GROUP 4

CHAPTER 5: CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS

5.1 The Theory of Deduction

5.2 Classes and Categorical Propositions

5.3 The Four Kinds of Categorical Propositions

5.4 Quality, Quantity and Distribution

5.5 The Traditional Square of Opposition

5.6 Further Immediate Inferences

5.7 Existential Import and the Interpretation

of Categorical Propositions

5.8 Symbolism and Diagrams for Categorical

Propositions
5.1 The Theory of deduction

The theory of Deduction aims to explain the relations of the premise and conclusion in
valid arguments and to provide techniques for the appraisal of deductive arguments.

TWO BODIES OF THEORIES:

a). Classical or Aristotelian Logic (named after the Greek Philosopher Aristotle who
initiated this study) traditional account of reasoning in which certain interpretations of
categorical propositions are presupposed.
- Aristotle was one of the towering intellects of the ancient world. His
great treaties on reasoning were collected after his death and came to be called the
ORGANON, meaning literally the instrument, the fundamental tool of
knowledge.

b). Modern or Modern Symbolic Logic (developed during 19th and 20th centuries)
- Account of syllogistic reasoning accepted today. Aristotelian logic has been the
foundation of rational analysis for thousands of years. It has been greatly refined and its
notation has been much improved.

This chapter deals mainly with Classical / Aristotelian logic.

Deductive Argument an argument whose premises are claimed to provide conclusive

grounds for the truth of the conclusion.
-Every deductive argument either does what it claims or it does not, therefore every
deductive argument is either valid or invalid;
Valid: an argument is said to be valid when whose premises if they were all true would
provide conclusive grounds for the truth of its conclusion.
Sound: an argument is sound if it is valid and the premises are true.

Ex 1: All men are mortal.

Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

The first premise states that all objects classified as men have the attribute of
mortal. The second premise states that Socrates is classified as a man a
member of the set men. The conclusion then states that Socrates must be
mortal because he inherits this attribute from his classification as a man.
It follows also the form: All P is Q
All R is P
: All R is Q

Ex 2: All television networks are media companies.

ABS CBN is a television network.
Therefore, ABS CBN is a media company.

Valid but Unsound: it is unsound because its premises are false.

Ex: No elephants are animals.

All spider monkeys are elephants
Therefore, no spider monkeys are animals.
 Invalid: argument that is not valid. The invalidity can be test by assuming that all
premises are true and seeing whether it is still possible for the conclusion to be false.
Ex: All crows are black.
John is black.
Therefore, John is a crow.

The first premise is saying that all crows are black, but not that all black
things in the universe are crows. So EVEN IF John is black and EVEN IF all crows
are black (both premises being true), we know nothing else about John. The
conclusion can be true or false, EVEN IF the premises are true. Invalid because it
does not follow the form that (All P is Q --- All R is P --- All R is Q)

The difference between the two kinds of arguments does not lie solely in the words
used; it comes from the relationship the author or expositor of the argument takes
there to be between the premises and the conclusion.
Deductive- If the author of the argument believes that the truth of the premises
definitely establishes the truth of the conclusion (due to definition, logical entailment,
logical structure, or mathematical necessity.
Inductive - If the author of the argument does not think that the truth of the
premises definitely establishes the truth of the conclusion, but nonetheless believes that
their truth provides good reason to believe the conclusion true.

5.2 Classes and Categorical propositions

Classical logic deals with arguments based on the relations of classes of objects to one
another.
Class collection of all objects that have some specified characteristics in common.
Ex 1: All dogs are mammals.
(The class of all dogs is wholly included in the class of mammals)

Ex2: Some athletes are females.

(The class of athletes is partially included in the class of females)

Ex3: No triangles are circles.

(The class of all triangles and the class of all circles may be said to exclude one another.

In a deductive argument we present propositions that state the relations between one
category and some other category.

Categorical Propositions propositions with which arguments are formulated. These are
fundamental elements, the building blocks of argument in deductive logic.

Ex: No athletes are vegetarians.

All football players are athletes.
Therefore, no football players are vegetarians.

(This argument contains three categorical propositions that are about the class of all
athletes, the class of vegetarians and the class of all football players.)
 The critical first step in developing a theory of deduction is based on classes; therefore,
identify the kinds of categorical propositions and to explore the relations among them.

