %%%%%%%%%%
114 % Batch allocation
115 % Up to the stopping rule in the rule_stop function
116
117 n_samp_batch = 100; % Samples per batch
118 n_samp_tot = 1000; % Lowest number of samples
119 tolerance = 0.01;
120
121 while rule_stop(Batch_state, n_samp_tot, tolerance) == 0
122 Batch_state(:,15) = ...
123 batch_alloc(Batch_state, n_samp_batch);
124 % Returns the optimal sample allocation for next batch
125
126 Results =...
127 Create_Dwelling(Results,Batch_state(:,15),n_dwtype);
128
129 for i=line_stop+1:size(Results,1)
130 [E_ac_stby,E_ac_on,E_dc_stby,E_dc_on,...
131 E_stby,E_on]=...
132 Dwelling_simul(Results(i,1), n_equip,...
133 Equipment_rate, Consumption_def);
134
135 Results(i,2:7)=...
136 [E_ac_stby, E_ac_on, E_dc_stby, E_dc_on,...
137 E_stby, E_on];
138
139 % Update the batch states
140 Batch_state(Results(i,1),3:8) = ...
141 Batch_state(Results(i,1),3:8) + Results(i,2:7);
142 Batch_state(Results(i,1),9:14) = ...
143 Batch_state(Results(i,1),9:14) +...
144 Results(i,2:7).^2;
145 Batch_state(Results(i,1),2) = ...
146 Batch_state(Results(i,1),2) +1;
147 end
148
149 line_stop = size(Results,1);
150 end
151
152 %%%%%%%%%%
153 % Results exploitation
154 % Work with the Batch_state matrix, returns global and
155 % per strata results
156
157 Synthesis = zeros(6,14);
158 % Synthesis contains: Strata weight // Samples number //
159 % 6 x Mean (for each output) // 6 x Variance
160
1 %% Create_dwelling.m
2 % Add dwellings to the result matrix,
3 % Add_description is a column vector of
4 % 5 elements containing the number of dwellings
5 % to create per type
6
7 function Results =...
8 Create_Dwelling(Results, Add_description, n_dwtype)
9
10 k=size(Results,1)+1;
11
12 if k == 1
13 Results = zeros(1,7);%If Results is an empty vector,
14 % build the 5 columns
15 end
16
17 for i=1:n_dwtype
18 for j=1:Add_description(i)
19 Results(k,1)=i;
20 k=k+1;
21 end
22 end
1 %% Dwelling_simul.m
2 % Simulate the yearly consumption for a given dwelling type.
3 % [E_ac_stby, E_ac_on, E_dc_stby, E_dc_on, E_stby, E_on
4 % ]=Dwelling_simul(Dw_type, n_equip, Equipment_rate,
5 % Consumption_def)
6 %
7 % Based on simple Monte Carlo process
8 % Uses the following subfunctions:
9 % rand_equip
10 % rand_conso
11 %
12 % Returns the following:
13 % E_ac_stby: Yearly consumption of appliances
14 % in standby AC mode
15 % E_ac_on: Yearly consumption of appliances
16 % in working AC mode
17 % E_dc_stby: Yearly consumption of appliances
18 % in standby DC mode
19 % E_dc_on: Yearly consumption of appliances
20 % in working DC mode
21 % E_stby: Yearly consumption difference between
22 % AC and DC working consumption
23 % E_on: Yearly consumption difference between
24 % AC and DC working consumption
25
26
27 function [E_ac_stby, E_ac_on, E_dc_stby, E_dc_on,...
28 E_stby, E_on ]=Dwelling_simul(Dw_type, n_equip,..
29 Equipment_rate, Consumption_def)
30
31 Equipments=zeros(n_equip,7);
32 Equipments(:,1)=Consumption_def(:,1);
33
34 for i=1:n_equip
35 Equipments(i,2)=rand_equip(Equipment_rate(i,Dw_type));
36
37 if Equipments(i,2) == 1
38 Equipments(i,3)=rand_conso(i, Dw_type,...
39 Consumption_def);
40 [Equipments(i,4), Equipments(i,5),...
41 Equipments(i,6), Equipments(i,7)] =...
42 calc_conso(Equipments(i,1), Equipments(i,3),...
43 i, Consumption_def) ;
44
45 end
46 end
47
48 E_ac_stby = sum(Equipments(:,4));
49 E_ac_on = sum(Equipments(:,5));
50 E_dc_stby = sum(Equipments(:,6));
51 E_dc_on = sum(Equipments(:,7));
52
53 E_stby = E_dc_stby E_ac_stby;
54 E_on = E_dc_on E_ac_on;
55
56 end
1 %% rand_equip.m
2 % Simplified inverse transform method
3 % for duogenous populations
4 % (to be later optimized with Dagger sampling)
5 % Take the equipment rate in arguments
6 % Randomize and convert a U(0,1)distributed number
7 % into the existence or not of the given equipment
8
9 function YoN_equip = rand_equip(Equip_rate);
10
11 U=rand(1);
12
13 if U < Equip_rate
14 YoN_equip = 1;
15 else
16 YoN_equip = 0;
17 end
1 %% rand_conso.m
2 % Returns the consumption description (time or cycle)
3 %
4 % Considering that the utilisation is described
5 % by a uniform distribution
6 % between a minimal and maximal value
7 % contained in Consumption_def
8
9
10 function conso_descript = rand_conso(ref_app, Dw_type,...
