DME Notes

Theory- 2016 DME-I
UNIT - 1 INTRODUCTION: Definitions: Normal, Shear, Biaxial and Tri Axial

Stresses, Stress Tensor, Principal Stresses. Engineering Materials and their Mechanical
properties, Stress-Strain diagrams, Stress Analysis, Design considerations: Codes and
Standards.
INTRODUCTION
"Engineering design is not an art or skill; it is a cognitive, or intellectual, process based
on knowledge". John R. Dixon
Engineering design is a purposeful activity directed towards the goal of fulfilling human
needs, particularly those which can be met by the technological factors of our culture.
Design is an iterative-creative decision making process directed towards the fulfillment
of human needs.
MACHINE
A machine is a device, a formulation of principles, comprising of various elements
arranged together, so as to carry out the needs of a human being
Write briefly note on general procedure used in design. (June/July 2009)(06M)

INTERACTION BETWEEN DESIGN PROCESS ELEMENTS
The complete phases of design process are explained as given in Figure 1.2.
AIT/Mech Dept/Chikmagalur. PRASHANTH N 9964676521 1

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Recognition and identification of Need

Though, not always, design begins when an engineer recognizes a need and decides to
do something about it. Recognizing the need and identifying it, often requires high
creativity because the need is often not obvious. Recognition of the need arises when
certain unforeseen events occur simultaneously.
Definition of Problem
Defining the problem means giving a detailed description of the object to be designed,
such as its characteristic specifications, dimensions, its inputs and outputs and also all
the limitations on these quantities.
Synthesis
Synthesis includes the combination of the possible system elements to form a connected
whole system. The next step deals with the analysis task i.e. analyzing the system's
performance. Depending on the outcome of the performance, the system is improved or
discarded.
Analysis and Optimization

One may synthesize several components of the system, analyze and optimize them, and
return to synthesis to sec what effect this has on the remaining parts of the system.
Evaluation
It involves a series of tests that the system is made to undergo to evaluate its
characteristics. These include the reliability of the system, its performance when
compared to other similar systems.
Presentation
This is the final and the most vital phase in the design process. Presentation means
communicating the outcome of the evaluation process.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
We can classify design as

1. Clothing design 6. Ship design 11. Engineering design
2. Interior design 7. Bridge design 12. Process design
3. Highway design 8. Computer aided design
4. Landscape design 9. Heating system design
5. Building design 10. Machine design
In fact, this list is endless, since we can also design according to the particular article or
product or according to the professional field.
What are the basic requirements of machine elements? Explain briefly.

(June/July 2013)( 05 Marks)
DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
Material Selection:
The selection of a material is one of the important decisions taken by the designer. This
decision is taken before the component dimensions are finalized. This ensures that the
strength of the material is greater than the internal stress developed in the component,
under the given loading. Frequently, the limitations imposed by the material are the
controlling factors in a design. Ideally, the optimum choice of material would also be
governed by its cost effectiveness. At the same time, the material of the component
should satisfy the requirements of the design, in general, the major factors governing the
selection of material are:
a). Cost : The cost of the component is generally dictated by the material cost and the
processing cost. If the design has to be commercially acceptable, the designer must keep
in mind the economy of the product. In doing so, use should be made of cost effective
materials which can be easily processed or machined with minimum costs.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
b). Availability: Certain exotic materials, though listed in design data books are
not available easily. As far as possible, such materials should be avoided and use should
be made of those materials which are openly available in die market.
c). Manufacturing: In certain cases, components are to be designed in a particular
form and the manufacturing process is dictated by the shape of the component. In such
cases, one necessarily has to select materials which can be finished by the chosen
manufacturing process.
d). Mechanical Properties: The mechanical and engineering properties of a
material have to be considered in virtually all applications. Engineering applications
require the use of many important properties from a material such as strength (static and
under cyclic conditions), plasticity, rigidity, elasticity, ductility, malleability, hardness,
toughness, shock resistance, wear resistance, creep and temperature characteristics,
corrosion resistance and frictional properties. These engineering properties need to be
considered while selecting a material.
Mode of Failure: Different components show different modes of failure, which in

turn would be dependent on the kind of loading and the type of material used. Failure
does not necessarily mean breakage. A failure is said to happen when the machine
clement is unable to perform its function satisfactorily. Failure can happen by :
a). Elastic Deflection : In this case the defection within an element happens within
elastic limits. However, it is possible that with this deflection, the element may not
serve its intended function. For example, a shaft having a large lateral deflection would
result in improper meshing of the gears mounted on it.
b). Yielding : If the strain on the component exceeds the elastic limit, plastic
deformation sets in. This is called as yielding and is observed in ductile materials. A
component under this situation is said to have failed.
c). Fracture: In brittle materials like cast iron, yielding is not observed. It is
seen that the material fails by fracture, without any plastic deformation.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Briefly discuss the factors influencing the selection of suitable material for machine
element. (June/July2013)(May/June2010)(Dec.07/Jan. 08(05 M)
DESIGN CONSIDERATION
During the designing process we have to consider certain characteristics that influence
the design of the element or system to be designed. Some important ones are listed
below:
Strength Life volume Reliability Thermal properties
Wear Friction Processing Safety Corrosion
Utility Size Control Styling Liability
Define standards and codes. (Dec 2011) (04 Marks)

What is standardization? What are advantages of standardization? State the standards
used in machine design.(June/July 2009)(06 Marks)(Dec 2012)(4 M)
USE OF STANDARDS
A standard is a set of specifications for parts, materials or processes, intended to
achieve uniformity, efficiency and specified quality.
As a summary, standards prove useful for the following reasons:
1. Interchangeability of Parts: An example of interchangeability can be easily
understood if we consider, a Hexagonal Bolt M10 x 40L of any company, which
can easily be interchanged with that of the other, as both the companies
manufacture to the same standards.
2. Easy Replacements: As size relations are specified and limited, the components
can be stocked by dealers, thus resulting in easy replacements.
3. Reduced Stock or Inventory: Easy replacements from dealers reduce in-
house inventory, which in turn reduce the inventory carrying costs.
4. Better Efficiency & Specified Quality: The indirect guarantee and expertise
of the standard is passed to the user, thus reducing his design costs, with good
assurance of required quality.
5. Mass Production of Components: With standardization, mass
production of components is easier. Different components can also be
manufactured at various plants and assembled together without affecting the
assembly.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
CODES
A code is a set of specifications for the analysis, design, and manufacture and
construction of something. The purpose of a code is to achieve a specified degree
of safety, efficiency and performances or quality.
All of the organisations and societies listed below have established specifications for
standards and safety or design codes.
The name of organisation provides a clue to the nature of the standard or code.
The organisations of interest to Mechanical Engineers are
1. Aluminium Association (AA)
2. American Gear Manufactures Association (AGMA)
3. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
4. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
5. American National Standards Institute ANSI)
6. American Society for Metals (ASM)
7. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
8. American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM)
9. American Welding Society (AWS)
10. Anti-Friction Bearing Manufactures Association (AFBMA)
11. British Standards Institution (BSI)
12. British Standards Association (BSA)
13. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
14. Bureau of International Weights and Measures (BIWM)
15. German National Standards (DIN)
16. Industrial Fasteners Institute (IFI)
17. Institution of Mechanical Engineers (I.Mech. E)
18. International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM)
19. International Standards Organisation (ISO)
20. National Bureau of Standards (NBS)
21. Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
Besides these national and international standards, each company within itself may have
its own company standards, whose specifications and rulings hold true in each of their
plants.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
SELECTION OF MATERIALS BASED ON THEIR PROPERTIES

Material selection is based upon properties. The designer must decide the properties
required of a material for apart under design and then weight the properties of candidate
materials. The major properties to he considered in material selection are shown in
below Figure.
There are many factors which have to be considered while selecting a material. The
most important to consider are those that are essential to the function of the part. Equal
importance must be given to properties, availability and economic aspects.
Mechanical Properties
These properties are the most important selection consideration.
Material Properties
Chemical Physical Mechanical Dimensional Technological
Machinability
Electrical Strength Weldability
Size
Composition Thermal Ductility Castability
Structure Forgeability
Shape
Magnetic Toughness Bendability
Gravimetric Rigidity Microtopograpy Malleability
Ductility
Hardenability
Service Life
Properties of Engineering Materials
Availability
Availability is a prime factor for selection of materials for design process because the
material should be readily available in the market, especially in large enough quantities
to meet the production requirements. Cast iron and aluminium alloys are always
available in large, while shortage of lead and copper alloys is a common experience.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
When initially considering the use of a material, the following points should be
considered
1. Is the material on hand?
2. If answer is no; can we get it in 1 or 2 weeks, and so on?
3. If yes, how much quantity is required?
4. What is the nature of the supplier? It is not wise to use a proprietary material that
is available only from one supplier.
5. Is there any special method required for fabrication of raw materials? In that case
it is essential for the designer to establish a time line for procurement of materials.
Economics
Cost is used as a prime selection factor for materials. The cost of a material in a
machine component consists of the initial cost, processing cost and maintenance cost.
The consideration of cost plays an important role in the design decision process (hat one
could easily spend as much time in studying the cost factor as in the study of the entire
subject of design. Here one can introduce only a few general approaches and simple
rules.
Labor and material costs usually show an increasing trend. Due to the use of
automated machine tools and robots in the manufacturing process, the cost of
processing the materials shows a decreasing trend. The cost of manufacturing a
single product will vary from city and city and from one plant to another because of
overhead, labour, (axes, and freight differentials and the inevitable slight
manufacturing variations.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
1.8. CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

The engineering materials can be classified into two broader categories as shown in
Figure.
Engineering
Materials
Metals Non - Metals
Ferrous Non - Ferrous Glass Plastic Rubber
Classification of Engineering Materials
Metals: Metals are hard, shiny and solid substances which can be shaped
and can conduct electricity and heat.
Non-metals: Non-metals are shiny and solid substances which can be
shaped but cannot conduct electricity and heat.
Ferrous Metals: Ferrous metals are those which have the iron as their main
constituent. For example cast iron, wrought iron and steel.
Non-Ferrous metals: Non-ferrous metals are those which have metals other
than iron as their main constituent. For example copper, aluminium, brass,
tin, zinc, etc.
TRAITS OF A GOOD DESIGNER

As the designer develops and converts his idea into finished plans for a machine, he
must bring into play his expertise in areas roughly classified as:
Technical knowledge
Industrial experience
Human factors

Theory- 2016 DME-I
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
The properties of materials used in engineering design may be classified as:
Physical and chemical properties: Chemical composition, structure,

homogeneity, specific weight, melting point temperature, thermal conductivity,
and coefficient of thermal expansion.
Mechanical properties: Elastic limit, modulus of elasticity, strength in
tension, compression, bending and torsion, endurance limit, hardness, and wear
resistance.
Technological properties: Forgeability, castability, malleability, bending,
machinability, weldability, and the like.
For optimum use of engineering materials, it is very important to have a thorough

knowledge of their mechanical and technological properties because ultimately these
properties decide the physical dimensions of the part and the manufacturing
processes to be used for the production of the machine components.
A brief review of the mechanical and technological properties is given in the
following subsections
Briefly explain the important mechanical properties of metals. Explain each of the
briefly. (Dec 2012) (10 Marks) (Dec 2011) (06 Marks)
Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties are those which indicate how the material would behave
when subjected to various types of loads. These properties are established by various
tests. Standardized test methods are described in various standards. A good knowledge
of mechanical properties permits the designer to determine the size and shape of the
machine components. The typical values of properties may vary significantly depending
upon the batch of production, so these should be taken as average values.
The most commonly evaluated mechanical properties are discussed below:

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Isotropy: A material that displays the same elastic property in all direction is termed
Isotropic.
Elasticity: It is a property of the material by virtue of which a machine component
can regain its original shape and size when the external load acting upon it is removed.
The modulus of elasticity is an index for evaluation of elasticity.
F
E B F
A E
Stress ()
ing ing
ad
Stress ()
ad Lo
Lo
g
din adin
g
nloa
U
Unlo
O O C D
Elastic Plastic Residual
Strain
Strain ()
Strain () Elastic
(a) Recovery
Elasticity & Plasticity (b)
Strength: The strength of a member is defined as the ability of its material to withstand
yielding and/or fracture against applied forces so that it can continue to perform its
designed function in the machine. The stress magnitude which corresponds to
length, is termed yield strength ( ).

permanent deformation of a definite amount, usually up to 0.2 per cent of original gauge
Draw the stress strain diagrams for a ductile material and a brittle material and show
the silent points on them. (June/July 2014)(06 Marks) (July 2006)(06 Marks)
Draw the stress strain diagrams for a mild steel and a cast iron and show the silent
points on them. (Dec 2012) (06 Marks)
Draw the stress strain diagrams for mild steel subjected to tension. Explain the
significance of silent points. (June/July 2011)(06 Marks)
Ductility: It is a properly of the material by virtue of which it can undergo a large
permanent deformation in tension before being fractured, it is usually expressed as per
cent elongation in 50 mm gauge length.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Stress ()
F F
Stress ()
Y
Y L
E
P = Proportionality Limit
E = Elastic Limit E = Elastic Limit
P Y = Upper Yield Point F = Fracture Point
Y = Lower Yield Point
L
U = Ultimate Stress Point
F = Fracture Point
O
Strain ()
O
Strain () Stress Strain Curve for Cast Iron (Brittle material )
Stress - Strain characteristric of mild steel (Ductile Material)
Brittleness: It is a characteristic opposite to ductility. Lack of plasticity is known as

brittleness. A material may be considered brittle if its elongation prior to rupture in
tension is less than 5 per cent in a 50 mm long specimen.
Malleability: It is a property of the material which permits large plastic deformation

in compression without fracture. In other words, a malleable material is the one that can
easily be flattened or rolled.
Hardness: It is the ability of the material to resist penetration, plastic indentation,

abrasion, or scratching. It is also an indicator of wear resistance under certain
conditions. It is usually expressed by numbers which are dependent upon the methods
of testing. Mostly, two popular methods, called the Brinell and Rockwell hardness
numbers, are in use.
= 88 . 192

The Rockwell ( ) and Brinell hardness number (BHN) are related by the following
relation:
Experimental results have shown that the ultimate tensile strength and the surface
3.45 ;
2.75 70
endurance strength of plain carbon steel are related by the following:
The hardness of synthetic materials like rubber, foam, plastic, etc. can be measured by
the durometer. The durometer hardness number is based on any arbitrary scale of 0-100.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Resilience: The ability of a material to absorb energy within its elastic limit
without any permanent deformation is called resilience.
Toughness: The ability of a material to absorb energy before it fractures is called

toughness. The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has suggested two test procedures to
measure the toughness. They are (i) Charpy impact test and (ii) Izod impact test.
Unit Stress ()
High Carbon Steel
Mild Steel
O
Unit Strain ()
Measure of Toughness
Creep: A material under a heavy steady load at a high temperature for a long
period begins to deform plastically. This deformation, called creep, is time dependent
and increases with time until fracture lakes place.
Wear: The material on the surface keeps getting dislodged in the form of
small particles because of relative motion between mating surfaces. This type of
depletion of the material is called wear. Wear is attributed to several phenomena,
namely:
(a) ScuffingThis type of wear is caused owing to failure of the lubricant film which
creates rnicrowelds between surface asperities. These microwelds are sheared by
relative motion between sliding parts, thereby dislodging small particles from surfaces.
This type of wear is also called galling or seizing.
(b) AbrasionWhen hard foreign particles such as dust, metal grit or metal oxides
find their way in between two rubbing surfaces, they cause abrasive wear,
(c) PittingThe wear caused by cyclic contact stresses between mating surfaces is
called pitting,
(d) FrettageA surface damage caused by small movements between mating
surfaces is known as frettage.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Technological Properties
Technological properties are those which relate to manufacturing of a machine
component, namely machinability, formability, castability, etc. A designer must also
have a thorough knowledge of these properties because the material selected for a
component should be such that it can easily be manufactured by using the available
facilities.
Machinability: The term machinability is used to specify the relative ease with which
a given metal can be machined. The machinability rating of a material is usually
decided on the basis of the following parameters: (i) power required, (ii) tool-life, (iii)
machining time, and (iv) surface quality. Machinability of a metal depends upon its (a)
hardness, (b) strength, and (c) chemical composition. The presence of sulphur, lead, and
manganese in steel improves its machinability.
Formability: It is an indication of suitability of a metal for a machine part that

requires forming. Ductility and tensile strength are important properties which
determine the formability of a metal.
Castability: The term castability is an indication of how easy it is to cast The

important factors which affect castability are: (i) solidification temperature, (ii) amount
of metal shrinkage after solidifying, and (iii) the strength at the temperature just below
which the solidification starts.
Weldability: The term weldability is used to indicate the ease with which a
successful weld can be made.
Forgeability: It is an indication of ease involved in forging a machine component. In

forging, a larger plastic range is desirable because it allows a longer time to work with
the metal before reheating becomes necessary.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Identify the following engineering materials giving specifications:

i) FG350 ii) FeE300 iii) C35Mn75 iv) x20Cr18Ni2
Ans: (June 2012) (04 M)
Note: For engineering material specifications/designation refer pages (408 to 412)
i) FG350 - Grey Iron casting
350 Minimum tensile strength in =

ii) FeE300 - Semi killed steel
350 Minimum yield strength =

iii) C35Mn75
C35 indicates carbon as ten times minimum limit (total carbon = 3.5 %)
Manganese 7.5%
iv) X20Cr18Ni2 - steel with 0.20 % Carbon
18% Chromium 2% Nickel
Load & Forces:

Basically there are three types of loads or forces as shown in Fig. 1.11.1. A force
which points away from its point of application is called tensile force. It is also called
pull (Refer to Fig. 1.11.1(a)
A member under the action of these forces is said to be under tension. The force which
points towards its point of application is called the compressive force. It is also called
push. (Refer to Fig. 1.11.1(b))
The tensile and compressive forces are called direct forces and they act normally to the
planes carrying them.
The force which acts tangentially or parallel to the surface under consideration is called
the shear force. (Refer to Fig. 1.11.1(c))

Theory- 2016 DME-I
1.11.2. STRESS ()

All externally applied loads deform an elastic material. This deformation is called
strain. While undergoing deformation, the body sets up internal resistance against
deformation. The resistance increases as the deformation increase only up to a certain
limit beyond which any increase in applied loads will continue the process of
deformation to the stage of failure. This internal resisting force per unit area is called
"stress.
Thus, stress is defined as the resistance offered by a body per unit area of resisting
section, against the loads producing deformation.