5.3 The Four Kinds of Categorical Propositions

Standard form Categorical Proposition any categorical proposition of the form:

1). All S is P
2).No S is P
3).Some S is P
4). Some S is not P

1). Universal Affirmative Propositions. the whole of one class is included or contained in
another class
Ex: All soldiers are brave.
(All S is P)

(The letters S and P represent the subject and the predicate terms, respectively. It asserts
that every member of one class, the class of soldiers, is a member of another class, the
class of brave.)

(Such proposition affirms that the relation of class inclusion holds between the two
classes and says the inclusion is complete or universal)

They are called A propositions.

2). Universal Negative Propositions - the whole of one class is excluded or not contained in
another class
Ex: No soldiers are coward.
(No S is P)

(It asserts that the any member of soldiers is excluded from the class of coward)

(This kind of proposition denies the relation of inclusion between the two terms and
denies it universally.)

They are called E propositions

3). Particular Affirmative Propositions some particular member or members of one class
is included or contained in another class.
Ex: Some men are liars.
(Some S is P)

(It affirms that some members of the class of all men are members of class of all liars.)

(The proposition affirms the relation of class inclusion holds but it affirms it only
partially of some particular member or members of the class.)

4). Particular Negative Propositions some particular member or members of one class is
excluded or not contained in another class.)
Ex: Some men are not liars.
(Some S is not P)

(Some members of the class of men are excluded from the whole class of liars.)

(It denies the inclusion of some member or members of the first class in the second
class.)
 They are called O propositions

A, E, I, O propositions are the building blocks of deductive arguments.

Classes of objects and the relations among these classes is a highly sophisticated system for
the analysis of deductive arguments.

STANDARD- FORM CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS

PROPOSITION
NAME TYPE EXAMPLE
FORM
All S is P A Universal Affirmative All presidents are popular.
No criminals are good
No S is P E Universal Negative
citizen.
Some S is P I Particular Affirmative Some friends are enemies.

Some S is not P O Particular Negative Some people are not true.

5.4 QUALITY, QUANTITY AND DISTRIBUTION

A). Quality
- An attribute of every categorical proposition, determined by whether the proposition
affirms or denies class inclusion. Thus every categorical proposition is either universal in
quality or particular in quality.

2 kinds of quality:

1). Affirmative - If the proposition affirms some class inclusion, whether complete or
partial.
Example: (AffIrmo) I affirm

All senators are citizens. (All S is P) = A proposition

Some birds have feathers. (Some S is P) = I proposition

2). Negative - If the proposition denies class inclusion, whether complete or partial.
Example: (nEgO) I deny

No athletes are vegetarians. (No S is P) = E proposition

Some judges are not lawyers. (Some S is not P)= O proposition

B). Quantity
- An attribute of every categorical proposition determined by whether the proposition
refers to all members or only to some members of the class designated by its subject
term.

Classes of Quantity:
1).Universal Quantity (All and No)
- If the proposition refers to all members of the class designated by its subject term.

Example: All saints were martyrs. (All S is P) = A proposition

No organic compounds are metals. (No S is P)=E proposition
 2). Particular Quantity (Some)
If the proposition refers only to some members of the class designated by its subject term.

Example: Some college athletes are professionals.

(Some S is P) =I proposition
Some soldiers are not officers.
(Some S is not P)= O proposition

(According to its quantity and quality)

A proposition Universal Affirmative
E proposition- Universal Negative
I proposition Particular Affirmative
O proposition- Particular Negative

C). General Schema of Standard-Form Categorical Propositions

Copula - Any form of the verb to be that serves to connect the subject term and the
predicate term of a categorical proposition.

Example: All senators are citizens.

No man is an island.
Some parents will not be present.

In these examples, is, are, and will not be serve as copulas.

4 parts of categorical proposition

(1) First the quantifier, ( 2) the subject term, (3) the copula, (4) the predicate term.

The schema may be written as-

Quantifier (subject term) copula (predicate term).

D). Distribution
- An attribute that describes the relationship between a categorical proposition and each
one of its terms, indicating whether or not the proposition makes a statement about every
member of the class represented by a given term.

A proposition distributes a term if it refers to all members of the class designated by that
term.

In the A proposition (All senators are citizens): In this proposition, senators is

distributed, but citizens is not.