11 Consumption_def)
12
13 U = rand(1);
14 t_min = Consumption_def(ref_app,4+2*Dw_type);
15 % Look for the minimum usage value
16 % of the appliance ref_app for the
17 % dwelling category Dw_type
18
19 t_max = Consumption_def(ref_app,5+2*Dw_type);
20 % Look for the maximum usage value
21 % of the appliance ref_app for the
22 % dwelling category Dw_type
23
24 conso_descript = U*(t_max t_min) + t_min;
25
26 end
1 %% calc_conso.m
2 %
3 % Yearly consumption calculation
4 % Returns On and Standby consumption, in AC and DC mode
5 % for a given type of usage description
6 % coded 11, 12 and 20 see xlsx file
7 %
8 % Nexans 2011 Pierre Waeckerl
9 %
10
11 function [E_ac_stby, E_ac_on, E_dc_stby, E_dc_on] =...
12 calc_conso(conso_code, conso_descript,...
13 ref_app, Consumption_def)
14
15 if conso_code == 11
16
17 % Weekly Duration description
18 E_ac_stby = 52*(7*24conso_descript)*...
19 Consumption_def(ref_app, 2);
20 E_ac_on = 52*conso_descript*...
21 Consumption_def(ref_app, 3);
22
23 E_dc_stby = 52*(7*24conso_descript)*...
24 Consumption_def(ref_app, 4);
25 E_dc_on = 52*conso_descript*...
26 Consumption_def(ref_app, 5);
27
28
29 elseif conso_code == 12
30
36 E_dc_stby = 365*(24conso_descript)*...
37 Consumption_def(ref_app, 4);
38 E_dc_on = 365*conso_descript*Consumption_def(ref_app, 5);
39
40 elseif conso_code == 20
41
1 %% rule_stop.m
2 % Returns 1 when the simulation can be stopped, 0 else
3
4 function Stop = rule_stop(Batch_state, n_samp_tot, tolerance)
5
6 Stop = 1;
7 if sum(Batch_state(:,2),1) < n_samp_tot
8 Stop = 0;
9 return
10 end
11
12 temp = zeros(5,2);
13
14 for i = 1:2
15 for j = 1:5
16 temp(j,i)=...
17 abs(sqrt(Batch_state(j,i+12)/Batch_state(j,2)...
18 (Batch_state(j,i+6)/Batch_state(j,2))^2)/...
19 (Batch_state(j,i+6)*sqrt(Batch_state(j,2))));
20 end
21 end
22
23 for i = 1:2
24 for j=1:5
25 if temp(j,i) > tolerance
26 Stop = 0;
27 return
28 end
29 end
30 end
31
32
33
34 end
1 %% batch_alloc.m
2 % Calculated the best sample allocation for the next batch
3 % Based on difference values
4
5 function Next_Batch = batch_alloc(Batch_state, n_samp_batch)
6
7 %%%%%%%%%%
8 %%% Data Preparation
9 %%%%%%%%%%
10
11 % Calculate the estimated mean value (C34)
12 % and standard deviation (C56)
13 % in temp_batch for each of the 2 outputs (E_stby and E_on)
14 % Include also the strata weight (C1)
15 % and the number of samples already
16 % calculated for the strata (C2)
17 % This temporary matrix is the calculation memory database.
18 % It will also store:
19 % Neyman batch allocation for output 1 (C7)
20 % Neyman batch allocation for output 2 (C8)
21 % Mean of Neyman allocation for the set of 2 outputs (C9)
22 % Preliminary batch (C10)
23
24 temp_batch = zeros(5,10);
25
26 temp_batch(:,1) = Batch_state(:,1);
27 temp_batch(:,2) = Batch_state(:,2);
28
29 for i=3:4
30 temp_batch(:,i) = Batch_state(:,i+4)./Batch_state(:,2);
31 % Estimated mean value
32 end
33
34 for i=5:6
35 temp_batch(:,i) =...
36 sqrt(Batch_state(:,i+8)./Batch_state(:,2) ...
37 temp_batch(:,i2).^2);
38 end
39
40 %%%%%%%%%%
41 %%% Step 1: Compromise allocation Neyman
42 %%%%%%%%%%
43
44 n = sum(temp_batch(:,2),1) + n_samp_batch;
45 % Total number of samples after that batch
46
47 part_calc = zeros(2,1);
48
49 for i=1:2
50 part_calc(i) = sum(temp_batch(:,1).*...
51 temp_batch(:,i+4));
52 temp_batch(:,i+6) = n.*temp_batch(:,1).*...
53 temp_batch(:,i+4)/part_calc(i);
54 end
55
56 temp_batch(:,9) = mean(temp_batch(:,7:8),2);
57
58 %%%%%%%%%%
59 %%% Step 2: Preliminary batch
60 %%%%%%%%%%
61
62 temp_batch(:,10) = temp_batch(:,9) temp_batch(:,2);
63
64 %%%%%%%%%%
65 %%% Step 36: Strata differentiation
66 %%%%%%%%%%
67
68 H_plus= temp_batch(:,10)>0;
69 % Indices of strata needing more samples
70 H_minus=temp_batch(:,10)<=0;
71 % Indices of strata needing less samples
72 n_plus=sum(temp_batch(H_plus,10));
73 n_minus=sum(temp_batch(H_minus,10));
74
75 %%%%%%%%%%
76 %%%% Step 7: Batch allocation
77 %%%%%%%%%%
78
79 Next_Batch = zeros(size(Batch_state,1),1);
80 Next_Batch(H_plus)=floor((1n_minus/n_plus)*...
81 temp_batch(H_plus,10));
Monte Carlo is a simulation method calculating the result of repeated random sampling.
Monte Carlo methods are employed when deterministic calculation is not possible. 22,
40, 41, 58, 59
73
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