1

1 Nomenclature

Roman V velocity m.s1

2
a acceleration m.s w specific work energy J.kg1
A area m2 W work energy J
a speed of sound m.s1 x dryness fraction -
D diameter m z change of elevation m
Dh hydraulic diameter m
f Fanning friction factor -
F force N Greek
F view factor - absorptivity -
g acceleration due to gravity m.s2 volume expansion coefficient -
C heat capacity J.K1 boundary layer thickness m
cp const pressure specific heat capacity J.kg1 .K1  wall roughness m
cv const volume specific heat capacity J.kg1 .K1  effectiveness -
COP coefficient of performance -  emisivity -
e specific energy J.kg1 efficiency -
c
E energy J ratio of specific heats ( cvp ) -
h convective heat transfer coefficient W.m2 .K1 dynamic viscosity Pa.s
h specific enthalpy J.kg1 kinematic viscosity m2 .s1
H enthalpy J density kg.m3
k loss coefficient - reflectivity -
k thermal conductivity W.m1 .K1 Stefan-Boltzmann constant W.m2 .K4
K bulk modulus Pa or N.m2 shear streass N.m2
L length or length scale m transmitivity -
m mass kg T torque N.m1
M molecular mass kg.mol1 angular velocity s1
n number of moles -
n polytropic index - Other
N Avagadros number mol1 X1,2,3..etc location or instantaneous value of X -
p pressure Pa or N.m2 x, y, z, r, spacial coordinates, radius and angle -
P perimeter m X finite change of X -
q specific heat energy J.kg1 X infinitesimal change of X -
Q heat energy J X rate of X -
R radius m *
X a vector X -
R thermal resistance K.W1 X critical value of X -
R specific gas constant J.kg1 .K1 X stagnation value of X -
R universal gas constant (8.3145103 ) J.mol1 .K1 X value of X at STP -
s specific entropy J.kg1 .K1 X average of X -
S entropy J.K1 X0 modified value of X -
t time s Xi inlet value of X -
T temperature K Xe exit value of X -
u specific internal energy J.kg1 XH hot value of X -
U internal energy J XC cold value of X -
U overall heat transfer coefficient W.m2 .K1 Xf value of X at saturated liquid -
v specific volume m3 .kg1 Xg value of X at saturated vapour -
V volume m3 Xf g change in X between Xf and Xg -

2 Material Properties
2.1 Viscosity variation with temperature
Exponential model for liquids:
B
= 0 10 (T C) (1)
where 0 , B and C are constants.
For water 0 =2.414105 Pa.s, B=247.8 K and C=140 K.

2
 Poiseuille formula for dynamic viscosity:  
1
= 0 (2)
1 + AT + BT 2
where 0 , A and B are constants and T is the temperature in C.
For water, the value of 0 is 0.00179 Pa.s, and the values of constants A and B are 0.033368 C1 and 0.000221 C2 ,
respectively.

2.2 Material properties for air and water

Temp. Water Temp. Air at 1 atm

(103 ) k cp (106 ) k cp

C Pa.s kg.m3 W.m1 .K1 kJ.kg1 .K1
C Pa.s kg.m3 W.m1 .K1 kJ.kg1 .K1
10 1.31 1000 0.59 4.195 -150 8.60 2.79 0.012 1.026
20 1 998 0.6 4.182 -100 11.8 1.98 0.016 1.009
25 0.91 997 0.61 4.178 -50 14.6 1.53 0.020 1.005
30 0.8 996 0.62 4.167 0 17.2 1.29 0.024 1.005
40 0.65 992 0.63 4.175 20 18.2 1.21 0.026 1.005
50 0.55 988 0.64 4.178 40 19.1 1.13 0.027 1.005
60 0.47 983 0.65 4.181 60 20.2 1.07 0.029 1.009
70 0.4 978 0.66 4.187 80 20.9 1.00 0.030 1.009
80 0.36 971 0.67 4.194 100 21.8 0.95 0.031 1.009
90 0.32 965 0.68 4.202 200 25.8 0.62 0.039 1.026
100 0.28 958 0.68 4.211 400 32.7 0.52 0.052 1.068