In the E proposition (No athletes are vegetarians): The subject term, athletes, is
distributed, because the whole class of athletes is said to be excluded from the class of
vegetarians. It is also asserted that the whole class of vegetarians is excluded from the
class of athletes. Of each and every vegetarian, the proposition says that he or she is not
an athlete.

Unlike an A proposition, therefore, an E propositions (universal negatives) distribute

both their subject and their predicate terms.

In summary: the A proposition distributes only its subject term; the E proposition distributes
both its subject and predicate terms; the I proposition distributes neither its subject nor its
predicate term; and the O proposition distributes only its predicate term.
The following diagram presents all these distributions graphically and may be useful in helping
you to remember which propositions distribute which of their terms:

Predicate term
Predicate term distributed
undistributed
Subject term undistributed A: All S is P. E: No S is P.
Subject term Undistributed I: Some S is P. O: Some S is not P.

The A proposition
All bananas are fruits.
(S) (P)

In an A proposition, the subject term is always distributed. Meaning, every

member of the class of bananas is included in the class of fruits. But all fruits are not
bananas because in an A proposition, the predicate term is not distributed.

The E proposition
No athletes are vegetarians.
(S) (P)

In an E proposition, both the subject term and the predicate term are distributed.
This example asserts that every member of the class of athletes is outside the class of
vegetarians. Also, no athlete is vegetarian . Note that the concept of distribution has
nothing to do with truth or falsity.
This example proposition is certainly falsebut, as in every E proposition, both of its
terms are distributed.

The I proposition
Some boys are smart.
(S) (P)

In an I proposition, neither the subject term nor the predicate term is distributed.
The word some tells us that at least one member of the class designated by the subject
term, boys, is also a member of the class designated by the predicate term, smart
but this proposition makes no claim about the subject class as a whole. We are told only
that there is at least one member of the class of bananas in it.

The O proposition
Some soldiers are not heroes.

In an O proposition, the predicate term is distributed but the subject term is not
distributed. The words some tell us that this proposition is not about all members of the
class of soldiers and that some soldiers are not heroes. Thus the entire class of heroes
does not have one of those subject soldiers among them.

QUANTITY, QUALITY AND DISTRIBUTION

PROPOSITION NAME QUANTITY QUALITY DISTRIBUTES

All S is P A Universal Affirmative S only
No S is P E Universal Negative S and P
Some S is P I Particular Affirmative Neither
Some S is not P O Particular Negative P only
5.5 The Traditional Square of Opposition

Opposition - the logical relation that exists between two contradictories, between two
contraries, or in general between any two categorical propositions that differ in quantity,
quality, or other respects.

-Standard-form categorical propositions having the same subject terms and the same
predicate terms may differ from each other in quality, or in quantity, or in both. This term is
used even when there is no apparent disagreement between the propositions.

Kinds of Opposition:

A). Contradictories
- Two propositions so related that one is the denial or negation of the other. On the
traditional square of opposition, the two pairs of contradictories are indicated by the
diagonals of the square: A and E propositions are the contradictories of O and I,
respectively.

A proposition O proposition
(All judges are lawyers) contradicted by (Some judges are not lawyers)

E proposition I proposition
(No politicians are idealists) contradicted by (Some politicians are idealists).

B). Contraries
- Two propositions so related that they cannot both be true, although both may be
false.
- The universal propositions (A and E) having the same subject and predicate
terms but differing in quality, one affirming, the other denying, were contraries.

A proposition E proposition
All poets are dreamers Contrary to No poets are dreamers

Contingent where a proposition may be true or false.

C). Subcontraries
- Two propositions so related that they cannot both be false, although they may
both be true.
- The particular propositions (I and O) having the same subject and predicate
terms but differing in quality (one affirming, the other denying) are subcontraries.

I proposition O proposition
Some diamonds are precious stones = Some diamonds are not precious stones

D). Subalternation
- The relation on the square of opposition between a universal proposition (an A
or an E proposition) and its corresponding particular proposition (an I or an O
proposition, respectively). In this relation, the particular proposition (I or O) is called the
subaltern, and the universal proposition (A or E) is called the superaltern.

Corresponding propositions
- When two propositions have the same subject and the same predicate terms,
and agree in quality (both affirming or both denying) but differ in quantity
(one universal, the other particular).