Then by definition: Stress = = = The unit of stress is N/m2.

There are only two kinds of basic stresses which are (i) Normal stresses, which always
act normal to the stressed surface under consideration and (ii) Shearing stresses, which
are parallel to the stressed surface. Normal stresses are either tensile or compressive
stress
STRESSES AND STRAINS

Loads and Forces
External forces acting on a rigid body are termed as loads. These loads may arise due to
dead loads of members, live loads, wind loads, earthquake effects, fluid pressures,
support settlements, frictional resistance, etc.
i) Dead or Steady Load: a load is said to be a dead or steady load when it does not
change in magnitude or direction.
ii) Live or variable load: a load is said to be live or variable load when it changes
continually.
iii) Suddenly applied or Shock load: a load is said to be a suddenly applied or
shock load when it is suddenly applied or removed.
iv) Impact load: a load is said to be an impact load when it is applied with some
initial velocity.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Tensile Stress ( )

When equal and opposite forces are applied to a body, and the resistance offered by a
section of the body is against the increase in length, the section is said to offer a tensile
stress. The stress offered by the section xx of the rod in Fig. 1.11.2 is a tensile stress.
The intensity of the tensile stress is given by
= = .

=

Compressive Stress ( )

When equal and opposite forces are applied to a body, and the resistance offered by a
section of the body is against the decrease in length the section is said to offer a
compressive stress. The stress offered by the section xx of the rod in Fig. 1.11.3 is a
compressive stress.
The intensity of the compressive stress is given by
= = .

=

Shear Stress ( )
When equal and opposite forces act tangentially on any cross-sectional plane of a body,
tending to slide its one part over the other at that plane, the body is said to be in a state
of shear. The corresponding stress induced in it is called shear stress. In Fig. 1.11.4 a
rivet of cross-sectional area A connecting two plates tends to shear off at section xx.
Producing shear stress in the cross-section of the rivet. The resistance R along the
section xx is called the shear resistance.
The intensity of the shear stress is given by
= . Shear stress (in double shear) =

= =


Theory- 2016 DME-I
Bearing Stress

A localized compressive stress at the surface of contact between two members of a
machine parts that are relatively at rest is known as bearing stress or crushing stress.
The bearing stress is taken into account in the design of riveted joints, cotter joints,
knuckle joints, etc. Let us consider a riveted joint subjected to a load P as shown in Fig.
1.11.5. In such a case, the bearing stress or crushing stress (stress at the surface of
contact between the rivet and a plate),

=
. .
Where, = diameter of the rivet, . = projected area of the rivet
= thickness of the plate, = number of rivets per pitch length in bearing or
crushing.
A bearing stress is given by

. "
!.
=
Where, = average bearing pressure, P=radial load on the journal,

l=length of the journal in contact, d= diameter of the journal.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
STRAIN (#)
Strain is a measure of the deformation produced in a member by the loads. Therefore
strain in a member is defined as the deformation produced by the application of load per
unit length of the member.
it is denoted by , it is a ratio between change in dimension and original dimension, and
*+'),- () .(-)$(/)
as such it has no unit.
$%&'() # =
/&(,()'0 .(-)$(/)
SHEAR STRAIN (# )
It is a measurer of the angle through which a body is deformed by the applied force. In
Fig.1.11.10. the rectangular block ABCD fixed at the bottom face AB is distorted
through an angle by the force P applied as shown. The face CD moves to the new
position CD, as the movement of the end C is very small and it is assumed as an arc of
radius BC with B as center. Then,
88
1234 5436, 7 =
89
= tan = radian
: angle is very small;
=
1234 5436, =<= .
>

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Volumetric Strain ( # )
strain. It is denoted by 7 .
The ratio between the change in volume and the original volume is known as volumetric
83A2 6 BC!@2 DB
?3!@2468 5436, # = =
C46A63! BC!@2 B
ELASTICITY AND ELASTIC LIMIT

A material is said to be perfectly elastic if the deformation produced due to the
application of external load disappears completely with the removal of the load. This
property of the material is called elasticity.
If loading is increased, a limiting value of the load will be reached up to which the
deformation totally disappears on the removal of that load. The stress corresponding to
this limiting value of load is called the elastic limit of that material. In case the material
is loaded beyond this limit, the deformation so produced will not disappear completely
on removal of the load. In such a case some residual strain or deformation, known as
permanent set will remain even after the complete removal of the load.
Young's Modulus of Elasticity ( Table -1.1) P - 7

Hooke's law states that within an elastic limit stress is proportional to strain,
stress E strain

or = a constant
!
This constant is known as coefficient of elasticity or Modulus of elasticity. The ratio

between tensile stress and tensile strain or compressive stress and compressive strain is
called Young's Modulus of Elasticity and is denoted by E
G256!2 54255 8C 42556B2 54255
F = = C4 F = =
256!2 5436 7 8C 42556B2 5436 7

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Values of E for the commonly used engineering materials

Material Modulus of Elasticity (E) in GPa
Steel & Nickel 200 to 220
Wrought iron 190 to 200
Cast iron 100 to 160
Copper 110 to 90
Brass 90 to 80
Aluminium 80 to 60
Timber 10
Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity (Table -1.1) P - 7

The ratio between shear stress and shear strain is called Shear Modulus or Modulus of
Rigidity. It is denoted by C or G or N.
> H C4 = =
"#
$% %
' '
"#
$% %$& (
Values of C for the commonly used engineering materials

Material Modulus of Rigidity (C) in GPa
Steel 100 to 80
Wrought iron 90 to 80
Cast iron 50 to 40
Copper 50 to 30
Brass 50 to 30
Timber 10
The ratio between the normal stress and the volumetric strain is called Bulk modulus of
elasticity and is denoted by K
C43! 54255
I =
volumetric strain 7
=

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Torsional Shear Stress

When a machine member is subjected to the action of two equal and opposite couples
acting in parallel planes (or torque or twisting moment), then the machine member is
said to be subjected to torsion. The stress set up by torsion is known as torsional shear
stress. It is zero at the centroidal axis and maximum at the outer surface.
J J . L 6

' ) +.-
The following equation:
% * .
The Equation (i) is known as torsion equation.
Where ==torsional shear stress induced at the outer surface of the shaft or maximum
shear stress,
r or c = radius of the shaft, T or M = torque or twisting moment,
J= second moment of area of the section about its polar axis or polar moment of inertia,
G = modulus of rigidity for the shaft material, l = length of the shaft
N= angle of twist in radius on a length J= Polar Moment of Inertia,
P /
OJ SC4 1C!6 8648@!34 5T3S 4 J SC4 1C!6 8648@!34 5T3S
32 2
P /
OJ 0 L / & C!!CU 8648@!34 5T3S 4 J 0 SC4 C!!CU 8648@!34 5T3S
32 2
di do
d
Hollow Shaft
M . 4 G. 8
Solid Shaft
1T234 14255, = J J . L

O O
CU24, J XY
1 2
Power:
P= power in kW M J torque in N - m

60000 9550
Where n = speed in rpm
M J J L
2 P
9550 ^ 103 9.55 ^ 10
G J J L . ` L


Theory- 2016 DME-I
Bending stress
The bending equation is given by
M F
J J . b L
a 4
Where M = bending moment acting at the given section,= Force x clr distance.
I= moment of inertia of the cross section about the neutral axis,
r=distance from the neutral axis (NA) to the extreme fiber,
E= youngs modulus of the material of the beam, and
R= radius of curvature of the beam. = bending stress,
I= Moment of Inertia, (Table-1.3)(P-8)
P /
aJ SC4 1C!6 8648@!34 5T3S
64
P / a
aJ 0 L / & SC4 C!!CU 8648@!34 5T3S e J J 1286C MC@!@5
64 H
4 J SC4 1C!6 8648@!34 5T3S, 4 J SC4 C!!CU 8648@!34 5T3S

4 4

M. H M M
26A 14255 J J J
a a H e
di do
d
Hollow Shaft Solid Shaft

Theory- 2016 DME-I
5
POISSON'S RATIO (f /& ) (Table -1.1) P - 7
6
Stress of one nature, tensile or compressive in longitudinal axis produces strains of

same nature in that axis known as the longitudinal strain but produces strains of
opposite nature in the other two mutually perpendicular axes, which are known as
lateral strains. A rectangular bar under longitudinal tension extends along its length but
at the same time there will be a shortening of its breadth as well as thickness.
The ratio between the lateral strain and the longitudinal strain is called Poisson's ratio
and is denoted by f /& .
5
6
C6556C 5 436C, f /& =

5 789:8; :8<=
6 ;>=?<@<=8; :8<=
lies between 0.33 and 0.25.

5
For most metals,
6
Values of Poissons Ratio for the commonly used engineering

materials
Poissons Ratio gh C4 f /& i

Material 5
6
Steel 0.33 to 0.25

Cast iron 0.27 to 0.23
Copper 0.34 to 0.31
Brass 0.42 to 0.32
Aluminium 0.36 to 0.32
Concrete 0.18 to 0.08
Rubber 0.50 to 0.45

Theory- 2016 DME-I
FACTOR OF SAFETY
The maximum load to which a member is likely to be subjected during its working
period is called the working load, and the maximum allowable stress in the material
during working is called working stress or permissible stress. The working stress has to
be much smaller than the ultimate stress of the material so as to have a sufficient margin
of safety.
The ratio of the ultimate stress and the working stress for a material is called factor of
safety.
It is defined, in general, as the ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress.
j38C4 CS 13S2k =
2$A&BCB %

Mathematically,
D0%E&F 0% 4
&F %

Incase of ductile materials e.g. mild steel, where the yield point is clearly defined, the
factor of Safety is based upon the yield point stress. In such cases,
l62! C6 54255
S38C4 CS 53S2k =
YC4X6A C4 256A 54255
In case of brittle materials e.g. cast iron, the yield point is not well defined as for ductile
materials. Therefore, the factor of safety for brittle materials is based on ultimate stress.
S38C4 CS 53S2k =
. &B$
%

D0%E&F 0% 4
&F %

Values of factor of safety

Material Steady load Live load Shock load
Cast iron 5 to 6 8 to 12 16 to 20
Wrought iron 4 7 10 to 15
Steel 2 to 4 8 12 to 16
Soft materials 6 9 15
and alloy
Leather 9 12 15
timber 7 10 to 15 20

Theory- 2016 DME-I
The factor of safety depends on many considerations as follows:

(i) The nature of loading (ii) The homogeneity of the materials used
(iii) The accuracy with which stresses in members and external forces can be
evaluated
(iv) The degree of safety required (v) The degree of economy desired.
When the material is subjected to varying stresses, the factor of safety is high. For most
engineering structures a factor of safety between 2 and 6 is suitable.
1.12. LOAD AND STRESS

An engineering design is built up of a number of elements which are in equilibrium
under the action of external forces and their reactions at the supports. This pair of forces
(the external force and its reaction) is shared by individual elements of the structure and
constitutes the load on the element. In other words, the external forces grouped together
constitute what is called the load, when acting upon a body. In mechanical members this
pair of forces tries to displace the molecules from their natural equilibrium position.
These molecules are bonded by the internal forces of cohesion which offer resistance to
balance the external forces. The resisting force per unit area of the element is known as
stress. When the machine parts are subjected to various types of forces, the different
types of stresses are produced. The total influence of the external forces may give rise to
three states of stress in the element which are:
(i) Uni-axial stress (ii) Bi-axial stress (iii) Tri-axial stress
Sketch and explain, biaxial and triaxial stresses, stress tensor and principle stress.
(May/June 2010) (06 Marks) (Dec 2010) (08 Marks)
UNIAXIAL STRESS
When a bar of given cross-section is subjected to unidirectional load F at the ends, as
shown in Figure 1.12.1. the intermolecular resistance offered by it is called the uni-axial
stress. The Uniaxial stress means that if we cut the bar at any section, we find that the
along the line of action of the external force. This stress is called pure tension,
cross-section of the bar is subjected to uniformly distributed stresses of magnitude
compression, or shear stress depending upon the nature of load.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
The unidirectional tensile or compressive stress is calculated from the following
=
G
equation:
H
Where is the unidirectional stress (N/mm2).

F is the applied force (N) A is the area of cross-section (mm2)
When a member is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting tangentially across
the resisting section of the member in such a way that its one layer tends to slide over
the other, the member is said to be in the state of shear. The resulting stress on this layer
is called the direct shear stress. For example, two plates held together by means of a
rivet, as shown in Figure 1.12.2, are in the state of shear. The average shear stress
= = Where= is the shear stress (N/mm2).
G
produced in the rivet is given by,
H
Stresses induced by normal and shear load

Many structural and machine members are subjected to loads that are combinations of
axial, bending, torsion and pressure loadings. The stresses due to the combined loading
is simply the combination of those due to each of the individual loadings. The
elementary formula may be used to determine the stresses at a point in the member on
certain planes passing through the point, but none of these stresses in general, will be
the maximum stress at the point. It is therefore, important that the relations between the
stresses at a point on different planes rotated to ant desired position, assuming that the
stresses are known for the reference position. This process is called transformation of
axes or stress transformation.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Sign conventions:
1. Sign for normal stress: tensile stresses are considered positive and
compressive stresses are considered negative as shown below.
+y y y
+x +x
x
+x +x x
+y y y
1. Sign for shear stress: shear stresses are considered positive when the
pair of shear stresses acting on opposite and vertical sides of an element from a
counter clockwise couple as shown in below figure.
+xy xy
+xy xy
2. The angle of inclination is considered positive when measured from the

vertical plane on which the principal stress I and the tangential shear stress
I on an inclined plane which makes an angle of to the vertical plane on
which the principle stress J acts.

+
+

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Unidirectional stress
Figure 1.12.3, shows a member subjected to unidirectional stress = A acting on face
AB. (tensile or compressive).
The normal stress on a plane AC inclined at N. J A cos 3
Shear stress acting along plane AC inclined at N. = J sin 2

K

Max shear stress, =B$A J 3 J 45

K

x x
Biaxial Stress
When a component is subjected to different forces in such a way that stresses produced
act on two planes perpendicular to each other and there is no stress on the third plane
which is perpendicular to these two planes, the above state of stress is then called biaxial
two normal stresses A , , all positive, and two shear stresses, =A and =A . The
stress. Figure 1.12.4, shows a general two-dimensional or biaxial stress clement having
element is in static equilibrium and hence =A is equal to=A .
The shear stress acts parallel to the axis of the second subscript, while the first subscript
indicates the coordinate normal to the element face.
Y
C
B
x x

A
Y
Figure 1.12.5, shows an element subjected to biaxial stresses A along x direction

(tensile or compressive) and along y direction c !4 to x.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Tensile or compressive Normal stress on the plane AC inclined at .

