Momentum Theory A New Calculation of Blast Design and

Assessment of Blast Vibrations

Bernd Mueller and Robert Boehnke
Movement and Blasting Consulting
Wiesenring 13c D-04159 Leipzig, Germany

Abstract
Despite enormous efforts over the last decades there are still many unanswered questions with respect to calculation and
modeling of the blast process using appropriate physical laws. Most calculations of explosive charges of a blast design are
based on experience, empirical observations or blasting theories with serious shortcomings.
This paper presents a new theory for the design and calculation of a rock blast that is based on the momentum. It offers a
clear-cut method for the calculation of blast processes. The theoretical results will be compared with on-site measurements by
means of a newly developed strain sensor and further measuring equipment.
The momentum theory helps better to explain physically the processes of a blast. On the basis of long-term statistical
investigations a momentum balance can be carried out with the volume-based blasting momentum and the measurable
momentum associated with the muckpile and the remaining rock mass. This type of consideration requires a complex
procedure which includes the blastability of the rock masses.
Realis tic strain measurements open a new interpretation possibility and judgment criteria for the most probable building
damage, the dynamic impact on general types of buildings and also for the blast process itself. The blast-induced stress and
the momentum generated could be back-calculated using a geophone profile and the strain sensor. The strain owing to a
dynamic impact can be influenced by the changing of the drill-, blast- and shotfiring technique like the until now measured
vibration velocity. In this way it is possible today to make a complex preparation, calculation and evaluation of blasts.
The new techniques of measuring in connection with the momentum theory bring about an increase of the safety and a clear-
cut method of improving the blast processes. This procedure offers new possibilities for the precise calculation, simulation
and modelling of blasts and resulting vibrations and leads to an increase of the safety as well as economic adaptation of the
drill-, blast- and shotfiring techniques to a pre-determined blasting result.

Introduction
During the last decades advanced technologies in drilling, blasting and shotfiring have been developed
worldwide. The rapid development of measurement techniques and instruments used for controlling and
monitoring the blast design and performance before, during and after the blast, enables a decisive
improvement and increase of safety and analysis of the blast results.
These new techniques of measuring in connection with the momentum theory bring about an increase of
the safety and a clear-cut method of measuring the blast processes. The starting point for the required
model is the natural composition and the rock mechanical conditions of the rock masses as well as the
technical property of the explosive including its geometrical distribution in the blast design.

The momentum theory

Blastability of rock masses
In blasting it is necessary to appropriately and accurately characterize the rock mass with respect to its
blastability [4]. Statistical investigations in earlier research reveal that, from a blasting point of view, a
rock mass can be considered to represent a massive volume partitioned by one or several differently
oriented joint families [e.g. 4]. Hence, a rock mass consists of a large number of joint rock blocks. In
practice, the mean joint distance or the average block size is used as the characteristic classification
parameter.

The acoustic impedance is an another important classification characteristic for the blastability of rock
masses. The larger the acoustic impedance the more brittle the behaviour of the material under dynamic

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loading. For a constant momentum, the peak particle velocity (PPV) decreases for increasing acoustic
impedance [1]. The rock mechanical modelling of the rock masses with the following parameters
average block size including dissemination
joint orientation
acoustic impedance of the rocks
forms the starting point for the application of momentum theory. Without taking into account the
mentioned qualities, the derivation of the most important input variables for momentum calculation is
not conceivable (Fig. 1).

Rock Masses Explosives and geometric

Coordination Parameters
of the
Parameters Wt ld
Sb
Model of
cd Ab
Simulation
ec Bb

Delay Time

Wt cd ec S b l dt
I Vt =
Momentum = 2
A Bt Bb

Calculation of the blast result

Fragmentation Loosening Muckpile Vibrations Flyrock

Technical Monitoring

Sive Curve Ejection velocity Strain Measuring of the

distance
Digital Muckpile - Volume/Mass Peak Particle
Analysis Velocity
Delay Time

Fig. 1: Connections of the entries parameters for the calculation of blast momentum

Blast momentum per specific volume

The momentum based method of blast design has been systematically developed during the last 25 years
on the basis of statistical methods applied to a large body of results derived from numerous blasts. The
central parameter is the so-called blast momentum per unit volume, i.e. the specific blast momentum.