3 Newtons laws of motion

Newtons laws of motion
First Every object remains in a state of rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by a (nett) force.
Second F = m a
Third For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Equations of linear motion

V2 = V1 + at (3)
1 2
x2 = x1 + V1 t + a (t) (4)
2
1
x2 = x1 + (V2 + V1 ) t (5)
2
V22 = V12 + 2a (x2 x1 ) (6)

4 Fluid Mechanics
4.1 Fluid Statics
Pascals law
dp
= g (7)
dz
Force on a submerged plane
IG
yp = + yG (8)
A.yG
where yp is the distance to the centre of pressure and yG is distance to the centre of gravity, measured along the surface
of the plane. IG is the second moment of area about the centroid, A is the area of the submerged plane.

3
4.2 Flow in pipes
Continuity

m = V A (9)
dm
= min mout (10)
dt

Hydraulic mean diameter

4A
Dh = (11)
P
The Hagen-Poiseuille equation
1 dp
R2 r 2


V = (12)
4 dx
pR4
V = (13)
8L

Steady flow Energy Equation (SFEE)

2
Vin V 2
pin + + gzin + wp = pout + out + gzout + wf + wt (14)
2 2
where wf is the volumetric work lost due to friction, wp is the volumetric work supplied by a pump and wt is the
volumetric work generated by a turbine.

Darcys Equation for losses in long pipes

L V2
wf = 4f (15)
D 2
Fanning friction factors
16
f = laminar flow (16)
Re
2
f = (0.79ln (ReD ) 1.64) (17)
 1.11 !
1 6.9 1 
= 1.8log10 + (18)
f Re 3.71 D

Typical pipe roughnesses given below:

Material Roughness (mm)

Coarse concrete 0.25
Smooth concrete 0.025
Drawn tubing 0.0025
Glass, Plastic, Perspex 0.0025
Cast Iron 0.15
Old Sewers 3.0
Mortar lined steel 0.1
Rusted steel 0.5
Forged steel 0.025
Old water mains 1.0

Loss coefficient for piping network components

V2
wf = k (19)
2
where k is the loss coefficient,
values of k are given in table below:

4
 Component k
Sharp Entry 0.5
Rounded Entry 0.25
Contraction (50% area) 0.24
Contraction (50% diameter,based on V2 )  0.35 
A2
Expansion (based on V2 ) A1 1
180o elbow 0.9
90o elbow 0.9
45o elbow 0.4
Globe valve (open) 10
Angle valve (open) 2
Gate valve (open) 0.15
Gate valve (25% closed) 0.25
Gate valve (50% closed) 2.1
Gate valve (75% closed) 17
Angle valve (open) 2
Swing check valve (open) 2
Ball valve (open) 17
Ball valve (33% closed) 5.5
Ball valve (66% closed) 200
Diaphragm valve (open) 2.3
Diaphragm valve (50% closed) 4.3
Diaphragm valve (75% closed) 21
Water meter 7

Moody Diagram:

5
4.3 Conservation of linear momentum
Force on fluid in control volume
F = mout Vout min Vin (20)

4.4 Lift and drag

Lift force
1
FL = CL V 2 A (21)
2
where CL is the coefficient of lift
Drag force
1
FD = CD V 2 A (22)
2
where CD is the coefficient of drag
Coefficients of skin friction drag for laminar flow over flat plate
1.328
Re < 105


CD = (23)
Re

Coefficients of skin friction drag for turbulent flow over flat plate
0.074
105 < Re < 107


CD = (24)
Re0.2
0.455
107 < Re < 109


CD = (25)
(log(Re))2.58
Coefficients of form drag around a cylinder
24
CD = (Re < 1) (26)
Re

4.5 Compressible flow

Isothermal compressible flow in a constant cross section pipe, neglecting change in gravitational potential energy
 2    2
m p2 4f L m
p22 = p21 + 2RT ln RT (27)
A p1 D A

Speed of sound s
K p
a= = RT (28)

Change in velocity with area of nozzel

V A 1
= (29)
V A 1 M2
SFEE for isentropic compressible flow
1 2 1
V + cp T1 = V22 + cp T2 (30)
2 1 2
Adiabatic, isentropic, compressible flow
 1
p2 ( )
  1
T2 T2 v1
= = (31)
T1 p1 T1 v2

Stagnation conditions

T 1 V2
= 1 T = T0 + (32)
T0 1 + M2 2 2cp
p 1
= (33)
p0 
1 + M 2 1
 1
2

6
 Critical conditions
T 2
= (34)
T0 +1

 1
p 2
= (35)
p0 +1

where T and p are the critical temperature and pressure, respectively.