A + A
= s t+g i cos 2 + =A sin 2 . u
2 2
Shear stress on the plane AC inclined at N.
A
= = g i sin 2 =A cos 2 . "
2
Principal Stresses and Principal Planes

In the previous chapter, we have discussed about the direct tensile and compressive
stress as well as simple shear. Also we have always referred the stress in a plane which
is at right angles to the line of action of the force. But it has been observed that at any
point in a strained material, there are three planes, mutually perpendicular to each other
which carry direct stresses only and no shear stress. It may be noted that out of these
three direct stresses, one will be maximum and the other will be minimum. These three
mutually perpendicular planes which have no shear stress are known as principal
planes and the direct stresses along these planes are known as principal stresses.
The planes on which the maximum shear stress act are known as planes of maximum
shear
vA + w A
= + xy z + vA w . `

2 2
vA + w A
= x
y z + vA w . {

2 2
The planes of maximum shear stress are at right angles to each other and are inclined at
45 to the principal planes. The maximum shear stress is given by one-half the
algebraic difference between the principal stresses,
Maximum shear stress
= |y z + vA w 3 = 45 .

K M K K MK
B$A =


Theory- 2016 DME-I
Unidirectional stress combined with shear stress

Figure 1.27 shows an element acted upon by an unidirectional stress A (tensile or
compressive) along with a shear stress =A .
There is no stress acting along y direction !4 to x. Hence, = 0.
xy
C B
xy
x x

A
The normal stress on a plane AC inclined at N.
= A cos + =A sin 2 . u 3
Shear stress acting along plane AC inclined at .

A
= = sin 2 + =A cos 2 . u
2
Maximum principle stress, = }A + |A + 4 A ~ . `

Minimum principle stress, = }A |A + 4 A ~ . {

Max shear stress, =B$A = |A + 4 A .

Note: Tensile stresses are considered + ve and compressive stresses are

regarded as ve values in all the above equation.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Pure shear
Figure 1.12.7, shows on element subjected to pure shear stress =A.
Normal stress on the plane AC inclined at . = =A sin 2
Shear stress on the plane AC inclined at . = = =A cos 2
xy
A
B

xy
xy
C
xy
Maximum principle stress, = =A
Minimum principle stress, = =A
=B$A = = =A . 3 = 45

K M K
Maximum shear stress

Biaxial stresses combined with shear stress

Figure 1.26 shows an element acted upon by biaxial stresses combined with shear stress.
A = Normal stress along x direction, tensile or compressive
= Normal stress along y direction, tensile or compressive
=A = shear stress on xy plane.
Y
xy
C B
xy
x x

xy
A
xy
Y

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Normal stress on the plane AC inclined at .

A + A
= s t+g i cos 2 + =A sin 2 . u
2 2
Shear stress on the plane AC inclined at .

A
= = g i sin 2 =A cos 2 . "
2
Maximum principle stress,
= + |y z + vA w . `

NK OK P K MK

Minimum principle stress,
= |y z + vA w . {

NK OK P K MK

Maximum Shear stress,
= |y z + vA w .

K M K K MK
B$A =

The angle of principle planes, G3 2 = .

K MK
, = tanM } ~ 3 342 3 90 3 34.

K MK
The angle of max shear planes, G3 2 = .

K MK

A
= tanM
1
2 2A

Theory- 2016 DME-I
What is stress tensor? Explain with neat diagram triaxial stress system and stress,
strain relationship for this system. (Dec.08/Jan. 09(08 Marks)
Triaxial Stress
When a cubical element of a deformable body is under the action of external forces, a
stress would act on each of its six faces. If these stresses are resolved into normal and
tangential components to each of the faces, in all nine stresses will act on the element
1.12.10, consists of three normal stresses A , , 3 Q and six shear stresses
and it is said to be a triaxial stress element. A triaxial stress clement, as shown in Figure
A , A , Q , Q , QA , AQ , all positive. If the element is in equilibrium, then A , =

A , Q = Q , QA = AQ .
The nine stress components at a point on the element can be represented by a second-
order tensor T, i.e.
A =A =AQ
G = =A =Q
=QA =Q Q
The above matrix is called a stress tensor.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
UNIT - 2 DESIGN FOR STATIC & IMPACT STRENGTH: Static Strength: Static
loads and Factor of Safety, Theories of failure. Maximum Normal Stress Theory,
Maximum Shear Stress Theory, Distortion Energy Theory; Failure of Brittle Materials,
Failure of Ductile Materials. Stress Concentration, Determination of Stress
Concentration Factor. Impact Strength: Introduction, Impact Stresses due to Axial,
Bending and Torsional loads, Effect of Inertia.
THEORIES OF FAILURE
Introduction
Design of machine members is based on the geometry properties and mechanical
properties of material used. Since these mechanical properties are usually determined
from simple tension or compression tests, therefore, predicting failure in members
subjected to uniaxial stress is simple and straight forward.
In the case of complicated stress conditions to which the machine parts are subjected to, such as
bending with torsion, etc,. To deal with such cases, several theories of strength (also called as
theories of failure) have been developed so that knowing the behavior in simple tension or
compression we can predict the failure condition.
The six common theories of failure are briefly explained in the following paragraphs.
i. Maximum normal (principal) stress theory (Rankins theory)
ii. Maximum shear stress theory (Guest's or Trescas or coulombs theory)
iii. Maximum strain theory (Saint Vanants theory)
iv. Shear energy theory or constant energy of distortion theory (Hencky - Von
Misses theory)
v. Maximum total strain energy theory (Beltrami-Highs theory)
vi. Octahedral shear stress theory

Theory- 2016 DME-I
1. What is the importance of theories of failure? ( Dec 2010) (2 Marks)
2. Discuss briefly (i). Max. Normal stress theory (ii). Distortion energy theory (iii).
Max. Shear stress theory state when they used. ( June/July 2014)
( June 2012) ( Dec 2011) ( June/July 2011) ( June/July 2009)
( Dec. 08/Jan. 09) ( June/July 2008) (06 Marks)
Maximum normal (principal) stress theory (Rankins theory)

*** According to this theory, failure of a component takes place if the maximum
Elastic strength
= 4686 3! 54255
principal stress at any point exceeds the ultimate or yield point stress. The condition of
failure is
For an element subjected to biaxial stress combined with shear,

= vA + w + |vA w + 4 A = . " b
1 1
2 2
This theory is safe for Brittle materials and use for brittle materials.
Maximum shear stress theory (Guest's or Trescas or coulombs theory)

*** According to this theory, failure occurs when the maximum induced shear stress
exceeds the shear stress at yield point.
The condition of failure for brittle for biaxial loading is

= |vA w + 4 A = . b

This theory use for ductile materials.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Shear energy theory or constant energy of distortion theory (Hencky - Von Misses
theory)
*** According to this theory failure will occur when the strain of distortion absorbed
at any portion of the stressed member reaches the strain energy of distortion absorbed at
elastic limit as determined from the standard tension test. The failure equation is

= |A A + + 3 . ` b

= + . ` b
Maximum strain theory (Saint Vanants theory)

*** According to this theory failure will occur whenever a principal strain reaches a
limiting value as determined from the standard tension test.

= 1 vA + w + 1 + |vA w + 4 A . b
1 1

= . b
2 2
Where is the Poissons ratio `{ . u

Maximum total strain energy theory (Beltrami-Haigh's theory)

*** According to this theory states that a material will fail when the maximum strain
energy in a multiaxial stress state exceeds the strain energy obtained in a simple tensile
test.
The condition of failure is expressed by the equation

= + 2 . { b

= + + 3 2 + 3 + 3
Octahedral shear stress theory

*** It gives the same results as does the energy distortion theory and hence may be
called an equivalent stress theory. The octahedral shear stress failure equation is

= + 3 + 3
1
3

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Failure of materials:
When the three theories of failure are plotted on a H , R co ordinate system, give the
graph as shown in below figure.
Distortion
energy theory

Maximum
shear stress
theory
I Quadrant
II

IV

III

Maximum
normal stress
theory
Selection of failure theories:

The maximum normal stress theory is safe for Brittle materials and use for brittle
materials.
The maximum distortion energy theory & The maximum shear stress theory use for
brittle materials.
It can be finally concluded that
i). Maximum shear stress theory may be employed in situations when
a) Dimensions of the component new not to be held very closely.
b) A quick determination of size is the requirement.
c) Factor of safety can be used generously.
ii). Since distortion energy theory predicts failure very accurately, it is used when
a) Factor of safety is to be held to very close limits.
b) During the investigation of parts failure.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
STRESS CONCENTRATION
1. a. What is stress concentration? How to reduce it? List the methods of
determining stress concentration.
b. Writes a note on stress concentration factor and methods to reduce stress
concentration. (June/July 2011) (Dec.09/Jan.10) (Marks- 08)
2. Give any three examples of stress raisers and show how the stress concentration
can be reduced in these cases. (Dec 2011) (Marks- 07)
3. explain briefly the following terms:
a. Stress concentration factor
b. Notch sensitivity
c. Fatigue stress concentration factor (June/July 2009) (Marks- 06)
4. Define stress concentration. Discuss the seriousness of stress concentration in
static loading. (May/June 2010) (Marks- 04)
INTRODUCTION
Figure 1 shows the stress distribution obtained using finite element technique of a
component with discontinuities. If is observed that the stress near the discontinuity
(edge, radius and fillet etc.) Is much higher than the stress in the uniform section. The
localization of stress near the discontinuity is called stress concentration. The
geometric changes (discontinuities) in a member causing the stress concentration are
called stress raisers. The region in which these occur is called the area of stress-
concentration. Internal cracks and flaws, cavities in welds, blowholes, and pressure at
certain points are other common examples of stress raisers.
Similar situation can be visualized for other stress-raisers such as notches, grooves,
keyways, etc. The increase in stress depends on the type of loading, the type of material,
and the size and shape of the discontinuity.
The designer has to have knowledge of stress concentrations, their causes, technique of
preventing them and minimizing serious effects.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Causes:
Variation in properties.
Air holes in the metal
Impure inclusions
Blow holes in welds
Flaws and cracks in casting
Pressure raisers.
Contact between rails and wheels
Contact between surface in relative motion like bearing balls and races
Holding points of the beams by supports
Rolling contact between gear teeth
Abrupt change in cross-section

Scratches due to improper machining
Damages in improper handling
Transverse hole in designed member
Small notches and grooves
Small fillet in section changes
Due to the irregularities or due to change in cross section. The stress induced in the
member is much higher than the one that is calculated using the known theories.
Stress concentration
*** Stress concentration is defined as the concentration of stress in the machine
member either due to change in cross section or due to irregularities in the member. It
is not practically possible to have a machine element without change in cross section.
Some examples are key ways in shafts, steps in shaft to accommodate bearings, gears
etc.
The stress-concentration factor is used to relate the actual maximum stress to the
nominal stress at the discontinuity. It is a ratio of the maximum stress to the nominal
stress at the discontinuity.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
(i). For tension, stress concentration factor

B$A
I = =
maximum stress
nominal stress at discontinuity 0B
j C3
U242 0B = =
M66@ 3423 CS 84C55 5286C
(ii). For bending, stress concentration factor

B$A
I = =
maximum stress
nominal stress at discontinuity 0B
M. 8 M
0B = = =
32 M
a e P 3
SC4 3 522 2 53S CS 66@ 63224 S 5@9282 C 926A
(iii). For torsion, stress concentration factor

=B$A
I = =
maximum shear stress
nominal shear stress at discontinuity =0B
G. 8 G
=0B =
16 G
O e P 3
= =
SC4 3 522 2 53S CS 66@ 63224 S 5@9282 C C456C

Where, I = IK = 65 @52 SC4 363! 3 926A 5425525.
I = I' = 65 @52 SC4 5234 C456C3! 5425525.

B$A C4 =B$A = M3 C4 Permissible C4 3!!CU39!2 C4 UC4X6A 54255.
The effect of a stress raiser on three factors namely

1. Type of load.
2. Material properties.
3. Size and type of discontinuity.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
DESIGN TO REDUCE STRESS CONCENTRATION

Also from the graphs we can draw following general conclusions.
Stress concentration reduces with increase in fillet radius

Stress concentration reduces with decrease in step ration.
From these two conclusions we can say that stress concentration can be reduced if the
following guidelines are followed.
Avoid sharp corners by forming them curved shape

Keep the magnitude of step as low as possible.
Remove the undesirable material
Increase the region of stress concentration
There is no expression or formula of force flow analogy to improve the design. It is a
method by which designer can qualitatively improve the design of component to
safeguard against the failure due to stress concentration.
Methods for reducing stress concentration.

1. Providing circular, spiral or parabolic fillet in the abrupt changes in section.
2. Replacing notch by a groove.
3. Cold working increases the strength.
4. Shot penning increases the strength.
5. Proper heat treatment results in increase of life.
6. Grinding of the surface reduces the scratch.
7. Selecting high quality material for the part.
8. Pre- stressing the machine member increases the strength limit.
9. Adding extra drilled holes.
10. Minimizing the material by removing extra material and providing additional
notches and grooves.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Methods for reducing stress concentration.
Bad Design Preffered Design Bad Design Preffered Design Preffered Design
Dilling Additional Holes Using Fillets instead of Shoulders & drilling Additional Holes
Bad Design Preffered Design Bad Design Preffered Design Preffered Design
Use of Multiple Notches Using Fillets instead of Shoulders & Drilling Grooves
Methods for Determination of stress concentration.

The following are some of the methods used to employ determine the stress
concentration factors.
1. Photo elasticity
2. Finite element technique: ( Finite element method)
3. Grid method
4. Brittle coating technique
5. Brittle model
6. Strain gauge method
*** Discuss the statement In static loading, stress concentration in ductile

materials is not so serious as in brittle material.
ANS: In static loading, stress concentration in ductile material is not so serious
because yielding (plastic deformation) will relieve the stress concentration. Stress
concentration in static loading is very serious in brittle materials since there is no
yielding (no plastic deformation) or negligible yielding.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
NOTCH SENSITIVITY (q)

The actual stress concentration factor (K ) and the Theoretical stress concentration
factor (K ) are connected by the relation, by a ratio, known as notch sensitivity, q.
= . ',-
T
M
T
M
K = 1 + K 1 . ',-
U242 = C8 52566B6k C4 62 52566B6k.

K = Theoretical stress concentration factor (Form stress factor)
K = Actual stress concentration factor
The magnitude of q depends upon the material and type of loading. It is less for
ductile materials and more for brittle materials.
Material Notch sensitivity index, q

Alloy steels 0.85 1.0
Carbon and low alloy steels 0.6 0.8
Aluminium alloys 0.6 0.75
Grey cast - iron 0.1 0.2
Elliptical hole
There are different methods to find the value of the stress concentration factor for
different cases. Theory of elasticity can he used to find out the stress concentration in
some cases. The value of I , as determined by theory of elasticity for the case of
elliptical hole in a semi-infinite plate (w >> 2b) subjected to axial load (Below Figure),
is given by
9 8
I = 1 + 2 3 I = 1 + 2 G39!2 2.1 9
8 9
Where, b = semi major axis, c = semi minor axis

Theory- 2016 DME-I
COMBINED STRESS DEFINITION

A part subjected to two types of loading simultaneously gets a combination of stresses
induced at a point in the cross section. The design equations are based on the failure of
the component at that point where these combined stresses exceed the limit.
COMBINED BENDING MOMENT AND AXIAL LOAD

A hypothetical member subjected to two loads simultaneously may be treated as a
member subjected to P1 and P2 separately. The stresses under P1 and P2, are calculated
separately and superimposed on each (Fig. 2.3 and Fig. 2.4.)
P
1
P
2
= = ) .
U ... U
V H
P P P
1 1 1
l l
P P
2 = + 2
(a) (b) (c)
+
Stress induced = + =

GC3! 6@82 54255 3 2 C S6924

M . !
= + = + = +
e e
3 GC3! 6@82 54255 3 2 9CC S6924
= = = ) . u
U 2 U U ..