A proposition (superaltern) I proposition (subaltern)

All spiders are eight-legged animals Some spiders are eight-legged animals
 E proposition (superaltern) O proposition (subaltern)
No whales are fishes Some whales are not fishes

E). The Square of Opposition

- A diagram in the form of a square in which the four types of categorical
propositions (A, E, I, and O) are situated at the corners, exhibiting the logical relations
(called oppositions) among these propositions.

(All S is P) A Contraries E (No S is P)

Superaltern Superaltern

Subalternation Contradiction Subalternation

Subaltern Subaltern
(Some S is P) I Subcontraries O (Some S is not P)

Mediate inference - Any inference drawn from more than one premise.

Immediate inference - An inference that is drawn directly from one premise without the
mediation of any other premise. Various kinds of immediate inferences may be
distinguished, traditionally including conversion, obversion, and contraposition.

If an A proposition is the premise, then (according to the square of

opposition) one can validly infer that the corresponding O proposition
(that is, the O proposition with the same subject and predicate terms) is
false.

If an A proposition is the premise, then the corresponding I proposition is

true.

If an I proposition is the premise, its corresponding E proposition, which

contradicts it, must be false.

Given the truth, or the falsehood, of any one of the four standard-form categorical
propositions, the truth or falsehood of some or all of the others can be inferred
immediately. A considerable number of immediate inferences are based on the traditional
square of opposition; we list them here:

E is false; I is true; O is false.

A is given as true:
E is given as true:
I is given as true:
O is given as true:
A is given as false:
E is given as false
A is false; I is false; O is true.
E is false; A and O are undetermined.
A is false; E and I are undetermined.
O is true; E and I are undetermined
I is true; A and O are undetermined
 A is false; E is true; O is true.
I is given as false:
A is true; E is false; I is true.*
O is given as false:

Undetermined proposition - if one does not know that it is true and one also does not
know that it is false.

Conversion - A valid form of immediate inference for some but not all types of
propositions. To form the converse of a proposition the subject and predicate terms are
simply interchanged.
P1:No circles are squares (convertend)
C: No squares are circles, (converse of the original proposition)

5.6 Further Immediate Inferences

Immediate Inference is an inference that is drawn directly from one

premise without the mediation of the other premise.

Three Kinds of Immediate Inference:

A). Conversion
B). Obversion
C). Contraposition

A). CONVERSION
- is an inference that proceeds by interchanging the subject and
predicate terms of a proposition.
- is a valid form of immediate inference for some but not all types of
propositions, to form the converse of a proposition the subject and
predicate terms are simply interchanged.

Ex: The premise some women (subject) are lawyers (predicate).

Is logically equivalent to = Some lawyers (predicate) are women
(subject).

Application of Conversion

Convertend Converse

A: All S is P I: Some P is S (by limitation)

E: No S is P E: No P is S
I: Some S is P I: Some S is P
O: Some S is not P (conversion not valid)

Conversion is perfectly valid for all E propositions and for all I

propositions. One standard form categorical proposition is said to
be the converse of another when we derive it by simply
interchanging the subject and predicate terms of that other
proposition.
 Ex. for E proposition: No politicians are idealists. is equivalent to
No idealists are politicians.

Ex. For I proposition: Some writers are men is equivalent to Some

men are writers.

- The original proposition is the Convertend which is Some writers

are men and its Converse is Some men are writers.

The conversion of an O proposition is not valid. The reason is that an

O proposition and its converse is not logically equivalent.

Ex for O proposition: Some animals are not dogs is plainly true, its
converse is the proposition Some dogs are not animals which is
plainly false.

The A proposition presents a special problem because the converse

of an A proposition does not follow from its convertend.

Ex: All dogs are animals we certainly may not infer that All
animals are dogs

- However the remedy here is by combination of subalteration and

conversion.

Illustration: In the Traditional square of opposition, A and I are

subalterns. The A proposition, All dogs are animal its subaltern I
proposition Some dogs are animals.
The A proposition says something about all members of the subject
class (dogs); the I proposition makes more limited claim, about only
some members of that class. It was held that one could infer Some
S is P from All S is P. As we saw earlier, an I proposition maybe
converted validly: Some dogs are animal, then some animals are
dogs

So, if we are given the A proposition, All dogs are animals, we first
infer that Some dogs are animals by subalterations and from
subaltern we can by conversion validly infer that some animals are
dogs. Hence, by a combination of subalterstion and conversion,
we advance validly from All S is P to Some S is P.
- This pattern of inference is called conversion by limitation
(conversion per accidens) proceeded by interchanging subject
and predicate terms and changing the quantity of the proposition
from universal to particular.