4.6 Water Hammer

Pressure drop due to water hammer.
p = V a (36)

Augmented bulk modulus (K0) for non-rigid pipes.

s
1 1 D K0
= + giving a= (37)
K0 K tE

where D is the internal diameter of the pipe, t is the thickness of the pipe wall and E is the Youngs modulus.
pD
= (38)
2t
where is the hoop stress, t is the thickness of the pipe wall and E is the Youngs modulus.

5 Heat Transfer
5.1 Thermal expansion
Linear expansion

L = L1 T (39)
3
Area expansion
2
A = A1 T (40)
3
Volumetric expansion
V = V1 T (41)

where 3 is the coefficient of linear expansion, sometimes referred to as in other texts.

5.2 1D heat transfer

Conduction
A
Q = k T (42)
L
Conduction in thick walled cylinder
T1 T2
Q = 2kL   (43)
ln R 2
R1

Convection
Q = hAT (44)
where h can be found using the Nusselt number, given in equation 99.
Resistor analogy for composite surfaces
T
Q = (45)
R1 + R2 + R3 + . . . + Rn

7
 L
Rcond,planar = (46)
kA 
R2
ln R1
Rcond,clyind = (47)
2kL
1
Rconvect = (48)
hA
(49)

Radiation
Q = A T14 T24


(50)
where is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, of 5.67051 108 W.m2 .K4

5.3 Radiation heat transfer view factors

Radiation equation with view factors
Qij = Ai Fij i Ti4 Tj4


(51)

Reciprocity Relation
Ai Fij = Aj Fji (52)

5.4 Forced convection

For an isothermal flat plate
1 1
Nu = 0.032ReL2 Pr 3 (53)
valid for ReL < 105 and 0.6 < Pr < 60.
4 1
Nu = 0.0296ReL5 Pr 3 (54)
valid for 108 > ReL > 105 and 0.6 < Pr < 60.
4 1
Nu = 0.037ReL5 Pr 3 (55)

valid for ReL > 108 and 0.6 < Pr < 60.
For an isothermal horizontal cylinder
1
Nu = CRem
D Pr
3 (56)
C = 0.193, m = 0.618 for 4000 < Re < 40000 and C = 0.027, m = 0.805 for 40000 < Re < 400000.
Dittus-Boelter equation for forced convection in pipes.
4
Nu = 0.023ReD
5
Prn (57)

where n = 0.4 for heating fluid and n = 0.3 for cooling fluid. Valid for Re 10000 and 0.7 Pr 160
Log mean temperature difference
T1 T2
TLM = (58)
ln T
T2
1

Exit temperature (Te ) for constant wall temperature pipe

 
hA
Te = Tw + (Ti Tw ) exp (59)
mcp

where Ti is the inlet temperature and tempw is the wall temperature.

8
5.5 Heat exchanger design
Capacity rates (m cp )

Cmin
Cmin = min(CH , CC ) Cmax = max(CH , CC ) C = (60)
Cmax

Correction factor F
q = F U ATLM (61)
where F is a function of P and R:
Ttube,o Ttube,i Ctube Tshell,i Tshell,o
P = R= = (62)
Tshell,i Ttube,i Cshell Ttube,o Ttube,i

Effectiveness-NTU
Qmax = Cmin (TH,i TC,i ) (63)
Qact
= (64)
Qmax

5.6 Natural convection

Free convection at a vertical wall (Churchill and Chu)
1/4
0.67RaL
NuL = 0.68 +  (65)
1 + ( 0.492 9/16 4/9

Pr )

for RaL 109 .