H W H W

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Design equation
Design equation for the component may be written as
M . 2
= =
e e
When stresses due to bending and direct loading both are tensile. For brittle material
may be replaced by C . When both bending and direct stresses are compressive the
equation becomes
C M . 2
= =
e e
ECCENTRIC LOADING
Consider a loading as shown in Fig. 2.2. Here, the load axis does not coincide with the
geometrical axis of the member. Such a case of loading is referred to as a case of
eccentric loading,
F
e
Eccentric Loading
Many components in engineering are subjected to eccentric loading. An insight of

eccentric loading, also clarifies the possibilities of stress distribution, especially in cases
where the eccentricity is by accident rather than by design. For example, a screw jack
which was designed to take only a direct compressive load, may develop a case of
eccentric loading, due to improper placement of the axle of the car. This would then
change the ideal stress distribution as thought of by the designer. Hence in such cases,
the designer should design for possibility of eccentric loading and should specify the
permissible amount of eccentricity.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
The analysis for such situations can be done by the following method: (Refer Fig.)
e Couple, M=Fxe F
F e F M=Fxe F
Direct F M
Load, F
F F
= + =
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

+ =
+
Consider an equal and opposite imaginary force acting passing through the centroidal
axis. [Refer Fig. (a)]
The load situation can now be considered equivalent to:
a). A Direct load ' F' acting through the centroidal axis and
b). A Couple of magnitude j 2, which will cause bending as shown in Fig.. (b).
Thus an eccentrically loaded member will be analyzed as a combination of direct load
and bending. In the present case, the direct load creates compressive stresses.
= ) .
G
[Fig. (c)]
H
Due to bending moment, M = j. 2, the bending stress will be :
= ) . b
G.
.
[Fig. (d)]
V
= = ) . u
G 2 G G.
The combined stress

H W H W
Thus the combined stress distribution will be:
= + = +
G 2 G G.
[Fig. 2. 2. (e), at point A]

H W H W
and = =
G 2 G G.
[Fig. 2. 2. (e), at point B]

H W H W

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Thus the maximum stress in the present case will be compressive and would occur at
point B.
A frame of C clamp as shown in Fig. Fig-2.5. is also subjected to direct tensile stress as
well as bending stress and the equations to be used are
= + = +
K G 2 G G.
X H W H W
jC4 624 S6924 3 @86!2 32463!
= =
K G 2 G G.
X H W H W
jC4 C@24 S6924 3 @86!2 32463!,
F
h
b

Theory- 2016 DME-I
IMPACT LOADING:
Introduction:
A static load is slowly applied, gradually increasing from zero to its maximum value;
therefore, the load remains constant.
If a moving body strikes another body, the second body is subjected to an impact which
is equal to the kinematic energy of moving body. The stress induced due to impact load
is called impact stress. Examples of machines that are subjected to impact loads are
forging machines; presses are used for blanking operation, presses used for impact
extrusion.
Impact energy:
If the weight of moving body is W and its velocity is v then
YB
kinetic energy, EY = . b ( )
2 A
Impact energy of the body EY = Y . u ( )
For stress calculation it is convenient to express the impact energy as if it was produced
by a falling body. If h is the height of fall and v is the velocity of fall , then
. ()

Compare above two equation h =
F
The total work done by the falling body can also be calculated by using equation (i) if
h includes both the height of fall before contact and the deformation of the body.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Effect of sudden loads:

Let W = suddenly applied load, A = area of cross section.
2 S = Deformation in the member due to the sudden load.
E = modulus of elasticity. l = length of member.
S = Stress induced in the member due to the sudden load.
The work done due to sudden load = Y 2 S
Strain energy, = j2 S where F is the force at which 2 S is produced.

! 1 S ! S ?
= 2 = s t =
1 S 1 S
F F
S S
=
2 2 2 2F
S ?
= . " ( )
2F
Where ? = ?C!@2 = ?!
Now equating the strain energy to work done.
S ?
= Y 2 S
2F
= Y ! = =
K Z K . D . K .
[ [ H [ [
S = = 2
2 Y

Where S is impact stress and 2 S is deformation due to impact load.
S = 2 . ' ( )
is static stress and e is deformation due to static load.
2 S = 22 . ( )
Then the stress and the strain are twice that of those developed by a gradually applied
load is other words suddenly applied load is eqvalent to twice the static load.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Axial impact on bars: (June 2012)(05 Marks)

Derivation of instantaneous stress due to axial impact
The stress produced in the member due to falling load is known as impact stress.
2 S C4 DB$A and stress

Consider a load W is dropped from a height of h on the end of a vertical bar as
S C4 B$A
shown as fig. which produces instantaneous deformation
Let 2 S = Deformation in the bar due to the impact load.

E = modulus of elasticity of the material of the bar.
F = force at which the deformation 2 S is produced.
S = Stress induced in the bar due to the impact load.
l = length of member.
A = area of cross section.
W = weight of falling body.
= Static Stress due to weight W.
2 = Static Deformation due to weight W.
W h
l e'
h
l
e'
The work done by the falling body is equal to its change in potential energy.
YC4X C2 = Y + 2 S . " ' ( )

Since the energy gained by the system is equal to the potential energy lost the weight
!
j2 S = Y + 2 S U242 j = S 3 2 S = S (()
1
2 F

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Substituting theses values in equation (i)

! !
s S t = Y s + S t
1 S
2 F F
6. 2., Y = 0
H. S D . S \]^ O / $
Quadratic equation
[ [ .$
Y ! | Y ! ! Y ! Y ! | F
g i + 4 g i . Y 1 + 2.
F F F F Y !
S = =

! !
2F
F
2.
2F
Y Y
S = x1 +
2F
Y !
Considering positive sign , S = 1 + |1 + . ( )

D #[H
H D .
Y !
S = 1 + x1 + . U242 }! = 2 = ~
2
2 F
Now multiplying both sides of the equation . by

.
the equation becomes
[
S . 1 + |1 +
. D . #[H
=
[ H [ D .
2 S = 2 1 + |1 + . U242 y! = 2 = z
# D .

H [
Impact factor;
The ratio of maximum stress to the static stress is called impact factor.
For axial loads, impact factor = = 1 + |1 +

K #
K

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Impact bending:
Derivation of instantaneous stress due to impact bending.
k S C4 kB$A and stress

Consider a lad W is dropped from a height of h on a simple supported beam as
S C4 B$A
shown as fig. which produces instantaneous deflection
Let E = modulus of elasticity of the material of the bar

S = Stress induced in the beam due to the impact load.
k S = Deflection in the beam due to the impact load.
= Bending Stress due to Static weight W.
k = Deflection due to Static weight W.
A = area of cross section.
I = M.I. of the beam
M = B.M. of the beam.
y'
l
YC4X C2 = Y + k S . " ' . . (()

Let Y
be the equivalent static load which produces the same amount of deflection y,

Theory- 2016 DME-I
1train energy = Y
k S ((()

then,

Equating the two equations
Y
k S = Y + k S

+ k S
Y
= 2Y . . (((()
kS
The deflection of the bam under the static equivalent load Y
at the center is given by
kS = (()
D .
/_ [ V
Substituting theses value of Y

in equation (iv)
2Y + k S ! 3 2 + k S Y ! 3
k = = ()
kS kS
S
48 F a 48 F a
Y ! 3
But, = k = 5368 2S!286C @2 C U26A Y '0- . ( )
48 F a
kS = .k
N#O P
Equation (v) becomes

6. 2., k S = 2k + 2k S k 6. 2., k S 2k + 2k S k = 0

2k 2k + 41. 2k
k = S

21
Taking positive sign
2k + 2k|1 + 2k 1 + |1 +
2k + 4k + 4 2k k k
2 2
k =
S
= =
2 2 2
k S = k 1 + x1 + . ( )
2
k

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Multiply both sides of equation . by

_ [ .
, the equation becomes,
.
8 F . 8 8 F . 8
kS k 1 x1
2
! ! k
= + +
6. 2., S = 1 + x1 + .
2
k
Impact factor;
= = 1 + |1 +
K #
For bending loads, impact factor
K
Deflection at the center of beam k =

.
Note:
M F
_ `
2U, =
a
F a
=
M
! F a
k = s t
8 M
M
!5C, =
a 8
!
k = g i
8 F . 8
8 F . 8
= k
!
2R-y
R
y
l/2 l/2

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Derivation of instantaneous stress due to impact bending.
k S C4 kB$A and stress

Consider a lad W is dropped from a height of h on a simple supported beam as
S C4 B$A
shown as fig. which produces instantaneous deflection
Let E = modulus of elasticity of the material of the bar.

S = Stress induced in the beam due to the impact load.
k S = Deflection in the beam due to the impact load.
= Bending Stress due to Static weight W.
k = Deflection due to Static weight W
A = area of cross section
I = M.I. of the beam
M = B.M. of the beam.
W
l
h
y'
YC4X C2 = Y + k S . " ' . . (()
Static bending stress " = = . . ((()

2 2 . a . .
=
W V V
Energy absorbed by the beam = (((()

K V

.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Equating the energy absorbed to potential energy, we get

S a kS
= Y + k S
! 8 2
S a
k S = 2 + k S
Y ! 8
S U ! . 8
6. 2., k S = 2 + k S . (() 928C@52 s " = t
a
C4 k = k
S K
For elastic material, =
K K K
Substituting the value of k S in equation (iv) we get
S S
k = 2 + 2 k

S S 2
C4 2

k
=0
Solving the above quadratic equation, we get
2 + |2 + 4
k
2
= = 1 + x1 +
S
2
2 k
a 38 54255 @2 C 926A S
= 1 + x1 + .
2
k
Since the stress and deflections are proportional, the deflection of the beam due to
impact is k S = k }1 + |1 + ~ .
#

For bending loads, impact factor =

K
K
= 1 + x1 +
2
k

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Torsional Impact:
In a similar manner, the equation for impact of a falling body on a torsion member can
be found. The shear stress and angular deflection, due to impact at radius r of a free
falling load from a height h as shown in fig are.
h d
a 38 54255 @2 C C456C, = S = = 1 + |1 + .

#
% -
Since the shear stress and angular deflections are proportional, the deflection of the
shaft due to impact is N S = N 1 + |1 + .

#
% -
Where static angular deflectionsN and impact angular deflections N S in radius, and
r is the moment arm of the load W.
Impact factor;
The ratio of maximum shear stress to the static shear stress is called impact factor. For
impact factor = = 1 + |1 +
' #
Bending loads,
' % -
Effect of inertia:
When a body of weight W strikes another body of weight W, some of the impact
energy is used to overcome the inertia of weight W. Hence the body is subjected to less
impact and the resulting stresses and deformations in it are reduced. The stresses and
deflections may be computed than one can be determined by the formula.
1 + 3 YS
= . b U242 =
1 + 9 Y
a and b are constant coefficients whose values are given in Table 2.8 (P 27) for
the main cases of impact action.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
UNIT - 3; DESIGN FOR FATIGUE STRENGTH: Introduction- S-N Diagram, Low

Cycle Fatigue, High Cycle Fatigue, Endurance Limit, Endurance Limit. Modifying
Factors: Size effect, Surface effect, Stress Concentration effects. Fluctuating Stresses,
Goodman and Soderbergs relationship; Stresses due to Combined Loading, Cumulative
Fatigue Damage. Design for Fatigue Strength.
Introduction:
In the previous topics, the forces acting externally on a machine component were
assumed to be static. In many applications, the components are subjected to forces
which are not static, but vary in magnitude with respect to time. Static or quasi-static
(gradually applied) loads are rarely observed in machines. Parts of reciprocating
machines, cam shafts, shafts carrying gears, sprockets, pulleys and rotors not properly
balanced, and gear teeth are a few examples of parts subjected to cyclic or fluctuating
loads. Most of the failures and accidents encountered are due to fluctuating and
suddenly applied loads.
Type of applied load

i) Static load
Does not change in magnitude and direction and normally gradually to a static value.
ii) Variable load
Change in magnitude
o Traffic of varying weight passing bridge
Change in direction
o Load on piston rod of double acting cylinder

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Explain the following: i) Endurance limit (Strength) ii) HCF & LCF
Fatigue Loading:
Fatigue is a time varying load acting on a component or a system when loads are
stressed on a m/c part changed in magnitude or direction or both loading is known as
visible or fatigue loading.
Fatigue assumes importance because fatigue failure in member can occur at stress
values that are below yield strength or ultimate strength of material is most often eases.
It has been observed that some of the machine parts which are subjected to variable
loading fail at a stress value lower than that of the ultimate or yield strength of material.
The stresses induced due to such forces are called as fluctuating stresses; such failure of
the part is generally termed fatigue failure. It is observed that about 50 % of failures of
mechanical components are due to fatigue resulting from fluctuating stresses. To the
purpose of design analysis, simple models for stress-time relationship are used.
Figures (a) and (b). 2$A and 2& are maximum and minimum stresses, whileB
The most popular model for stress time relationship is the sine curve as shown in below
and $ , are called mean stress and stress amplitude respectively.
B = 2$A + 2& $ = 2$A 2&

It can be proved that

Terminologies in fatigue loading:
!6@2 54255, $ = , M23 54255 , $ = ,

K M K K O K
14255 43A2, = B$A B&

Fully Reverse Loading: Stress which vary from one value of compression stress to
Some value of tensile stress or vice versa.
B = = 0
K O K
+
$ = = B$A
K K
S
t
= B$A B&
r
0 Time (t)
e
s

- Fully reverse loading

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Repeated Loading:
The stress which vary from zero to certain maximum value (tensile or compressive
nature) are called repeated loading.
B = =
+ K O K K

$ = =
S
t K M K K
r
e

s

0 Time (t)
Repeated loading
Fluctuating Loading
The stress which vary from minimum value to maximum value of same nature
(compressive or tensile) is called fluctuating stress.
$ =
K M K
+

B =
S
t K O K
r

= B$A B&
e
s

0 Time (t)
Fluctuating loading
Alternating Loading
The stress which vary from one magnitude in one direction and another magnitude in
other direction (compressive or tensile) is called alternating stress.
+

S
t
r
e
s
0
Time (t)

Alternating Loading
_

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Material property under variable load

Specimens are subjected to repeated or varying loads of specific magnitude
No of cycles required for fracture is recorded.
Above two steps are repeated for different load magnitude.
Fatigue Curve
c) Typical Test Specimen

Rotating Beam Test (Constant B.M Type)
The number of cycles on the log-log graph as shown in below Figure. This curve is
called the fatigue curve.
Low Cycle Fatigue
High Cycle Fatigue

Finite Life InFinite Life

(Stress)
Failure Points
10 10
(No. of Cycles)
Fatigue Curve for Steel

Theory- 2016 DME-I
To develop on S-N plot in fatigue laboratory by standard methods. The procedure to be

followed.
1. Select a large group of carefully prepared polished fatigue specimen of diameter

7.5 mm of the material of interest.
2. Select 6 or 8 stress level.
3. To make each test run, mount a specimen in the rotating beam testing machine
using due care. Set the machine for the desired stress amplitude with cycle counter
set on zero.
4. In first test, Start the machine and run at constant stress lower than the ultimate
strength of the material until the specimen fails.
5. Record the stress amplitude used & the cycle count at the time of failure or run
out.
6. Using new specimen, In the second test, specimens are tested with a stress slightly
less than that used for first test and again the number of cycles before the fracture
takes place is counted.
7. Change the new stress level less than previous stress level and repeat the
procedure until all specimens have been tested.
8. Note that entire output from a complete fatigue test is a single point on S-N plot.
9. Lot all data collected on a stress v/s life coordinate system. Run outs or points for
which fatigue failure was observed during the test are indicated dot points
A close look at the curve reveals that the fatigue curve can be broadly divided into two
parts. One in which the specimens survived for less than 1000 cycles. It is called the low
cycle area or infant mortality period. The specimens failing before 1000 cycles are
generally of no value in the design of the mechanical components. However, the
specimens which fail after attaining at- least 1000 cycles are classified as high cycle
fatigue. It is this portion of the diagram which has practical value for designing of parts
under fatigue loading.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Low cycle fatigue The specimens survived for less than 1000 cycles
High cycle fatigue The specimens which fail after attaining at least 1000 cycles
S
t LCF HCF
r
e
s
s
0
10
No of Cycle (N)
material of the specimen, it is generally found that curves of different shapes are
Since fatigue failure is statistical in nature and depends upon the type of stress and the
obtained.
In the case of plain carbon steel, a clear sharp corner called the knee occurs at about 10
cycles as shown in the graph. Beyond the knee point, the trend of the curve is almost
asymptotic to abscissa which indicates that beyond this point failure will not occur no
called the endurance strength

or fatigue limit or endurance limit. For non-ferrous
matter how great the number of cycles. The strength corresponding to the knee point is
metals and other ferrous metals such as cast iron this curve never becomes horizontal
[see Figure (d).]. Hence, these materials do not have any specific endurance limit.
As mentioned earlier, the endurance, limit depend upon the type of load, the stress, and
the material of the component. Different materials when subjected to different types of
load exhibit different endurance limits. Generally, it is observed that the materials
which have better static properties are also good under fatigue loading, although no
exact relationship between the ultimate strength and the endurance limit exists. For
preliminary design calculations, the following relations are quite useful.
1. Material considerations:
For steel
= 0.5 C ( . u')( u)
For cyclic torsion load:
=
= 0.5
SC4 522! ( . `)( u)

Theory- 2016 DME-I
FATIGUE FAILURE
It has been observed that materials fail under fluctuating stresses, at a stress magnitude
which is lower than the ultimate tensile strength of the material. Sometimes, the
magnitude is even smaller than the yield strength. Further, it has been found that the
magnitude of the stress causing fatigue failure decreases as the number of stress cycle
increases. The phenomenon of decreased resistance of the material to fluctuation
stresses is called fatigue.
FATIGUE OR ENDURANCE LIMIT

The fatigue or endurance limit
for material is

defined as the maximum value of completely S
t
reversing stress that the standard specimen can r
e
sustain for infinite number of cycles without fatigue s
s
failure.
Number of Cycles N
For a stress below a certain value, the material will not fail whatever be no. of
cycles represented by dotted line is known as endurance or fatigue limit.
FATIGUE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR AND NOTCH SENSITIVITY