The blast result must be seen in its entirely, taking into account the following parameters (Fig. 1):
fragmentation of the muckpile (record by digital photogrammetry),
loosening of the muckpile (record by laser-theodolit),
vibrations (record by geophones, strain sensors or effort of laser technology).

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Figure 2 shows that each one of these items consumes energy in a particular way. Energy losses through
thermal and acoustic processes will be neglected. Further testing revealed the correlations shown
schematically in Figure 2. Leaving the charge and the type of explosives unchanged but varying the
burden, one can derive general relationships and tendencies for the parameters which characterize the
blast result. Reducing the burden from 20 m to 0,625 m (shown on the right side of Figure 2) causes
smaller vibrations because the specific blast momentum is continuously increased. The extreme increase
of the blast momentum leads to high level loosening of the muckpile associated with danger of flyrock
and, thus, reduced vibrations.
It follows quite clearly from this representation that the ignited charge leads to different blasting results,
depending on its geometrical distribution.

Fig. 2: Schematic correlation between the specific blasting effect Iv at the same charge
per delay and the consumed energy parts for various blasting processes

For the assessment of the detonation reaction of an explosive column the production of momentum per
millisecond of advance of the detonation front is considered. The momentum produced per millisecond
and related to the mass of rock to be moved is given by [3, 5]:

Wt cd ec Sb l dt
I Vt = [Ns / m per ms] (1)
ABt Bb 2

with
IVt = specific blast momentum per millisecond of advance of detonation front [Ns/m]
Wt = amount of explosive which detonates in 1 millisecond [kg/ms]
= ratio of volume of explosive to volume of blasthole
cd = velocity of detonation [m/s]
ec = density of explosive [kg/m]
ldt = length of explosive column detonated in 1 millisecond [m/ms]

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Sb = effective spacing [m]
ABt = surface of the blasthole wall, covered by the detonation in 1 millisecond (m/ms)
Bb = effective burden [m].
t= period of time of the consumed explosive charges ignited simultaneously [ms]

Using statistical methods, the influence of each of the parameters appearing in equation (1) has been
evaluated on the basis of in-situ conditions. The part of explosive column of a blast design ignited
simultaneously and side by side at the same period of time of the consumed explosive is by symbolized

IV = Ivt * t [Ns / m per delay] (2)

and designated as a particular blast effect [dimension - Ns / m per delay].

In a simplified representation of the evolution of cracks and new breaks through blast effect, the
characteristic fissure models represented in Fig. 3 can result, depending on borehole order in accordance
with the aspect ratio and the inserted explosive charge for charges ignited simultaneously. It is clear that
the side-by-side borehole charges released together experience an amplified fragmentation with
increasing aspect ratio and the explosive consumed spatially in this way. The faces fracturation, dividing
up break formation along the borehole line is the result of the smallest caused blast momentum vertically
to the individual boreholes (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3: Schematic representation of the resulting charge per blasthole increasing crack structures
in uniform, isotropic medias at different aspect ratios, one and charges igniting simultaneously

The transmission of the blast momentum depends primarily on the blastability of the surrounding rock
mass (Fig. 1) and the optimal firing sequence. A holistic view towards optimisation of drill-, blast- and
shotfiring parameters, the rock mass to be blasted and the firing sequence is recommended. The

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analytical investigation of the effect of a single parameter under conditions of variable general
conditions may be highly questionable and may result in erroneous conclusions. The volume-based blast
momentum has frequently been investigated concerning its importance for blasting [3, 5]:

- for constant blastability, the fragmentation of the muckpile can be systematically improved by
increasing the blast momentum (Figs. 2, 3, 4),
- the optimal value of the blast momentum leads to a reduction of the blast vibrations,
- for a faces fracturation the blast momentum is released uniformly and in a purposeful manner.