For the horizontal surface with top surface of a hot object in a colder environment or bottom surface of a cold object in
a hotter environment.
1
NuL = 0.54RaL4 104 < RaL < 107 (66)
1
NuL = 0.15RaL 3
107 < RaL < 1011 (67)
(68)

For the horizontal surface with the bottom surface of a hot object in a colder environment or top surface of a cold object
in a hotter environment.
1
NuL = 0.27RaL4 105 < RaL < 1010 (69)

5.7 Combustion
Molar masses of atoms and heats of combustion of fuels

Chemical M (g.mol1 ) Fuel LCV (MJ.kg1 ) HCV (MJ.kg1 )

H 1 Petrol 44.4 47.3
He 4 Diesel - 44.8
C 12 Ethanol (C2 H5 OH) - 29.7
N 14 Methane (CH4 ) 50 55.5
O 16 Ethane (C2 H6 ) 47.8 51.9

Volume occupied by one mole, from the ideal gas equation

V RT
= (70)
n p
At 1 bar and 25 degrees C, the recommended value is 24.5 litres per mole.

9
6 Thermodynamics
6.1 Laws of Thermodynamics
Zeroth If two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal equilibrium
with each other.
First Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only change from one form to another.

Second The entropy of an isolated system not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time, approaching a maximum value
at equilibrium.
Third As temperature approaches absolute zero, the entropy of a system approaches a constant minimum.

6.2 Method for Solving Thermodynamics Problems

Draw a simple picture

to represent the system

Decide a naming system

and label the picture

Draw a control volume

Decide if control volume

is open or closed,
steady or transient

Write down any relavent

equations

10
6.3 Conventions for Conservation of Energy

Surroundings
System

2
3 n

In finite form
E1 + E2 + E3 + ... + En = E (71)

In rate form
dE
E1 + E2 + E3 + ... + En = (72)
dt

6.4 Thermodynamic relations

Ratio of specific heats:
cp
= (73)
cv
Enthaply
H = U + pV (74)
h = u + pv (75)
dh = cp dT (76)

Internal energy
du = cv dT (77)

Gas constant
R
R = cp cv R= (78)
M
where R = 8.314 kJ.kmol1 K1
Polytropic processes
pV n = constant (79)
where n is the polytropic constant.

Process n
Isochoric (const volume) n = inf
Isothermal (const temperature) n=1
Isobaric (const pressure) n=0
Isentropic (const entropy) n=

Entropy
q = sdT (80)
dq
ds = (81)
T
T2 v2 T2 p2
s2 s2 = cv ln + Rln = cp ln + Rln (82)
T1 v1 T1 p1

11
 Isentropic expansion and compression
 1 
p2 ( ) T2 ( 1 ) T1 ( 1 )
  (1)   ()   1  ( 1 )
T2 v1 p2 v1 v2 p1
= = = = = = (83)
T1 p1 v2 p1 T1 v2 v1 T2 p2

The value of the ratio of specific heats, , can usually be considered to be 1.4 for air.

6.5 Gas Laws

Boyles law for a constant temperature (isothermal) process

pV = const p1 V 1 = p 2 V 2 (84)

Charles law for a constant pressure (isobaric) process

V V1 V2
= const = (85)
T T1 T2

Gay-Lussacs law for constant volume (isochoric) process

p p1 p2
= const = (86)
T T1 T2

Ideal gas equation:

pV = nRT (87)
pV = mRT (88)
pv = RT (89)
p = RT (90)

Thermodynamic properties of common gasses at STP.

Gas cp (kJ.kg1 .K1 ) cv (kJ.kg1 .K1 ) R (kJ.kg1 .K1 )

Air 1.005 0.718 1.40 0.287
Carbon dioxide 0.884 0.655 1.289 0.189
Hydrogen 14.32 10.16 1.41 4.12
Methane 2.22 1.70 1.30 0.518
Natural Gas 2.34 1.85 1.27 0.5
Nitrogen 1.04 0.743 1.40 0.297
Oxygen 0.919 0.659 1.40 0.260

6.6 Thermodynamic devices

Work done Z 2
W12 = pdV (91)
1

Heat engine thermal efficiency:

w
th = (92)
qH
where qH is the heat energy from the hot source.
Carnot thermal efficiency:
TL
th,car = 1 (93)
TH
COP of a heat pump and refrigerator:
qH qL
COPHP = COPR = (94)
Win Win
where qL is the heat energy from the cold source.