(June/July 2009)(04 Marks)
It is observed that the actual reduction in the endurance strength of a material due to
concentration factor I two separate notations I , and I b are therefore used for stress
stress concentration is less than the amount indicated by the theoretical stress
concentration factors. I is the theoretical stress concentration factor, as defined in
and elastic. I b , is the fatigue stress concentration factor, which is defined as follows:
previous section, which is applicable to ideal materials that are homogeneous, isotropic
I b =
Endurance limit of the notch free specimen
Endurance limit of the notched specimen

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Notch Sensitivity (q) is defined as the susceptibility of a material to succumb to the

damaging effects of stress raising notches in fatigue loading. The notch sensitivity
factor q is defined as
=
Increase of actual stress over nominal stress
Increase of theoretical stress over nominal stress
I b 1
= .
I 1
The; above equation is rearranged in the following form
For normal stress I b = 1 + I 1 .
For shear stress I b = 1 + I 1 . u b
This equations shows that when q=0vI b C4 I b = 1 w, the material has no sensitivity
to notches. When q=1 vI b = I 3 I b = I w. The material has full sensitivity to
notches. In case of doubt, the designer should use q=0vI b C4 I b = 1 w and the
design will be on safe side.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT FATIGUE STRENGTH

The fatigue strength of a part made of a given material strongly depends on
1. Type of loading, (Axial, Torsion, Bending)
(Load correction factor)(A)
2. Absolute dimensions of a part (Size correction Factor) (B)
3. Surface condition and corrosion, (Surface correction Factor) (C)
(Stress concentration Factor)( I b C4 I b )

4. Geometrical discontinuities (holes, notches, fillets etc.)
5. Grain size and direction,

6. Operating temperature,
7. Heat-treatment,
8. Residual stresses, Type of cycle (degree of its asymmetry).

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Some of the above factors are being discussed in detail in the following articles.
Load correction factor (P-19)
Reversed bending load A=1
Reversed axial load A = 0.7 to 1 Take A = 0.7
Reversed torsional load A = 0.5 to 0.6 Take A = 0.6
Size correction factor (B)

The endurance limit of the component is found to decrease with the increasing size of
the specimen when it is subjected to bending and torsion loading, because an increase in
the size of a specimen is apt to have more internal defects. However, for axial loading,
tensile tests indicate that no size correction is necessary.
The value of the size factor B for a round component is calculated by the following
empirical relations:
Diameter (d), mm Size correction factor (B)
7.5 1.00
7.5 < 50 0.85
> 50 0.75
Where d is the diameter of the specimen.

In rectangular components, first an equivalent diameter is calculated by the constant
volume approach and then the corresponding size factor is determined.
Surface correction factor (C) [(P - 24) (T 2.2)] [(P - 40)(Fig 2.26)]
The surface conditions of machine parts vary with the type of machining or shaping
operations that are performed upon them. Experiments have shown that parts with poor
surface finish have reduced fatigue limit compared to parts with smooth surface finish.
The reduction in fatigue limit is due to signs of tool marks left on the surface.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
The degree of smoothness of the surface and the endurance limit reduce in the following
order of operations: (i) polishing, (ii) grinding.(iii) Fine turning, and (iv) rough tuning.
Above Figure gives the value of the surface finish factor for a known value of the
ultimate strength and the type of surface finishing operation.
For designing a machine part under these stress cycles, generally, two approaches called
(i) the Goodman's approach and (ii) the Soderberg's approach are most commonly used.
The Goodman's approach is based on ultimate strength of material whereas the
Soderberg's approach uses yield strength. Experimentally it is established that in fatigue
design of the part for fluctuating stresses, the Goodman's approach is more accurate
while the Soderberg's approach is more conservative.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
A brief discussion on these design approaches is given below:

1. Derive an expression for Goodmans relationship.
(June/ July.2011) (Dec.2011)(06 Marks)
Goodman's Relationship
According to the Goodman's approach, the design of a component subjected to
fluctuating stress can be carried out by the following steps (Figure (f)).

Amplitude e stress
Endurence stress

(f). Goodman's Relationship
In deriving Goodman's equation, endurance stress

is plotted along Y-axis and yield
stress along X- axis.
OA and OB represent the endurance stress and ultimate stress respectively. The line AB
to AB represents safe stress line A point P on CD has variable stress $ on Y-axis and
represents the Goodman's failure line. Using factor of safety n, line CD is drawn parallel
mean stress B on X-axis.

From similar triangles COD and PED,
. (1) Where H =
c cd K
=
U[ [d

Theory- 2016 DME-I
F = $
C
=

And ED = OD OE = B
K

Substituting in equation (1) we get

C
g i g i
=
$
B

C
C
$ B

= C C

$ B

= 1 C

$ B 1
=

C
+
Goodmans relation for fluctuating normal stress

$ B 1
= . u "

C
+
Goodmans relation for fluctuating torsional stress.

=$ =B 1
= . "
=
=C
+
Considering stress concentration factor (I b ) and important three modifying (correction

) (A,B,C) factors for the endurance limit,
The Goodmans equation for ductile material:
I b $ B 1
= . '
H
C
+

Theory- 2016 DME-I
2. Derive the Soderbergs relation (equation) for designing a machine element, with
change in c/s, to sustain loads that fluctuate between two limits, taking the stress
concentration into account.
(May/June.2010)(Dec.2010)(Dec.09/Jan.10)(Dec.08/Jan.09)(06 Marks)
Soderbergs relationship
According to the Soderbergs approach, the design of a component subjected to
fluctuating stress can be carried out by the following steps (Figure (g)).

H

(g). Soderbergs Relationship

$
B F

M23 54255 B

l62! 54255 v w
In deriving Soderbergs equation, endurance stress

is plotted along Y-axis and
yield stress along X- axis.
OA and OB represent the endurance stress and yield stress respectively. The line AB
parallel to AB represents safe stress line A point P on CD has variable stress $ on Y-

represents the Soderbergs failure line. Using factor of safety n, line CD is drawn
axis and mean stress B on X-axis.

From similar triangles COD and PED,
H
. (1)
F F
=
Where H =
K


Theory- 2016 DME-I
F = $ ; =
K

And ED = OD OE = B
K

Substituting in equation (1) we get

g i s t
=
$
B

$ B

=

$ B

= 1

$ B 1
=

+
Soderbergs relation for fluctuating normal stress

$ B 1
= . " "

+
Soderbergs relation for fluctuating torsional stress

=$ =B 1
= . "
=
=
+
Considering stress concentration factor (I b ) and important three modifying

(correction) (A, B, C) factors for the endurance limit,
The Soderbergs equation for ductile material in normal stress:
I b $ B 1
= . '
H

+
The Soderbergs equation for ductile material in shear stress:

I b $ B 1
= . *
H

+

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Cumulative damage in fatigue (miners equation)

When more than one stress level above the endurance limit is present in working cycle,
it becomes necessary to combine the effects of various stresses to obtain an overall
estimate of the expected life.
Suppose at stress level , the fatigue life is cycles & the component actually runs
for S cycles & at stress level , the fatigue life is cycles & the component
actually runs for S cycles.
The miners equation is given by
S S S
+ +

+ =1
If is the combined life

both sides of above equation by
S S S
+ +
1

+ =
+ +
e e e
(Or) + =
X X X X
Where E =
X
X
The miners equation can be used only for complete reversal of stresses.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
UNIT 6: COTTER JOINT AND KNUCKLE JOINTS, KEYS AND

COUPLINGS: Design of Cotter and Knuckle Joints, Keys: Types of keys, Design of
Keys and Design of Splines. Couplings: Rigid and Flexible Couplings: Flange
Coupling, Bush and Pin type Coupling and Oldhams Coupling.
KEYS
The most common function of a key is to prevent relative rotation between a shaft and
the parts mounted on it such as the hub of a gear, pulley, etc. a key is a piece of metal
fitted into mating grooves in the shaft and the hub. The groove of the shaft in which the
key lies is called key seat and the groove of the hub in which the key accommodates or
fit is called keyway. Thus after assembly the key is partly in the shaft and partly in the
hub of the mating part as shown in fig.
An extensive use of key joints is largely due to their simple and reliable design,
convenience of assembly and disassembly, low cost, etc.
The major disadvantages of this type of joint are as follows:
1. The need for a keyway makes the effective cross section of the part smaller and
increases stress concentration.
2. Difficulty in concentric fitting of parts.
Keys are generally made of mild steel as it can easily take up crushing and shearing
stresses to which they are usually subjected. A large number of keys are available and
the choices in any installation depends on several factors, such as power requirement,
tightness of fit, stability of connection and cost.
Type of keys
The type of keys in general engineering use are listed below:
1. Saddle key, 2. Flat key,3. Sunk key, 4. Pin key, 5. Taper key.
Sunk key
A key which goes partly in the shaft and partly in the hub is called sunk key.
There are four types of sunk keys.
i). Rectangular or square key, ii). Gib head key, iii). Feather key, iv).
Woodruff key.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Strength of square and rectangular keys

When the keyways are cut in both the shaft and the hub, torque is transmitted by
compression on the surface ab and de of the keys as shown in Fig. these compressive
forces acts as a couple tending to shear and the key across eb or crush the key along ab
or de.
Let T = Torque transmitted by the key, d = Diameter of the shaft,

L = Length of the key
b = Width of the key, h = Height of the key, = = Allowable shear stress in the
key,
= Allowable crushing stress in the key.
j =
)
Force acting on the circumference of the shaft,
= 9
4
Shear area of the key,
= = =
G )
Shear stress in the key,
H 4 f
G = = 9 . b

1
2
= =
# # f
Crushing area,

= = =
G ) / )
Crushing (Bearing) stress in the key,
H 4 # f 4 # f
G = .

1
4
The keyway cut in the shaft affects the load carrying capacity of the shaft since highly
localized stresses occurs at and near the corner of the keyway. The code for
transmission shafting recommends the use of an efficiency of 75 % for keyed shafts.
GC4@2 43562 9k 2 53S,
P 3 =
G =
Where is the keyway factor which is equal to 0.75.
16

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Fasteners
Fasteners can be classified as permanent or detachable fasteners. In case of permanent
fasteners, the member cannot be disabled without destruction of joint member or
medium.
Fastners
Permanent Detachable
Cotter & Screw

Riveting Adhesive Welding key
Knuckle Joint Fastening
Knuckle joint
These joints are used to connect two rods that are subjected to tensile loads. If the rods
are properly guided, they cann support compressive loads also. Where as a knuckle joint
form a rigid connection, this joint may allow limited relative angular movement of the
rods about the axis of the pin. This joint can be readily disconnected for adjustments or
repairs.
Knuckle joints find applications in

i. Connecting tensions rods of structures.
ii. Rods of valve gears, value rods and eccentric rods.
iii. For joining the links of suspension bridges.
iv. For diagonal strays in boilers
v. Links of cycle chain etc.
Knuckle joint has three parts namely (i) the eye (ii) the fork and (iii) the pin.
One end of the rod is forged to the shape of a fork (on double eye) and the other rod is
forged to the shape of an eye. The eye end of the rod is inserted between the jaws of
fork. The hole in to fork and the eye are aligned and a pin having a collar is inserted in
the holes. A taper pin or a split pin is inserted in the pin. Both the fork eye ends are
octagonal in shape for some length and square for
for the remaining length.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Nomenclature:
Yoke end (fork):
d = diameter of the rod, mm. S = 1 = width of the square section, mm.
D = outside diameter of the eye, mm. B = thickness of the fork, mm.
Eye end: F = thickness of the single eye, mm.
Knuckle pin:
= diameter of the pin, mm. C = diameter of the pin head, mm.
E = thickness of the pin head, mm.
= permissible tensile stress,

P = axial load, N. .
= = allowable shear stress, = safe crushing stress,

. .

Theory- 2016 DME-I

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Design procedure of knuckle joint

The empirical dimensions and relations should be considered for designing. The
following procedure may be adopted :
1. Design of rod and end Figure 1.1

i. Considering the failure of rod in tension, tensile stress in the rod,
= P

4
P = (. ) u

Tearing resistance of the rod,
1
/ d
Fig. 1.1
ii. Diameter of rod end, 1 = 1 = = 1.2
2. Design of knuckle pin

i. Diameter of knuckle pin,

Considering the failure of knuckle pin in double shear,
= = P
2
4
P
Shearing resistance of the knuckle pin,
P = = 2 (. b) u
4
ii. The diameter of the pin head, C C = 1.5 d mm

iii. Thickness of the pin head, E E = 0.5 d mm
3. Thickness of the fork: (B)

Considering the failure of fork end in crushing,

=
2
= 2 (. ) u

Theory- 2016 DME-I
4. Outside Diameter of the fork eye :( D)

Considering the failure of fork eye in tension,
=
2
B
= 2 (. ) u

.
D

5. Thickness of single eye :( F)

Considering the failure of single eye in tension,
=
j F
= j (. ) u

D
6. Bending stress in pin :( g )

Since the bending of the pin is prevented by the selection of proper fit.
7. Check for Stress:

Crushing stress in pin,
= j (. ) u

=
j
D
Note: In case the induced stress is more than the allowable stress, then the
corresponding dimensions may be increased.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Cotter joint
One of the most common methods of joining two non
rotating members is by the use of a cotter. A cotter is
a flat wedge shaped member of steel, which is used to
rigidly connect rods which transmit linear rotation,
cotter joint direction of their length without rotation.
Cotter joint transmit both tensile as well as
compressive stress.
Application
i). Used for connecting piston rod with cross head of a double acting steam engine.
ii). For cotter foundation bolts
iii). For connecting two halves of flywheel
iv). For the rods of steel structure
v). For jigs and fixtures
Merits and demerits of cotter

Merits
i). Simple in design
ii). Easy assembly and disassembly of the unit
iii). The parts occupy exactly the same relative positions after assembly
Demerits
i). Weakening of the main parts due to the holes for cotters.
ii). Need for locking devices
Types of cotter joints

The important types of cotter joints are,
i). Socket and spigot cotter joint
ii). Sleeve and cotter joint
iii). Gib and cotter joint

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Socket and spigot cotter joint

This is used to connect two circular rods which are subjected to axial loads. This joint
comprises of three parts
1) The rod end or spigot end
2) The socket end or sleeve end
3) A cotter
Symbols for cotter joint

= 63224 CS 2 5C!6 4C, , = 63224 CS 2 4C 2,
= 63224 CS 2 8C!!34, , = 63224 CS 2 5C8X2,
= 63224 CS 2 5C8X2 384C55 2 8C24 C!2,
9 C4 = Y6 CS 2 8C24,
= G68X255 CS 2 8C24, , = G68X255 CS 2 5 6AC 8C!!34,
= 3!!CU39!2 256!2 54255, M (

)
= 3!!CU39!2 84@56A 54255, M (

)
= 3!!CU39!2 926A 54255, M ,

= = 3!!CU39!2 5234 54255, M (

)
= S = 3!!CU39!2 5234 54255 343!!2! U6 S6942, M (

)

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Design procedure for socket and spigot cotter joint
63! 54255 6 2 4C,

1. Design of rod (Fig. 1.1)
=
4
P
P
= . ( b) d
4
Fig. 1.1
2. Design of spigot and cotter

i. Crushing strength of cotter, (Fig. 1.2 )
= . (i) . ( b) t
= _____ . (i)
d1
Fig. 1.2
ii. Since the weakest section of the spigot is across the slot
P
= g i . ( b)
4
Axial stress across the slot of the rod, t
=
4
P 4
Diameter of spigot, d1
substituting in (i), t = thickness of cotter
iii. Considering double shear of cotter, (Fig.1.3)

Shearing strength of cotter,
= 2 9 = . ( b)
b
Mean width of cotter b

t
b
Fig. 1.3

Theory- 2016 DME-I

iv. Shear stress due to double shear at rod end,
=S =
2 !
= 2 ! = S . b ( b)
Rod end distance from the slot !
d1 D
l1
3. Design of spigot collar (Fig. 1.4)
P
i. Considering the crushing failure of collar,
= v w . ( b)
4
Bearing stress in the collar, t1
=
4
Pv w
d1 d2 d
1 d
Diameter of spigot collar

d2
Fig. 1.5
Fig. 1.4
ii. Considering the failure of collar in shear, (Fig. 1.5)

= P = . ( b)
Shear stress induce in the collar,

t1
= =
P d1
Thickness of spigot collar

Theory- 2016 DME-I
4. Design of socket
i. Considering the failure of the socket in tension or compression, (Fig. 1.6)
P
= y v w z . u ( b)
4
Tensile stress induce in the socket,
t
=
4
Pv w 4 d1
Outside Diameter of socket
D1
Fig. 1.6
ii. Considering the failure of socket collar in crushing, (Fig. 1.7)
= . " ( b)
Crushing stress induce in the socket collar, t