Fig. 4: Relation between the specific blasting effect Iv and the oversizes in t/kt of a muckpile

The essential parameters of the blast result of the above-mentioned definition can be influenced by
means of blast momentum (1) depending on the aim of blasting. In the selected example of figure 3 of
rock mass highly resistant to blasting it is proved that oversizes in a muckpile can be reduced by the
increase of the specific blast effect.
Quantities following itself especially as effective possibilities for improvement of fragmentation of the
muckpile in a shown manner from relation:

increase of the charges ignited simultaneously

enlargement of the ignited aspect ratio, according to the decrease of the burden and/or increase of
the borehole distance
use of explosive that is selected optimally in accordance with the blastability and shows an very
high detonation velocity and density
full leaning of the boreholes, if the limiting conditions permit it.

In many practical cases the influence of the blast momentum on blasting vibrations is of primary
importance. Tests have been performed to study the causes of blast vibrations in various rock masses. It
is instructive to study the throw of material for different burdens in Figure 1 and 2. Based on energy and
momentum considerations the authors assume that for very small burden the rock mass to be thrown is
small and is easily spelled and ejected. For large burden, little rock movement is possible, the wave
energy is reflected at the free face and adds to the vibrations in the rock mass.

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Practical experience with the concept of blast momentum shows that if the blast momentum per delay is
kept constant, one finds a nearly uniform distribution of peaks in the PPV versus time trace. The
increase of the blast momentum in sequential firing in a single row blast is limited when compared with
a multi-row blast where the effective spacing and the effective burden can be varied. The advantage is
that several holes interact with one another to produce better fragmentation and reduced blast vibrations.
As shown in Figure 3 on the left hand side, smooth blasting is predominantly a two-dimensional process
whereas fragmentation blasting is a three-dimensional process. Hence, smooth blasting yields higher
vibrations than one would obtain with fragmentation blasts. This leads to the conclusion that the concept
of blast momentum allows an almost universal interpretation of the most important processes associated
with blasting. The blast momentum (1), (2) can be used both as a model for simulation of blast design
and for calculation of a blasting according to these results.

The momentum balance

Having a large body of measurement data from various blasts at disposal, it was necessary to search for
correlations between the parameters characterising a blast. The central quantity is the momentum
imparted on the rock mass during the detonation.

The momentum of a moving solid body of mass m is defined as the product of mass times velocity.
Likewise, the integral F(t)dt is defined as the impulse. These two quantities are equated via Newtons
law:
momentum = mass x velocity
p=m*v [kgm/s] (3)

momentum = force x time (duration of acting force)

I = F(t)dt [Ns] (4)

Equation (4) will be applied to the volume of rock which will be moved by a single charge. This amount
of rock, termed mM, will be deposited in the form of a muckpile. Denoting the ejection velocity with v M,
one obtains for the momentum of the ejected material
kgm
I M = m M vM or [Ns] (5)
s

with
IM = the momentum of the rock mass ejected during a particular delay [kgm/s]
mM = rock mass ejected per delay [kg]
vM = velocity of the ejected rock mass [m/s].

While the mass of the ejected volume is easily determined, the velocity of the ejected rock mass must be
measured. This can be done with a high-speed camera, with a 3-D-Laser or better with a specially
designed radar sensor.

Next, the momentum Ivt , as determined from equation (1), will be compared with the momentum
defined in equation (5). Physically, the momentum of the muckpile, i.e. the momentum of the rock
mass ejected from the bench face, which was measured via velocity measurement is equated to the
calculated momentum of the rock mass from equation (1). This is achieved upon multiplying Ivt with the
volume of the rock mass mobilized per delay:

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 I B = IVt VM [Ns] or [kgm/s] (6)

with
IB = the momentum of individually or simultaneously fired charges per delay [Ns]
IVt = (2) specific blast effect [Ns/m3 ]
VM = volume of the rock mass ejected per delay [m].