B). OBVERSION
- It is a valid form of immediate inference for every standard form
categorical proposition. To obvert a proposition, we change its
quality (from affirmative to negative or from negative to affirmative)
and replace the predicate term with its complement.
 To explain other types of immediate inference we must examine
more closely the concept of a class and explain what is meant by
the complement of a class. Any class, we have said, is the
collection of all objects that have a certain common attribute,
which we may refer to as the class defining characteristic. Every
class has associated with it, a Complementary class, or
complement, which is the collection of all things that do not belong
to the original class. Note that a class is the (class) complement of
its own complement.
Complement or Complementary Class collection of all things that do
not belong to a given class.

Ex: The complement of the term voter is nonvoter.

The complement of non-voter should be written simply as
voter rather as nonvoter.

Ex: Winner and loser are contraries, because no person can be

both a winners and losers.
The proper term should be: Winners and non-winners.

Application of Obversion

Obvertend Obverse

A: All S is P E: No S is non P
E: No S is P A: All S is non P
I: Some S is P O: Some S is not non P
O: Some S is not P I: Some S is non P

Examples:
In A proposition: All residents are voters obverse:
E proposition: No residents are nonvoters

In E proposition: No umpires are partisans obverse:

A proposition: All umpires are nonpartisans

In I proposition: Some metals are conductors obverse:

O proposition: Some metals are not nonconductors

In O proposition: Some nations were not belligerents obverse:

I proposition: Some nations were non belligerents

C). CONTRAPOSITION
- To for the contrapositive of a given proposition, its subject term is
replaced by the complement of its predicate term and its
predicate term is replaced by the complement of its subject term.
Neither the quality nor the quantity of the original proposition is
changed.

Ex: In A proposition: All lawmakers are voters contrapositive:

A proposition: All nonvoters are non-lawmakers
Application of Contraposition

Premise Contrapositive

A: All S is P A: All non P is non S

Some non P is not non S
E: No S is P O:
(by imitation)
I: Some S is P (contraposition not valid)
O: Some S is not P O: Some non P is not non S

Contraposition is plainly valid form of immediate inference when

applied to A propositions.
Ex: A proposition: All lawmakers are citizens contrapositive:
All noncitizens are no non-lawmakers

Contraposition is a valid form of immediate inference when applied

to O propositions.
Ex: O proposition: Some students are not idealists
cumbersome of: Some non-idealists are non-students which
is logically equivalent to its premise.

For I propositions, however, contraposition is not a valid form of

inference.
Ex: I proposition: Some citizens are non-legislators
contrapositive false proposition: Some legislators are
noncitizens = INVALID because it becomes evident when we
try to derive the contrapositive of the I proposition by
successively obverting, converting and obverting.

In the case of E proposition, the contrapositive does not follow

validly from the original, as can be seen when we begin with the
true proposition.
Ex: No wrestlers are weaklings, contrapositive the obviously
false proposition: No non weaklings are non-wrestlers.

However in case of E proposition we can apply the conversion by

limitation to become valid. In the traditional square of proposition, E
and O are subalterns.
Contraposition by imitation, in which we infer an O proposition from
an E proposition (we infer Some non P is not non S from No S is P)
Ex: E proposition: No wrestlers are weaklings contrapositive:
Some non-weaklings are not non wrestlers which is an
O proposition.

5.7 Existential Import and the Interpretation of

Categorical Propositions

Existential Import - is an attribute of those propositions that normally assert

the existence of objects of some specified kind.
 Particular propositions ( I and O propositions) always have existential
import thus the proposition Some dogs are obedient asserts that there
are dogs that are obedient. It plainly asserts that the classes designated
by their subject terms (example: soldiers and dogs) are not empty --- the
class of soldiers, and the class of dogs (if examples given here are true
each has at least one member.

Boolean interpretation modern interpretation of categorical propositions

was adopted and named after the English logician George Boole.
- Boolean interpretation is often contrasted with the Aristotelian
interpretation, universal propositions (A and E propositions) do not
have existential import.