=
d1
Diameter of socket collar

D
Fig. 1.7
iii. Considering the failure of socket end in double shear, (Fig. 1.8)
= 2 ! = S . ( b)
Shear stress induce in the socket end,

=S =
d1 D
2 !
Thickness of socket collar !
l

Theory- 2016 DME-I
= P = S . ( b)
iv. Considering the failure of socket in shear,
Shear stress induce in the socket, = S =

U
1 4
Thickness of socket at the rod end
t2
d
5. Bending stress induced in the collar,(Fig. 1.9)

Maximum bending moment to resisting moment,
= . ( b)
/ K
3 d
(D-d1)/2
F/2
F/2 b
d1 F/2
D
F/2
(D-d1)/2
Fig. 1.9
This bending stress induced in the cotter should be less than the allowable bending
stress of cotter. In case induced bending stress is more than the allowable value then t
or b may be increased.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Mechanical Couplings
Whenever lengths of shafting exceeds some 7 meters in length, it is made up of two or
more lengths. In such conditions is becomes necessary to join the ends of two shafts in
such a manner that both the shafts acts as the same unit. The elements which join two
shafts are known as couplings or clutches.
Couplings are used to connect and to transmit power from the driving shaft to the
driven shaft
A Coupling is used to connect two shafts permanently. It is disconnected only for
repairs or to make a change in the instantiation. Permanent couplings are referred to
simply as couplings, while those which may be rapidly engaged to transmit power, or
disengaged when desire, are called clutches.
Couplings are also used to connect driving unit (turbine, electric motor or an engine)
and driven unit (pump, compressors etc.)- Couplings are available for joining shafts at
angles or with misalignment, and have ability to provide damping.
SELECTION
The choice of a coupling is based on the following considerations:
(i) Loading: Torque to be transmitted and type of load, i.e., static, variable or
shock.
(ii) Misalignment: The maximum parallel and/or angular misalignment or
relative position of the shafts to be joined. Requirement of compensation of
axial displacement.
(iii) Length: To get the length of shaft.
(iv) Repair: To provide for disconnection for repairs or alterations.
(v) Requirement of damping ability.
*** What is coupling & what are the requirements of good coupling
The important requirement of good couplings are (ME)(Dec.2012)(Marks 4)
i. It must transmit the full torque of the shaft
ii. It must be keep the shafts in perfect alignment
iii. It must be easy to assemble or dissemble
iv. The bolt heads, nuts and other projecting parts should be protected by suitable
flanges ; rims or cover plates.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
CLASSIFICATION
A wide variety of couplings are commercially available, ranging from a simple rigid
coupling to elaborate flexible couplings using gears, elastomer and fluids for
transmission of torque from one shaft to another shaft or from a shaft to a device.
de
*** What is coupling & state different types shaft couplings?
(IP) (June / July 2013)(Marks 04)
Coupling
Rigid Flexible
Coupling Coupling
Sleeve Clamp Flange Bush or Pin type Elastic oldham Universal

Coupling Coupling Coupling Coupling Coupling Coupling Coupling
Couplings may be classified in two broad classes: rigid and flexible couplings.
Rigid Couplings: Rigid couplings are used to connect two shafts sh which are
collinear. They do not permit any relative rotation and axial motion between them. The
most widely used rigid couplings are:
(i) Sleeve or Box or Muff coupling.
(ii) Split Muff coupling.
(iii) Marine or Solid flange coupling.
(iv) Cast iron flange coupling.
Flexible coupling: Flexible couplings are used to connect two shafts which are non-
non
collinear i.e., shafts having slight parallel or angular misalignment. A flexible coupling
permits relative rotation andnd variation in the alignment of shafts within certain limits.
The most widely used Flexible couplings are:
(i) Pin or bush type flexible coupling
(ii) Oldhams coupling
(iii) Universal coupling
(iv) Band type flexible coupling.
(v) Fabric flexible coupling.
A protective cover is provided on each flange, to ensure that the clothes of a worker do
not get entangled with running bolts and nuts.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
*** Distinguish between a rigid coupling and a flexible coupling.

(IP) (Dec. 2012) (Marks 05)
Rigid coupling Flexible coupling
A rigid coupling cannot tolerate The flexible coupling, due to
misalignment between the axes of the provision of flexible elements like
shafts, it can be used only when there bush or disc or pin, can tolerate 0.50
is precise alignment between two of angular misalignment and 5 mm of
shafts. axial displacement between the shafts.
It can be used only where the motion It can be used where the motion is
is free from shocks and vibration. with shocks and vibration.
Simple and inexpensive. Comparatively costlier due to
additional parts.
In practice, misalignment always exists due to imperfect workmanship. Therefore,

flexible couplings are more popular.
Cast Iron Flange Coupling (Protected and Un Protected CI flange coupling)

It consists of two similar cast iron flanges. Each flange is mounted on the shaft end and
keyed to shaft. Sunk keys of rectangular or square cross section are commonly used
for the purpose. The flanges are connected by means of bolts and nuts as shown in
Figs (13.2) and ( 13.3) (P- 233). one of the flanges has a projected portion and the other
flange has a corresponding recess. To ensure correct alignment, one of the shaft is
extended so that its end partially enter the flange of the other shaft. this helps to bring
the shafts to be in line and maintain alignment.
In un-protected CI flange coupling as shown in Figs (13.2) (P- 233). The bolt heads
and nuts are open and hence liable to cause injury to the operator.
In protected CI flange coupling the bolt heads and nuts are covered by the projecting
flanges as shown in Figs (13.3) (P- 233)

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Design procedure for (protected / unprotected) cast iron rigid flange coupling
The component to be designed in this coupling are (i). Shafts (ii). Bolts (iii). Key (iv).
Hub and (v) Flange. Note : Refer Fig (13.2)(P- 233)
i). Shaft design
Torque transmitted by the coupling
G= . '
9.55 10 ()

Power, P is in kW
And is equated to the equation for torque transmitted by the shaft diameter given by
== .
)
Based on strength,
1 h d
N= .
i_/ ) f
And based on rigidity (stiffness)
+ d
Where D = Shaft diameter.

The value of D is round off to the next standard size Ref Table T(3.5a) P-48
ii). Key design

Based on the shaft diameter D the value of width b and thickness h of taper key are
selected from Table T(4.2) P- 61
Calculate the effective length of key = L = Hub length
L = 1.2D + 20 mm . b

After selecting b, h and L for the key. Give a check for the induced shear stress and
induced crushing stress in the key,

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Check for key

G = .

For Induced crushing stress in key
/
E = M3
4 G

G = = 9 . b

For Induced shear stress in key

=E = M3
2 G
9
6S =E < =E , 256A 65 13S2.
E < E , 256A 65 13S2.
If the induced shear stress =E and crushing stress E in the key are less than this
allowable (permissible) shear stress =E and allowable (permissible) crushing
stress E , the design of key is safe. Otherwise increase the key dimensions and
check once again.
iii). Hub design
The hub diameter = 1.8 + 20 .
The hub length L = 1.2D + 20 mm . b
iv). Bolt design

6= + 2 C + 2 .
3
Number of bolts
/ _
Even no of bolts as preferred where D is diameter of shaft.
Determine the minor diameter of the bolt d by the empirical formula
= + 7.5 .

0.423
6
Select the size of bolt based on the core area of bolt (AC)
Standardize the bolt size using table T(9.8) P- 113
Note: unless otherwise specified the shaft, key and bolts are made of same material and
hence have same value of stress
G"#$b = Gj
= GR0. 6. 2., ="#$b = =j
= =R0.
Bolt circle diameter = + 3.2 .

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Check for bolt
Check for induced shear stress in bolt, G = .

'() 1 & 4 d
_
G 8
=() =
P 6
6S = < = , 256A 65 13S2.
If the induced shear stress = in the bolt are less than this allowable (permissible)
shear stress = , the design of key is safe. Otherwise increase the bolt dimensions
and check once again.
v). Flange design

Outer diameter of flange, 3 = + 6 .
The flange thickness, = 0.35 + 9 . u
Check for flange
=b() P
G= .
2
2 G
=b() =
P
6S =b < =b , 256A 65 13S2.
If the induced shear stress =b in the flange are less than this allowable (permissible)
shear stress =b , the design of key is safe. Otherwise increase the flange
dimensions and check once again.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Symbols (Un Protected & protected)

Formulae Equations Table
Design of Shaft
9.55 10 ()

Torque transmitted
T (3.3a) P-42
in N-mm
P in kW
==
16 G (3.1)P-48
P 3
D Shaft Diameter (3.5a)P-48
N=
584 G (3.2)P-48
> /
Design of Key
b Width of taper key
(4.2) P-61
h Height of taper key
Length of taper key
L L= 1.2D + 20 mm (13.6) P-210 (4.2) P-61
Length of Hub
Check for key
E() G=
Induced crushing 1
(4.5b) P-53
stress in key 4 E #4f
(4.6) P-54
=E() G = =E df
Induced shear stress 1
in key 2
Design of Hub

hub diameter (13.2) P-209
= 1.8 + 20
L hub length L= 1.2D + 20 mm (13.6) P-210

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Design of Bolt
6= +2
1
No of
40
bolts / i (13.1) P-209
C + 2
pins 3
80

=
0.423
6
D Diameter of bolt (13.5) P-210 (9.8) P-113
+ 7.5

= + 3.2
Bolt circle diameter (13.3) P-209
Check for bolt
=() P 6
=() G=
Induced shear stress
(13.9) P-210
in bolt 8
Design of flange
3 3 = + 6 (13.4) P-209
Outer diameter of
flange
t Flange thickness = 0.35 + 9 (13.7) P-210

Check for flange
=b() P
=b() G=
(13.11) P-210
in Flange 2
Thickness of

= 0.25D mm
protective Assume
circumferential
flange

Assume
Key way factor
= 0.75 mm

Theory- 2016 DME-I
FLEXIBLE COUPLING (BUSH-PIN TYPE)
The perfect alignment is rare to achieve in two shafts, The axial, angular and parallel are
the most common misalignments that exist either independently or in combination. The
misalignments are shown in Figure 13. In such cases the flexible couplings are used and
also absorb impact loads due to fluctuations in Torque and speed. The flexibly in a
coupling can also be achieved due to the presence of some member itself and it named
as incorporated flexibility. Pin or bush type coupling is the common example of flexible
coupling.
Figure 13
Bush type flexible coupling

This coupling is a modification of a rigid-type flange coupling in the sense that the
design of the shaft and the hub of flanges are similar to that of rigid flange coupling (see
Fig. 13.4c)(P-233 A). In this, rubber bushes are provided to act as flexible elements,
and to allow for a minor angular misalignment between the two shafts.
Rubber Bush
Brass Bush Thread
Neck
A brass sleeve of 2-3 mm thickness is used to reduce wear and tear of the rubber bush
with pin. The rubber (6 to 10 mm thickness) with brass sleeve (3 to 5 mm thickness) is
used over the pin and provides the desired flexibility in the Coupling
The flanges of the Coupling are not identical as shown in the figure. No socket and
spigot are provided on the two flanges. Rather, there is a clearance of about 5 mm
between the two faces of flanges. The designs of the two flanges are different because
one flange contains holes for pins and bushes, and the other flange contains holes for
the threaded portion of the pin and the nut.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
The diameter of the pin is also increased to increase the bearing area (bearing capacity)
between bush and the flange hole. It should also be notice that the thickness of the
flange containing bush is more to compensate the larger diameter of the hole made for
bush. The pitch circle diameter of the pin is also to be on larger side to reduce the
bearing pressure between bush and flange. the increased flexibility at the bush induce
the possibility of bending of the pin; hence. the pin for bush type flexible coupling
should also be designed for bending consideration. The driving flange carries the larger
portion of the pin with rubber bush and brass sleeve. A protective cover is provided on
this flange to ensure safety. The flanges are made of CI. The shaft, key, bolts/Pins are
made of steel.
Design procedure for (bush pin) cast iron flexible flange coupling
The components to be designed in this coupling are (i). Shafts (ii). Bolts (iii). Key (iv).
Hub (v) Flange and (vi) Bush.
Note : Refer Fig (13.4 c)P-233 A
i). Shaft design
Torque transmitted by the coupling
G= . '
9.55 10 ()

Power, P is in kW
and is equated to the equation for torque transmitted by the shaft diameter given by
== .
)
Based on strength,
1 h d
N= .
i_/ ) f
And based on rigidity (stiffness),
+ hd
Where D = Shaft diameter in mm. N 6 2A422

The value of D is round off to the next standard size Ref Table T(3.5a) P-48

Theory- 2016 DME-I
ii). Key design

Based on the shaft diameter D the value of width b and thickness h of taper key are
selected from Table T(4.2) P- 61
Calculate the effective length of key = L = Hub length
L = 1.2D + 20 mm . b

After selecting b, h and L for the key. Give a check for the induced shear stress and
induced crushing stress in the key,
Check for key
G = .

For Induced crushing stress in key,
/
E = M3
4 G

G = = 9 . b

For Induced shear stress in key

=E = M3
2 G
9
6S =E < =E , 256A 65 13S2.
E < E , 256A 65 13S2.
If the induced shear stress =E and crushing stress E in the key are less than this
allowable (permissible) shear stress =E and allowable (permissible) crushing
stress E , the design of key is safe. Otherwise increase the key dimensions and
check once again.
iii). Hub design

The hub diameter = 1.8 + 20 .
The hub length = 1.2 + 20 . b

Theory- 2016 DME-I
iv). Pin / Bolt design
6= + 2 C + 2 .
3
Number of bolts,
/ _
Even no of pins/ bolts as preferred where D is diameter of shaft.

Determine the minor diameter of the pins/ bolts d by the empirical formula
= + 7.5 .

0.423
6
Select the size of bolt based on the core area of pins/ bolts (AC)
Standardize the pins/ bolts size using table T(9.8) P- 113
Note: unless otherwise specified the shaft, key and pins/ bolts are made of same
material and hence have same value of stress
G"#$b = Gj
= GR0.
6. 2., ="#$b = =j
= =R0.
Calculate the major diameter of the pin by empirical relation
U = 2 42!6634k 9C! 63224 CS 2 423 C46C

U = 2
Assume the thickness of the brass bush & % the rubber bush
Thickness of the brass bush = 1 C 3
Thickness of the rubber bush % = 5 C 10
Inner diameter of the rubber bush U& = U + 2
Outer diameter of the rubber bush S = U& + 2 %
Bolt circle diameter, = + 3.2 .