In Figure 5 a separately ignited borehole charge was represented with regard to the actual ejected
velocity. In the profile different rates of ejected velocities v M are caused. If one evaluates from these v M-
values the momentum of the muckpile in consideration of the loosening mass and matches this variable
with the momentum IB, a momentum is introduced. This difference is shown as a consumed part of
momentum as a percentage in Figure 5. It can be derived from the result that the greatest vibrations are
caused due to the small part of momentum in the field of the slope floor. This calculated result on the
basis of measuring data matches observation in practice.
That is part of momentum not consumed causes the vibrations in the remaining rock mass and
announces the weak point for the release of vibrations in the blast design. A borehole too deep below
floor, missing explosive or increasing burden also produce raised vibration velocities in smaller, local
areas.

Fig. 5: Example of momentum for an ignited charge column in consideration of the ejection
velocity VM on different measurement points; the not consumed part of momentum is emitted
into the remaining rock masses and causes the blast vibration immissions

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In addition to the caused momentum performing in the field of burden, the momentum IRM which acts
radially into the remaining rock mass is also of importance for the further consideration of the model.
For this purpose strain measurements were carried out with the new strain sensor system directly behind
a charge of a blast design [1]. With the mentioned measuring system with Fiber-Bragg-grating-sensors it
is possible to directly measure the local strain in buildings, tunnels, dams or near a blast. The variable
strain is physically better explainable than the measurements of vibration velocity. The measurement
quantity is the stress in contrast to the traditional peak particle velocity (PPV).
The real strain in a structural material, rock or other homogeneous medium, on which the sensor is
installed can be measured. The maximum dynamic strain or, equivalently, the stress can be calculated
from Hookes law:

= E (7)
with

= stress [MN/m]
= strain [mm/m]
E= Youngs modulus of the material where the sensor is fixed (MN/m)

Thus, one can directly obtain unambiguous results which characterize the supposed local damage in a
building. This information serves every structural engineer, civil engineer or expert for improved
interpretation of the physics of the process.

Next, the momentum imparted on the rock mass behind the initiation front will be considered. This
momentum is termed IRM , and plays an important role in the further development of the model. In order
to evaluate this momentum the strain at the distance of 0,8 m directly behind a detonating blasthole was
measured using strain sensors (Fig. 6). The strain versus time trace is shown in this Figure. The
recordings show compressive strains in radial direction during the dynamic event.

Fig. 6: Example of a blast design with shotfiring (Nonel-ignition) that were

measured the ejection velocity and the extension-strain states in the local field

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The stresses generated in the rock mass can be calculated by means of Hookes law, i.e. the elastic
modulus of the rock mass and the measured strain. Therefore, the momentum IRM follows in the form

I RM = B t i Ai [Ns] (8)
with
IRM = the momentum of the remaining rock mass [Ns],
B = dynamic stress, which is generated by the blast process in the rock mass
behind the initiation front [N/m], calculated from the strain measurement,
ti = duration of momentum transfer [s], and
Ai = the surface affected by the momentum [m].

The strain can be measured both in the local area and at greater distance with the newly developed strain
sensor and shows quite a clear dependence to the distance on the emission and the immission point.
The various momenta defined previously can be calculated and compared by using eqs (1), (5), (6) and
(8) if the following measurement data are available:

- exact laser theodolit survey of the blast design,

- determination of the velocity of detonation of the used explosives,
- measurement of the ejection velocity,
- determination of the strain behind the initiated blasthole charge.

According to the law of the preservation of the momentum, the momentum of the ejected rock mass IM
and the momentum of the reaction force into the rock mass IRM should have the same size:

IM = IRM (action = reaction) (9)

This consideration allows no interpretation of the results of measurements of a blasting. Therefore, the
kinetic energy can be used for explaining of the better fragmentation effect and reduction of vibrations
with corresponding increase of the blast momentum IB.
If equation (5) is multiplied by the ejection velocity v M, one receives the kinetic energy of the loosening
muckpile EM kin :

mM kg m 2
EMkin = vM
2
s2 (10)
2

With the help of this simple relationship based on the momentum the blasting process can in fact be
simulated, modelled and made more calculable. The greater the ejection velocity becomes with the
motion mass remaining constant, the more the fragmentation of the muckpile is improved and the
vibrations are reduced.