12
 Carnot COP:
1 1
COPHP = COPR = (95)
1 TTHL TH
TL 1

Isentropic efficiencies, compressors and turbines

hout,s hin hin hout
C = T = (96)
hout hin hin hout,s

Spark ignition and compression ignition engine thermal efficiency.

   
1 1 rc 1
SP ARK : th = 1 1 COM P RESSION : th = 1 1 (97)
rv rv (rc 1)

where rc is the cut off ration and rv is the compression ratio

7 Dimensionless Numbers
Reynolds number
U D
Re = (98)

Nusselt number
hL
Nu = (99)
k
Mach number
V
M= (100)
a
Prandtl number
cp
Pr = (101)
k
Grashof number
g2 (TS Tf ) L3
Gr = (102)
2
1
where is T for an ideal gas.

Rayleigh number
Ra = Gr Pr (103)

Biot number
hL
Bi = (104)
k

8 Approximate Values for Quantities

8.1 Mass 8.2 Length

10 g a pen
100 g mobile phone
500 g bottle of drink
1 kg house brick 8 cm finger
1.5 kg bag of sugar 20 cm width A4 sheet
70 kg person 30 cm length A4 sheet
1000 kg mass of small car 2m door height
1500 kg mass of family saloon 30 m Owen building

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8.3 Volume 8.8 Conductivity of solids
5 ml tea spoon 0.004 W/mK Cork
25 ml shot of whisky 0.033 W/mK Styrofoam
330 ml can of coke 0.04 W/mK Fibreglass
568 ml a pint of beer 0.04 W/mK General insulation
750 ml bottle of wine 0.05 W/mK Paper
2l bottle of coke 0.055 W/mK Wood (balsa)
2,500,000 l Olympic swimming pool 0.12 W/mK Wood (pine)
0.14 W/mK Leather
8.4 Velocity 0.15 W/mK Wood (oak)
0.17 W/mK Plasterboard
1.5 m/s walking
0.2 W/mK PVC
3 m/s running
0.5 W/mK HD Polyethene
10 m/s sprinter
0.75 W/mK Asphalt
13 m/s residential speed limit
30 m/s motorway speed limit
45 m/s British train 8.9 Further conductivity of solids
150 m/s good train 0.004 W/mK Cork
330 m/s speed of sound in air 0.033 W/mK Styrofoam
0.04 W/mK Fibreglass
8.5 Density 0.04 W/mK General insulation
0.05 W/mK Paper
1.2 kg/m3 air
0.055 W/mK Wood (balsa)
700 kg/m3 petrol
0.12 W/mK Wood (pine)
800 kg/m3 oil
0.14 W/mK Leather
1,000 kg/m3 water
0.15 W/mK Wood (oak)
2,700 kg/m3 aluminium
0.17 W/mK Plasterboard
7,800 kg/m3 steel
0.2 W/mK PVC
13,500 kg/m3 mercury
0.5 W/mK HD Polyethene
0.75 W/mK Asphalt
8.6 Viscosity @ 20 C 1 W/mK Bricks
1105 Pa.s CO2 /Ar/He/N2 1.05 W/mK Glass
2105 Pa.s air 16 W/mK Stainless Steel
0.000 6 Pa.s Petrol 35 W/mK Lead
0.001 Pa.s water 55 W/mK Carbon Steel
0.2 Pa.s oil 109 W/mK Brass
2 Pa.s honey 250 W/mK Aluminium
400 W/mK Copper
8.7 Power
10 W energy saving lightbulb
100 W electric light bulb (incandescent)
2.5 kW domestic kettle
100 kW Car engine (135 bhp)
5 MW Big wind turbine
4,000 MW Drax power station output
40,000 MW UK power consumption

14
9 Space for your notes

15
10 Credits
Compiled and edited by Dr Andrew Garrard (a.garrard@shu.ac.uk)
Cover illustration by Jack Good (www.jackgood.co.uk)

All material within this book is held under copyright 2011

c Andrew Garrard, Sheffield Hallam Univesity. Permission is
granted to copy and freely distribute provided credit is given to the original author.

16