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Check for bolt

Check for induced shear stress in bolt
=() P 6
G= .
8
G 8
=() =
P 6
6S = < = , 256A 65 13S2.
If the induced shear stress = in the bolt are less than this allowable (permissible)
shear stress = , the design of key is safe. Otherwise increase the bolt dimensions
and check once again.
v). Flange design

Outer diameter of flange 3 = + 6 .
The flange thickness = 0.35 + 9 . u
Check for flange
=b() P
G= .
2
2 G
=b() =
P
6S =b < =b , 256A 65 13S2.
If the induced shear stress =b in the flange are less than this allowable (permissible)
shear stress =b , the design of key is safe. Otherwise increase the flange
dimensions and check once again.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Symbols (Flexible (Bush Pin) Protected)
Formula Equations Table
(i). Design of Shaft
9.55 10 ()

Torque transmitted
T (3.3a) P-42
in N-mm
P in kW

Assume
Key way factor
= 0.75 mm
==
)
1 h d
(3.1)P-48
D Shaft Diameter (3.5a)P-48

N=
584 G
> /
(3.2)P-48
Design of Key
b Width of taper key
(4.2) P-61
h Height of taper key
Length of taper key
L L= 1.2D + 20 mm (13.6) P-210 (4.2) P-61
Length of Hub
Check for key
E() G=
Induced crushing 1
(4.5b) P-53
stress in key 4 E #4f
=E() G= =
Induced shear stress 1
(4.6) P-54
in key 2 E df
Design of Hub

hub diameter (13.2) P-209
= 1.8 + 20
L hub length L= 1.2D + 20 mm (13.6) P-210

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Design of Bolt
6= +2
1
No of
40
bolts / i (13.1) P-209
C + 2
pins 3
80

=
Minor Diameter of 0.423
6
d (13.5) P-210 (9.8) P-113
bolt
+ 7.5
k k = 2
major Diameter of
Assume
bolt
= 3
Thickness of brass
Take
bush
% % = 6
Thickness of rubber
Take
bush
k& k& = k + 2

Inside diameter of
rubber bush
S S = k& + %
Inside diameter of
rubber bush

= + 3.2
Bolt circle diameter (13.3) P-209

F Force on each pin G = 6 j s t
2
F Force on each pin j = k ! S
Check for bolt

j
=k =k = P

shear stress in pin
4 k
C Gap between flange Take C = 5 mm

Theory- 2016 DME-I
!
j g + Hi
= P2 3
Bending stress in
pin
32 k
2$A =

=
2
2$A
Maximum normal
x
+ g i + =k
(1.11a)P-02
stress in pin
2
=2$A

=2$A = x g i + =k (1.12)P-02
Maximum shear
stress in pin 2
Design of flange
(13.4) P-209
3 3 = + 6
Outer diameter of
flange
= 0.35 + 9
(13.7) P-210
t Flange thickness
Check for flange
=b() P
=b() G=
(13.11) P-210
in Flange 2
Thickness of

= 0.25D mm
protective Assume
circumferential
flange

Theory- 2016 DME-I
UNIT 7: RIVETED AND WELDED JOINTS: Types, Rivet Materials, Failures of

Riveted Joints, Joint Efficiency, Boiler Joints, Tank and Structural Joints, Riveted
Brackets. Welded Joints Types, Strength of Butt and Fillet welds, Eccentrically loaded
Welded Joints.
Riveted joints
Riveted joint is permanent joint that connote be dismantled without destruction of the
rivets. Tanks, pressure vessels, bridges and building structures commonly built of steel
plates rolled shapes are riveted together. Rivets can be used as pivot.
Types of riveted joints
Riveted joints are classified into two types
1. Lap joint
2. Butt joint
In the lap joints the plates to be joined overlap each other to sufficient amount for
riveting. If there is a single row of rivets, the joint is called single riveted lap joint. If
there are two rows of rivets , the joint is called double riveted lap joint and so on. The
rivets may be arranged in chain form or zig zag form.
When the two plates are placed end to end and are connected by cover plates ( butt
straps), they form a butt joint. Normally two cover plates are used and are of equal
width, but sometimes the outer strap may be narrow than the inner one. Butt joints are
called single riveted, double riveted, triple riveted, etc., depending upon the number of
rows of rivets in each main plates.
Terminology
1. Pitch (p): It is the distance between the centers of two consecutive rivets in row
2. Margin (m): It is the distance from end of plate to first row of rivets.
3. Transverse pitch (pt): The distance between two consecutive rows of rivets
is called transverse pitch.
4. Diagonal pitch (pd): In zig zag riveting, the distance between centers of
adjacent rivets in side by side rows is diagonal pitch.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Failures of riveted joints

A riveted joint may fail in one of the following ways:
i). shearing of rivets: (Fig. 1.1 )
If the diameter of the rivet is smaller than the necessary standard diameter, the this type
of failures will occur.
ii). Tearing of plates across the row of rivets: (Fig. 1.2 )
This type of failure will occur, if the rivets are very close each other. This can be
avoided by using standard pitch.
F
F F F
Fig. 1.1
Fig. 1.2
iii). Tearing of the margin: (Fig. 1.3 )
If the hole of is too close to the edge of plate then this type of failure will occur.
This can be avoided by using standard margin.
F F
F F F F
Fig. 1.3 Fig. 1.4

Fig. 1.5
F F
iv). Crushing of the rivets and rivet holes: (Fig. 1.4 )

v). Shearing of margin: (Fig. 1.5 )
vi). Rupturing of the pate by tension in zig-zag line passing diagonally between
the rivet holes in staggered riveting.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Riveting joints sketches:
Lap Joint, Zig-zag Type Riveting Joint

Theory- 2016 DME-I

Theory- 2016 DME-I
P P
Double Riveted, unequal width, Double Cover Plate,

Triple Riveted, unequal width, Double Cover Plate,
Chain Type, Butt Joint
P/ 2 P
P

Zig-Zag Type, Butt Joint

(Outer Row Pitch is Twice the inner Row Pitch)

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Design procedure for riveted joins to connect two plates of thickness %

Step 1: Thickness of main plate, (65 A6B2)
Diameter of the rivet, Unwins empirical formula:
= 6.07 C 6.325 . . . * ( b)
Find d and select standard diameter of rivet, d of the rivet from Table 5.3b (P-68A)
Take 63224 CS 46B2 C!2 = 63224 CS 46B2 + 1
For all strength calculations, use diameter of rivet hole.
Step 2: Pitch (p)

a) Pitch in general case , considering the strength of perforated plate = shear
strength of the rivets,
+ 1.875 P =
= + . ' ( b)
4
b) As per IBR, = X + 41 . ( b)
Where X is constant factor from boiler code (Table 5.4a) (P-68A)
Take the smaller value of pitch as standard pitch from above two values.
Step 3: Transverse pitch,
2 . ' ( b)
Equal rivets in each row, For chain riveting,
0.33 + 0.67 . ( b)

For zig-zag (staggered) riveting,
Step 4: Margin = 1.5 . ( bb)

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Step 5: Thickness of the cover plates

i). For lap joint, no cover plates.
& = 1.125 . ( b)

ii). For single cover butt joint, thickness of the cover plate,
& = 0 = 0.625 . b ( b)

iii). For double cover butt joint, with equal cover plates,
iv). For double cover butt joint, with unequal cover plates
0 = 0.625 . "' ( b)

a. Thickness of the narrow plates,
& = 0.750 . " ( b)

b. Thickness of the wider plates,
= + 1.5 C 1.7 . ( b)

Step 6: Length of shank of the rivet,
For lap joint, = 2 + 1.5

For single strap butt joint, = + & + 0 + 1.5
For double strap butt joint, = + & + 1.5
Step 7: Strength calculation
= . ( b)
Calculate the strength of solid plate P for one pitch length,
Determine the least resistance of the joint by considering all possible cases of failure.
Calculate the tensile strength of solid plate for one pitch length,
= . ( b)
Calculate the shear strength of solid plate for one pitch length,
= + 1.875 = . ( b)
14
/
Calculate the crushing strength of solid plate for one pitch length,
= + . ( b)

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Step 8: Efficiency of joints,

235 542A CS 2 C6
=
142A CS 5C!6 !32
This efficiency must be within the range given in table (T-5.1)(P-68). If the efficiency
thus determined happens to be lower than the range of values given in the table, it
should be increased by changing the pitch or the diameter of the rivets or by changing
their arrangement of rivets.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Riveted joints for boilers and pressure vessels

A pressure vessel stores pressurized fluid in the cylinder. If the fluid is steam, then it is
known as boiler. A pressure vessel or boiler has two joints -
1. Longitudinal joints 2. Circumferential joint.
Below figure shows the riveted joints used for boilers.
Longitudinal Joint
Circumferential Joint
Cylindrical Pressure Vessel / Boiler Joints
Symbols: D = inside diameter of the boiler or pressure vessel, mm.
& = fluid pressure or steam pressure, MPa.
plates '0- . ( b") is preferred, based on diameter of cylinder/shell. For

Note: The longitudinal joint is butt riveted joint with unequal width cover
circumferential joint is always a double riveted, lap joint preferred.
Design procedure of boiler joints

Part I: Longitudinal joint
Step 1: Select the type of joint from Table (T-5.2)(P-68) for the given diameter of
the boiler.
= . . . ( b)
k d
Step 2: Thickness of plate,
K h
= FSS68628k CS C6 '0- . ( b)

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Step 3: Diameter of the rivet, Unwins empirical formula:

= 6.07 C 6.325 . . . * ( b)
Find d and select standard diameter, d of the rivet from Table 5.3b (P-68A)
Take 63224 CS 46B2 C!2 = 63224 CS 46B2 + 1
For all strength calculations, use diameter of rivet hole.
Step 4: Pitch (p)
+ 1.875 P =
= + . ' ( b)
4
b) As per IBR, = X + 41 . ( b)
Step 5: Transverse pitch,
2 . ' ( b)
Equal rivets in each row, For chain riveting,
0.33 + 0.67 . ( b)

For zig-zag (staggered) riveting,
Step 6: Margin = 1.5 . ( bb)

Step 7: Thickness of the cover plates
i). For lap joint, no cover plates.
& = 1.125 . ( b)

ii). For single cover butt joint, thickness of the cover plate
& = 0 = 0.625 . b ( b)

iii). For double cover butt joint, with equal cover plates
a. Thickness of the narrow plates, 0 = 0.625 . "' ( b)

iv). For double cover butt joint, with unequal cover plates
b. Thickness of the wider plates, & = 0.750 . " ( b)

Theory- 2016 DME-I
= + 1.5 C 1.7 . ( b)

Step 8: Length of shank of the rivet,
For lap joint, = 2 + 1.5

For single strap butt joint, = + & + 0 + 1.5
For double strap butt joint, = + & + 1.5
= . ( b)
Calculate the tensile strength of solid plate for one pitch length,
= . ( b)
Calculate the shear strength of solid plate for one pitch length,
= + 1.875 = . ( b)
14
/
= + . ( b)
. b' , . u & 5.18' ( b & b)
Least of the above 6 values. (3 from part i and 3 from part ii)

235 542A CS 2 C6
=
142A CS 5C!6 !32
This efficiency must be within the range given in table (T-5.1)(P-68). If the efficiency

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Part II Circumferential joint

Select double riveted lap joint for circumferential joint
Calculate, d, t, , and m.
j = g i &
1
Step 1: Total steam load
/
Step 2: Strength of each rivet
j' = g i =
1
i). In shear
j =
/
ii). In crushing
M66@ 542A CS 2 46B2 = j = 235 CS 252 UC
Step 3: @924 CS 46B25 42@642, 6 = =

"
$B .0$4 G
2&&BCB %
F # 0b #
%&
G
Step 4: 6B25/CU = 6/4CU =

)0 $. 0.0b %&

X0.0b %0a 0b %&

Step 5: Pitch (p)

+ 1.875 P =
= + . ' ( b)
4
b) As per IBR, = X + 41 . ( b)
Step 6: check for the rivets
Also number of rivets in one row, 6 =

1 (dM )
k
If the total number of rivets calculated is greater than the minimum number of rivets
required, then it is safe.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
= . ( b)
i). Calculate the tensile strength of solid plate for one pitch length,
= . ( b)
ii). Calculate the shear strength of solid plate for one pitch length,
= + 1.875 = . ( b)
14
/
= + . b

iii).
iv). The resistance against tearing at the plate at inner row & shearing of the
rivets in the outer row,
= 2 + X = . b' ( b)
14
/
Where k = 1 for rivets in single shear

k = 1.875 for rivets in double shear
v). The resistance against tearing at the plate at inner row & crushing of the rivets in
= 2 + . u' ( b)

the outer row,
vi). The resistance against shearing of the rivets in the outer row & crushing at
the plate at inner row,
= = + . "' ( b)
14
/
Least of the above 6 values. (3 from part i and 3 from part ii)

235 542A CS 2 C6
=
142A CS 5C!6 !32
This efficiency must be with in the range given in table (T-5.1)(P-68). If the efficiency

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Structural joints
Machine frames, building structures, ordinary tanks, coal bunkers, roof work, bridges
etc., leakage is of minor importance. In these joints strength and rigidity are the main
requirements, therefore caulking of joint is not done. In structural joints cold riveting is
used and the rivet hole does not fill the hole completely. A typical type of structural
joint is called as Diamond or Lozenge joint. In this joint the rivets have been arranged
in such a manner that there is only one rivet in the outermost row. This makes the joint
more balanced and the joint is sometimes called as economical joint or joint of uniform
strength. Since in structural joints the rivets are driven cold, the rivet diameter is used
for strength calculations of shear and crushing and the rivet hole diameter is used in
calculating tearing strength of plate.
No. of Arrangement of Rivets

Rivets
1
2
Centre
3 Line
10

Theory- 2016 DME-I
UNIT 8: POWER SCREWS: Mechanics of Power Screw, Stresses in Power Screws,

Efficiency and Self-locking, Design of Power Screw, Design of Screw Jack: (Complete
Design).
Power screw
A power screw is a machine device used for converting rotary motion into translational
motion and at the same time it transmits power. Typical Power screw is also called
translation screw. It uses helical translator motion of the screw thread in transmit in
power rather than clamping the machine components.
The main applications of power screw are as follows:
(i). To rise the load, e.g. screw jack,
(ii). To obtain accurate motion in machinating operations, e.g. lead-screw of lathe,
(iii). To clamp a work piece, e.g. vice, and clamps, fly presses.
(iv). To load a specimen, e.g. universal testing machine, control actuators.
A power screw essentially comprises of a screw form and a meshing nut. Possible
combinations of power and motion transmission are as shown in below fig
a. Screw c. Nut Rotating d. Nut Rotating

b. Screw Rotating & Translating,
Rotating & but Not Translating,
Nut Translating, but Screw Fixed
Translating, Screw Translating
Not Rotating
Nut Fixed
There are three essential parts of the power screw, viz. screw, nut and a part to
hold either the screw or the nut in its place. Depending upon the holding
arrangement, power screws operate in two different ways. In some cases, the screw
rotates in its bearing; while the nut has axial motion the lead screw of the lathe is
an example of this category. In other applications, the nut is kept stationary and
the screw moves in axial direction. Screw-jack and machine vice are the examples
of this category.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
What are the merits and demerits of screw joints?

Merits
1. Power screw has large load carrying capacity. A load of 15 kN can be raised by
applying an effort as small as 300 N. Therefore most of the power screws used in
various applications like screw-jacks, clamps, valves and vices are manually
operated.
2. Power screw gives smooth and noiseless service without any maintenance.
3. Screw joints are highly reliable in operation.
4. Simple manufacture with the possibility of maintaining high accuracy.
5. They can be made in any convenient shape and small size.
6. In addition to fastening, screws and nuts are used as power screws.
7. Power screw can be designed with self-locking property. In screw-jack
application, self locking characteristic is required to prevent the load from
descending on its own.
Demerits
1. A stress concentration is available in threaded portions and hence lowering
their life.
2. Power screw has very poor efficiency as low as 40%. Therefore, it is not used
in continuous power transmission in machine tools, with the exception of the
lead screw. Power screws are mainly used for intermittent motion that is
occasionally required for lifting the load or actuating the mechanism.
3. High friction in threads causes rapid wear of the screw or the nut. In case of
square threads, the nut is usually made of soft material and replaced when worn
out. In trapezoidal threads, a split-type of nut is used to compensate for the
wear. Therefore, wear is serious problem in power screws.
4. Self-loosening properties and hence air-tight joints cannot be maintained,
unless by providing some
locking devices.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Forms of threads
The varies forms of threaded profiles employed in power screw are:
i. Square thread, iii. Acme thread,
ii. Modified thread, iv. Buttress thread
1. Square Threads :
As the name suggests, these threads have their flanks at right angles to the axis.
They are generally used for power transmission in machine tools. (e.g. Lead
screws of lathes)
2. Acme Threads :
This is a variation of square threads. It is much stronger than square threads and is
easy to manufacture. These threads are used in brass valves, lead screws of lathes
and bench vices.
3. ISO Trapezoidal Threads :

These are similar to Acme threads, but are standardized by ISO.
4. Buttress Threads :
Buttress threads are used in transmitting power only in one direction. The force
transmitted is almost parallel to the axis. It has a low frictional resistance
1. Square 2. ACME 4. Buttress

Threads Threads 3. ISO Trapezoidal Threads
2 = 29 Threads 2 =
Thread angle 2 N N
30
Thread form
ISO Metric Threads bl l

ISO Trapezoidal Threads l l
ACME Threads l . l

Theory- 2016 DME-I
TERMINOLOGY OF POWER SCREW

Typical geometry and nomenclature for thread forms is as shown in below Fig.
Nomenclature of Screw Thread

Pitch: The pitch is defined as the distance, measured parallel to the axis of the screw,
from a point on one thread to the corresponding point on the adjacent thread. It is
denoted by the letter p.
Nominal diameter: Nominal diameter is the largest diameter of the screw. It is also
called major diameter. It is denoted by the letter d.
minor diameter. It is denoted by letters

Core diameter: Core diameter is smallest diameter of the screw thread. It is also called
Helix angle:- The helix angle is defined as the angle made by the helix of the thread
with a plane perpendicular to the axis of the screw. Helix angle is related to the lead and
the mean diameter of the screw. It is also called lead angle. Helix angle is denoted by
E . 3 E = (. )( u)
.
14
For angle threads such as acme threads, = l and for trapezoidal threads,
Thread angle: the angle between two adjacent flanks of a thread is called thread angle.
= l and for ISO Metric threads, = bl .