Application of momentum theory in technical blast research and practice

In the last few months the new scientific findings concerning the calculation of blasting effect were
applied to application in different rock masses. It was possible to prove clearly in several opencast
mining sites that the increase of the momentum IB causes an improvement of fragmentation of the
muckpile. In these cases the coarser block sizes were cut up more strongly than the fine grain (Fig. 7).
Consequently it is possible to achieve a precise fragmentation of muckpiles with the different parameters

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for calculation of the blast momentum (1), (2). The expenditure can be optimized as desired. The
loosening changes depending on the made ejection velocity and delay of the individual ignited charges.
While the ejection velocity can be increased by a stronger blast momentum, the influence of the delay
time remains to be examined in more detail.

Fig. 7: Schematic connection of the vibration velocity with the blast momentum
and/or the charge per borehole for various rock masses

It can be said that the vibration immissions can be reduced by the following variables:

with increasing distance or dynamic stimulated mass between point of blasting and immission point
with decreasing size of single charge that is moved by shotfiring
with increasing particular blasting effect (1), (2).

Instead of the vibration velocity the strain states can be measured synchronously with a blasting. In
addition to a better interpretation of dynamic influences they may result in a corrected forecasting of the
vibration immissions caused by blasting. The borehole charge per delay is no more suitable as an entry
parameter for the blast vibration forecasting.
The new momentum-based theory opens new possibilities
a) for the modelling, the calculation of blast designs,
b) to influence the vibrations and, therefore, to increase the safety and efficiency of blasting.

Current research includes improvement of the general method and development of a complementary
energy approach. With the new working principle a physically balanced, computer-assisted simulation
of the blasting becomes possible and with it a practical forecasting of the blast result.

Conclusions and preview

These work can be carried out of course also for a separate problem, because it is not necessary to
realize a complex measurement period for every company. The modern possibilities were still shown to
present and propagate the actual position for the increase of the safety at blasts, the calculation and

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optimization of blast designs. The application of momentum theory and developed measurement
technology opens new ways of the drill-, blast- and shotfiring techniques:

The simulation and modelling of blasting becomes possible.

The fragmentation of the muckpile can be controlled.
The loosening of the muckpile is influencable, although not all results can be quantified.
The vibration forecasting can be improved according to secured entry parameters.
Dynamic impacts of every kind can be estimated physically more correctly with strain
measurements.
The blast process with all its unwanted effects can be shaped so that it gets safer and more
calculable.
It will be possible to adapt the permitted vibration limits of the buildings; the results should be
implemented in an European standard.

The results and relationships presented in this paper have been evaluated in practice with the help of
measurement technology. The scientific investigations will be continued up to the completion of a
complete software for calculation of blast design.

References

[1] BAUMANN, I. UND MLLER, B. (2000): Neues Messverfahren fr die Erfassung von Sprengerscht-
terungen und anderen dynamischen Einwirkungen in Bauwerken. Spreng-Info Heft 2,
Mitteilungsblatt des Deutschen Sprengverbandes e. V., S. 19 30.

[2] DOWDING, CH. (2000): Construction Vibrations. 610 pp, USA.

[3] MLLER, B. (1997): Adapting blasting technologies to the characteristics of rock masses in order to
improve blasting results and reduce blasting vibrations. Fragblast The Intern. Journal for Blasting
and Fragmentation 1 (1997): 361 378, Balkema, Rotterdam.

[4] MLLER, B. (1998): Das Phnomen der Trennflchen und ihre Bedeutung fr geotechnische
Aufgabenstellungen. Freiberger Forschungsheft, C 475, S. 173 200, Freiberg 1998.

[5] MLLER, B. ET AL. (2001): A momentum based new theory of blast design. Tenth-High-Tech-
Seminar, Nashville, Tennessee, USA. July 22 - 26.

[6] PERSSON, P. A.; HOLMBERG, R. UND LEE, J. (1994): Rock blasting and explosives engineering. CRC
Press, Boca Raton, New York.

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