Comparison between the Traditional Square of Opposition and Modern

Square of Opposition:

TRADITIONAL : MODERN :

In Boolean interpretation, the All may refer to possibly empty

classes. For example, if a property owner were to say, All
trespassers will be prosecuted far from presupposing that the class
of trespassers has members, he would be intending to ensure that
the class will become and remain empty. This statement can be
true even if no one is ever prosecuted and the word all in that
statement refers to empty class.

The word some is interpreted to mean at least one but never

zero and that concreteness commits particular propositions, if
they are to be true, to a state of affairs in which the subject class is
not empty. If the property owner, suppose he had asserted that
Some trespassers will be prosecuted. If there were no trespassers,
then we would call his statement false.

Boolean Interpretation of the Categorical Proposition

1). I and O proposition continue to have existential import.

Ex: The proposition Some S is P (Some trespassers will be
prosecuted) is false if the class S is empty (If there were no
trespassers).
 2). Universal propositions, A and E are the contradictories of the particular
propositions, O and I.
Ex: All men are mortal contradict: Some men are not mortal
No Gods are mortal contradict: Some Gods are mortal

3). Universal propositions are interpreted as having no existential import.

4). In ordinary discourse, we utter a universal proposition with which we do

intend to assert existence. The Boolean interpretation permits this to be
expressed, but doing so requires two propositions, one existential in force
but particular, the other universal but not existential in force.
Ex: All planets in our solar system revolve around the sun has no
existential import. It says only that if there is a planet in our solar
system, then it revolves around the sun. if we express he proposition
intending also to assert the existence of planets in our solar system
that do so revolve, we would need to add: Mars is a planet in our
solar system. This proposition has that desired existential force,
referring as it does to actually existing planets.

5). A and E propositions can be both be true and are therefore not
contraries.
Ex: A proposition All unicorns have wings and E proposition No
unicorns have wings can indeed be true if there are no unicorns.

6). I and O propositions are not subcontraries. The reason is that

corresponding I and O propositions, if they do have existential import, can
both be false if the subject class is empty.
Ex: I proposition Some unicorns have wings and O proposition
Some unicorns do not have wings can both be false if the subject
class is empty. Therefore they are not subcontraries.

7). In subalteration inferring an I proposition from its corresponding A and

O proposition from its corresponding E is not valid. This is because plainly,
one may not validly infer a proposition that has existential import from one
that does not.

8). Conversion for E and for I proposition is reserved; contraposition for A

and O proposition is preserved; obversion for any proposition is preserved.
But conversion by limitation and contraposition by limitation are not valid.

9). Relations along the sides of the square are undone, but the diagonal,
contradictory relations remain in force.

Existential Fallacy is any mistake in reason that arises from assuming

illegitimately that some class has member.
5.8 Symbolism and Diagrams for Categorical Propositions

- it is convenient to have a special symbol to represent it because

the Boolean interpretation of categorical propositions depends heavily on
the notion of an empty class.

Zero symbol (0) used to represent an empty class. To say that the class
designated by the term has no members, we write an equal sign between
S and O (S=0). Thus, the equation S=0 says that there are no Ss or that S
has no members.
Inequality sign() symbolize denial. To say that the class designated by S
does have members is to deny that S is empty. To assert that there are Ss
is to deny the proposition symbolized by S=0. Thus the inequality S0 says
that there are Ss by denying that S is empty.

SP used to represent the class of all things that belong to both of them.
For example letter S designates the class of all satires and the letter P
designates the class of all poems, then the class of all things that are both
satires and poems is represented by the symbol SP, which thus designates
the class of all satirical poems. The common part or common membership
of two classes is called Product orbiter section of the two classes. In the
given example the product is the class of all satirical poems.

Symbolic Representation of Categorical Proposition

SYMBOLIC
FORM PROPOSITION EXPLANATION
REPRESENTATION
The class of things
that are both S
A All S is P SP = 0
and non P is
empty
The class of things
E No S is P SP = 0 that are both S
and P is empty
The class of things
that are both S
and P is not
I Some S is P SP 0
empty. (SP has at
least one
member)

The class of things

that are both S
O Some S is non P SP 0 and non P is not
empty(has at least
one member)