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Multiple start threads

In a single start threads, the pitch and the lead are the same. The depth of the thread is
dependent on the pitch. If for an application, one requires a large axial movement for a
given rotation of the nut, the pitch has to be large. A large pitch would mean that the
core diameter would be small, resulting in weakening of the screw. To overcome this
problem, multi start threads are cut on the same screw. As shown in below Fig.
1. Single start Threads 2. Double start Threads 3. Multi start Threads

Lead = Pitch Lead = 2 x Pitch Lead = n x Pitch
Lead: The lead is defined as the distance, measured parallel to the axis of the screw that
the nut will advance in one revolution of the screw. It is denoted by the letter l.
All threads are right threads unless otherwise specified.
1. State the relation between pitch and lead for single start and double start threads.
Lead , ! =
Where n = Number of starts, = 68
Hence for single start, thread. ! = and
For double start thread. ! = 2

Theory- 2016 DME-I
**** Expression for torque

Figure 1.2 is used as basis for determining the torque required to raise or lower
the load. Following conclusions can be drawn on the basis of development of
thread,
1. The screw can be considered as an inclined plane with as inclination.
2. The load W always acts in vertically downward direction. When the load W is
raised, it moves up the inclined plane. When the load W is lowered, it moves
down the inclined plane.
3. The load W is raised or lowered by means of an imaginary force j acting at the
mean radius of the screw. The force j multiplied by the mean radius (
m
) gives
the torque required to raise or lower the load. Remember j is perpendicular to

load W.
We will consider two separate cases to find out the torque required to raise or lower the
load in the next articles.
Derivation of expression for torque T required to raise the load and to lower the load.
The square threaded screw with single start thread of mean diameter is considered
as an inclined plane with inclination E subjected to axial compressive load of W as
shown in Fig. 1.3.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Case (1): When the load is being raised, following forces act at a point on this
inclined plane:
(i) Load (W): It always acts in vertically downward direction.
(ii) Normal reaction (N): It acts perpendicular (normal) to the inclined plane.
(iii) Frictional force (SX ): Frictional force acts opposite to the motion.
Since the load is moving up the inclined plane, frictional force acts along the
inclined plane in downward direction.
Considering the equilibrium of horizontal and vertical forces, = 0 and ? = 0

When = 0, j = (S ) 8C5E + 56E
j = S 8C5E + 56E ()

Taking ? = 0, Y + (S ) 56E = 8C5E
Y = 8C5E S 56E ()
Diving equation (1) by equation (2),
j N (f cosE + sinE) (f cosE + sinE)
= ()
Y N (cosE sinE) (cosE fsinE)
=
i. e. , tan(A + B) = y z
(O n)
( M .n)
Y (S 8C5E + 56E) Y (S + 3E)

j = = . u
(8C5E S 56E) (1 S 3E)
(S = 3)
i.e., j = Y 3 + E (. )( u)
and, when consider friction, G = 3 + E (. ')( u)

D 4


Theory- 2016 DME-I
In the absence of friction the torque,

Y
G = 3 E (. )( u)
2
Torque necessary to overcome the collar friction,
G = (. ")( u)
D b 4

Where S is the coefficient of friction between the flat collar and its mating surface
usually the frame. Total frictional torque, T = G + G
Y
G = : 3 + E + S ; (. )( ")
2
Y ( 3E + S)
G = } } ~ + S ~ (. )( ")
2 (1 S 3E)
When the nut is given one turn, the work done by the effort S (tangential force at the
mean radius of the screw) is S P and the work done against the load W is Y ! .
Efficiency of the screw,
@52S@!! UC4X Y ! Y ! 3E
= = = =
UC4X 6 @ S P S P 3 + E
By neglecting the collar friction,
= (. u)( u)

$e
$ ]O e^
By considering the collar friction,

tan tan
=
tan E + + S ( tanE + f)
} s t + ~
=
(1 f tanE)
3 E
= (. )( ")
3E + S
+ S
1 S 3E
= (. )( ")

1
P : 3 E + + S ;

Theory- 2016 DME-I
While lowering the load, the friction force SX acts upwards along the
inclined surface, j to the left.
Case (2):
Considering the equilibrium of horizontal and vertical forces, = 0 and ? = 0

When = 0, j + 56E = (S ) 8C5E
j = N f cosE sinE ()

Taking ? = 0, 8C5E + (S ) 56E = Y
Y = 8C5E + S 56E ()

Diving equation (1) by equation (2),
j N (f cosE sinE) (f cosE sinE)
= = (b)
Y N (cosE + f sinE) (cosE + f sinE)
tan(A B) = y z
(M n)
i.e.,
(O .n)
Y (S 8C5E 56E) Y(S 3E)

j = = (. )( u)
(8C5E + S 56E) (1 + S 3E)
(S = 3)
i.e., j = Y 3 E (. )( ")
and, when consider friction,
Y
G = 3 E (. b)( ")
2
Torque necessary to overcome the collar friction,
G = (. ")( u)
D b 4

Total frictional torque, T = G + G

Theory- 2016 DME-I
For V-thread screws,
j = W (. )( ")

(! e O o !-)
Tangential force,
( M o ! p q I)
Total friction torque including collar friction torque,

Y tanE + f sec)
} s t + S ~ (. )( ")
1 f tanE sec
T =
2
The efficiency formula for V-thread,
tan
= (. b)( ")
tanE + f sec
+ S
1 f tanE sec
The condition for self locking of v-threads without collar friction is
S
3 E <
8C5 N
The relation between the applied torque and the resisting load,
Y !
G = (. )( u)
2 P
To find length of the nut,
! = = (. )( ")

4 YU
P
To find number of threads,
= (. )( ")

4 Y
P

Theory- 2016 DME-I
1. Explain self locking and overhauling in power screw. (May / June 2010)
(Dec 08 / Jan 09) (Dec 2010) (Dec 2011) (04 Marks )
2. Explain overhauling of screws. Derive the condition for self locking of square thread
with collar friction? State the applications where self locking is essential.
(Dec 09 / Jan 10) (Dec 2012) (05 Marks)
3. Mention at least four application of power screw. (June / July 2009) (04 Marks )
4. What is self locking as applicable to power screw? Relate coefficient of friction to
lead angle for the above condition. (June / July 2009) (06 Marks)
5. Derive an expression for the maximum efficiency of a threaded screw and thus show
that for self locking screw the efficiency is always less than 50 %.
(June 2012) (June / July 2011) (06 Marks)
SELF-LOCKING SCREW
The torque required to lower the load can be obtained by (. b)( ").
Rewriting the equation,
It can be seen that when,
turning back against the force j .

Suppose the helix angle is greater than the angle of friction the loaded nut is
If (E > ), Then torque required to lower the load is negative. It indicates a

condition that no force is required to lower the load. The load itself will begin to
turn the screw and descend down, unless a restraining torque is applied. This
condition is called overhauling of screw.
If (E < ), Then the torque required to lower the load will be positive and the
screw is called self locking screw
In multiple threaded screws, a higher efficiency can be obtained, but the screw
loses the self locking characteristics.
The condition for self locking of square threads with collar friction is
3E < g i
b 4 O b 4
4 M b b 4
The condition for overhauling of square threads with collar friction is

S + S
3E s t (. )( ")
S S

Theory- 2016 DME-I
DESIGN OF SCREW JACK

A screw jack is a portable device consisting of a screw mechanism used to raise or
lower the loads to a small height. There are two types of jackshydraulic and me-
chanical. Hydraulic jack consists of cylinder and piston mechanism. The movement of
piston rod is used to raise or lower the load. Mechanical jacks can be either hand
operated or power driven. Although a jack is a simple and widely used device, the use
of any lifting device is subject to certain hazards. In screw-jack applications, the hazards
are dropping, tipping or slipping of machines or their parts during the operation. These
hazards may result in serious accidents.
The main reasons of such accidents are as follows:
(i)The load is improperly secured on the jack.
(ii) The screw jack is over loaded.
(iii)The centre of gravity of the load is off centre with respect to the axis of the jack.
(iv)The screw jack is not placed on hard and level surface.
(v) The screw jack is used for a purpose, for which it is not designed.
Proper size, strength and stability are the essential requirements for the design of the
screw jack from safety considerations.
Design procedure for power screws
In designing power screws, the following
procedure is followed.
The major components of screw jack (power
screws) to be designed are
(a)Screw rod
(b) Lever and
(c)The nut

Theory- 2016 DME-I
a) Screw rod: (material : steel)
nominal diameter(d), core diameter or minor diameter and pitch P of square

Design of screw rod consist of calculation of the dimensions of major diameter or
threads of normal series.

The threaded rod is subjected to compressive load W and hence the compressive stress
in the rod is given by, =
D
H
Where W = load on the rod in Newton, N.

= 8C42 3423 CS 2 4C 6 =
4
=
D
Now,
K
is calculated by selecting suitable material for the screw rod such as C40.
The values of d, and P based on are obtained from Table (9.10) Page (121) for
normal series.
For Fine series Table (9.09) Page (118)
For Coarse series Table (9.11) Page (123)
b) Design of lever or handle to operate the jack
Design of handle or lever consists of calculating the length !#

handle # .
and diameter of
1. The length of Handle is obtained from,

G
G = j !# C4 !# =
j
Where T = torque required to raise load in N-mm.
And F = Effort applied manually at end of handle.
= 200 to 300 N.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Torque T is obtained from

Y ( 3E + S)
G = } s t + S ~ (. )( ")
2 (1 S 3E)
Where W = load to be lifted in N.
For angular threads, use (. )( ") for T in which angular of thread,
2E = 29 for acme thread or 2E = 30 for trapezoidal threads.
= mean diameter in mm, =
4O4

!
(. )( ")
P
TanE =
Where E = helix angle of thread

! = lead of thread = pitch P, for single start thread
! = 2, for double start thread
! = 3, for triple start thread
S = coefficient of thread friction; depend on the lubrication used
(Ref Table9.5)(P-110)
S = Coefficient of collar friction (Ref Table 9.6) (P-110)
Note: depends on the material of nut and screw (use starting friction)
Foe example for soft steel screw rod and CI nut, S = 0.170

+

= mean diameter of collar =
2
If diameter is unknown,
Use = 1.5d (an approximation)
Note: after obtaining !# from

)
, a length of 200 to 250 mm is added for holding the
G
lever while applying effort F.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
2. To obtain .r , the diameter of handle

The material selected is usually same as that of screw
The lever is subjected to bending due to F load hence the bending stress in the lever
=
2
is given by
W
Where M is approximated to T
e = section modulus =
14
And
3
Where # = diameter of handle in mm.
3. Design of nut
(The material of the nut is cast iron or bronze)
(! )
Design of nut includes calculation of number of threads (n) and height or length of nut
a. Number of threads (n)
Number of threads in nut = n = (. )( ")

4 Y
P v d w

Where = permissible bearing pressure .Table (9.4) (P-110)

Note: depends on material of screw and nut
For example for screw jack having steel screw and bronze nut, is 11.0 to 17.2 MPa.

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Length of the nut (! )

! is obtained from,
! = (. )( ")
Where P = pitch of the threads in mm
4. Calculation of the efficiency ()

For square threads, is calculated from equation
3 E
= (. )( ")
3E + S
+ S
1 S 3E
Check for maximum shear stress
=B$A = maximum shear stress in screw is given by

=B$A = x + = (. )( )
2
= = in == = in

D ) )
Where ,
H W 14
Check for self locking and overhaul

(i). Condition self locking exist when the load raised to the required height
>E
remain at that when the lever through which the effort applied is freed.
For self locking, Where = 3M S

(i). Condition overhaul exist when the load raised to the required height does
not remain at that when the lever through which the effort applied is freed.
E>
i.e., the load is moved down on its own when the lever is freed.
For overhaul,

Theory- 2016 DME-I
Check for buckling

The screw rod is checked for buckling when the load is raised through the required lift
using Johnsons parabolic equation or Rankines formula.
Johnsons parabolic equation for buckling load is given by
k
j% = k 1 ! X (. )( )

4P F

j% = crippling load or buckling load in N.

A = = core area of screw rod in
Where
k = yielding stress of material of screw rod in

n = end fixity co-efficient.

Assume the screw rod as column fixed at one end and free at the other end.
n = 0.25 .. E (1.29)Page (05)
E= youngs modulus or modulus of elasticity of the material of screw rod in M3 .
(Refer table 1.1)
l = lift in mm.
4
R = radius of gyration = in mm.
/
If j% >W, no buckling occurs and the design is safe

If j% <W, the rod undergoes buckling and hence re-design screw with higher core area.

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Theory- 2016 DME-I

UNIT - 1 INTRODUCTION: Definitions: Normal, Shear, Biaxial and Tri Axial

Write briefly note on general procedure used in design. (June/July 2009)(06M)

AIT/Mech Dept/Chikmagalur. PRASHANTH N 9964676521 1

Recognition and identification of Need

Analysis and Optimization

AIT/Mech Dept/Chikmagalur. PRASHANTH N 9964676521 2

We can classify design as

What are the basic requirements of machine elements? Explain briefly.

AIT/Mech Dept/Chikmagalur. PRASHANTH N 9964676521 3

Mode of Failure: Different components show different modes of failure, which in

AIT/Mech Dept/Chikmagalur. PRASHANTH N 9964676521 4

Define standards and codes. (Dec 2011) (04 Marks)

AIT/Mech Dept/Chikmagalur. PRASHANTH N 9964676521 5

AIT/Mech Dept/Chikmagalur. PRASHANTH N 9964676521 6

SELECTION OF MATERIALS BASED ON THEIR PROPERTIES

Chemical Physical Mechanical Dimensional Technological

Properties of Engineering Materials

AIT/Mech Dept/Chikmagalur. PRASHANTH N 9964676521 7

AIT/Mech Dept/Chikmagalur. PRASHANTH N 9964676521 8

1.8. CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Metals Non - Metals

Ferrous Non - Ferrous Glass Plastic Rubber

Classification of Engineering Materials

TRAITS OF A GOOD DESIGNER

AIT/Mech Dept/Chikmagalur. PRASHANTH N 9964676521 9

Physical and chemical properties: Chemical composition, structure,

For optimum use of engineering materials, it is very important to have a thorough

AIT/Mech Dept/Chikmagalur. PRASHANTH N 9964676521 10

length, is termed yield strength ( ).

AIT/Mech Dept/Chikmagalur. PRASHANTH N 9964676521 11

Brittleness: It is a characteristic opposite to ductility. Lack of plasticity is known as

Malleability: It is a property of the material which permits large plastic deformation

Hardness: It is the ability of the material to resist penetration, plastic indentation,

= 88 . 192

AIT/Mech Dept/Chikmagalur. PRASHANTH N 9964676521 12

Toughness: The ability of a material to absorb energy before it fractures is called

High Carbon Steel

AIT/Mech Dept/Chikmagalur. PRASHANTH N 9964676521 13

Formability: It is an indication of suitability of a metal for a machine part that

Castability: The term castability is an indication of how easy it is to cast The

Forgeability: It is an indication of ease involved in forging a machine component. In

AIT/Mech Dept/Chikmagalur. PRASHANTH N 9964676521 14

Identify the following engineering materials giving specifications:

350 Minimum tensile strength in  =  

350 Minimum yield strength  =  

Load & Forces:

AIT/Mech Dept/Chikmagalur. PRASHANTH N 9964676521 15

1.11.2. STRESS ()

STRESSES AND STRAINS

AIT/Mech Dept/Chikmagalur. PRASHANTH N 9964676521 16

Tensile Stress ( )

Compressive Stress ( )

 = .    Shear stress (in double shear)  =

AIT/Mech Dept/Chikmagalur. PRASHANTH N 9964676521 17

Bearing Stress  

A bearing stress is given by

Where, = average bearing pressure, P=radial load on the journal,

AIT/Mech Dept/Chikmagalur. PRASHANTH N 9964676521 18

AIT/Mech Dept/Chikmagalur. PRASHANTH N 9964676521 19

ELASTICITY AND ELASTIC LIMIT

Young's Modulus of Elasticity ( Table -1.1) P - 7

This constant is known as coefficient of elasticity or Modulus of elasticity. The ratio

= 88 . 192

350 Minimum tensile strength in =

350 Minimum yield strength =

1.11.2. STRESS ()

Tensile Stress ( )

Compressive Stress ( )

= . Shear stress (in double shear) =

Bearing Stress

Where, = average bearing pressure, P=radial load on the journal,

J J . L 6

1T234 14255, = J J . L

4 J SC4 1C!6 8648@!34 5T3S, 4 J SC4 C!!CU 8648@!34 5T3S

C6556C 5 436C, f /& =

The normal stress on a plane AC inclined at N. J A cos 3

Max shear stress, =B$A J 3 J 45

= |y z + vA w 3 = 45 .

= A cos + =A sin 2 . u 3

Maximum principle stress, = }A + |A + 4 A ~ . `

Minimum principle stress, = }A |A + 4 A ~ . {

Max shear stress, =B$A = |A + 4 A .

Maximum principle stress, = =A

Minimum principle stress, = =A

=B$A = = =A . 3 = 45

= + |y z + vA w . `

= |y z + vA w . {

= |y z + vA w .

The angle of principle planes, G3 2 = .

, = tanM } ~ 3 342 3 90 3 34.

The angle of max shear planes, G3 2 = .