Renewable Energy 93 (2016) 125e141

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Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Parabolic trough solar collector for low enthalpy processes: An

analysis of the efciency enhancement by using twisted tape inserts
O.A. Jaramillo a, *, Mo

nica Borunda b, c, K.M. Velazquez-Lucho d, M. Robles a
a
Instituto de Energas Renovables, Universidad Nacional Auto
noma de M
exico, Priv. Xochicalco s/n, Temixco, Morelos, 62580, Mexico
b
CONACYT Research Fellow e IIE, Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologa, Av. Insurgentes Sur 1582, Col. Cr

rez, D.F.,
edito Constructor, Del. Benito Jua
03940, Mexico
c
Instituto de Investigaciones El

ectricas, Reforma 113, Col. Palmira, Morelos, 62490, Mexico
d
Universidad Veracruzana, Campus Xalapa, Lomas del Estadio s/n, Col. Zona Universitaria, Xalapa, Veracruz, 91090, Mexico

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Concentrated solar energy is a promising source of energy which is currently attracting many efforts to
Received 15 October 2015 enhance its exploitation. In particular, parabolic trough collectors for low enthalpy processes is an
Received in revised form emerging technology. Lately, many work is done focused on the improvement of these devices. One
9 February 2016
technique to achieve this is by augmenting the heat transfer in the receiver tube by inserting a twisted
Accepted 17 February 2016
Available online 1 March 2016
tape in the tube. In this work, we develop a thermodynamic model framework to analyse the perfor-
mance of a parabolic trough collector with a twisted tape insert. We nd the set of conditions under
which a twisted tape insert is useful to boost the performance of a parabolic trough collector. This set of
Keywords:
Concentrated solar energy
conditions corresponds to devices with low twisted ratios operating at low Reynolds numbers. The
Parabolic trough collector proposed model is supported with experimental data.
Second law analysis 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Low enthalpy processes
Twisted-tape elements
Exergy efciency

1. Introduction Rankine Cycle (ORC) with potential applications to industrial pro-

A parabolic trough concentrator (PTC) is a promising solar
concentration technology to integrate solar energy into the primary
energy sources. This technology converts the solar beam radiation
into thermal energy in its linear focus receiver. PTC applications can
be divided into two main groups: a) for electricity generation and b)
for thermal applications in solar heating for industrial processes.
Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) Plants is one of the main
renewable energy technologies for the production of electricity by
means of the Rankine cycle. This is a common technology employed
for commercial projects in the capacity range from 10 MWe to 90
MWe, and the operating temperature is in the range from 300 to
400
C. CSP projects have recently become more economically
appealing due to the improvements in concentrated solar power
technology and cost [1]. It is important to point out that in recent
years, a way to harness the solar energy is to co-generate through
Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) technology coupled to an Organic
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ojs@ier.unam.mx (O.A. Jaramillo).
cesses [2].
On the other hand, the generation of thermal energy for some
industrial processes requires temperatures between 85 and 250
C
[1]. These applications are cleaning, drying, evaporation, distilla-
tion, pasteurization, sterilization and cooking, among others, as
well as applications with low-temperature heat demand and high
consumption rates (domestic hot water, space heating and swim-
ming pool heating), and heat-driven refrigeration and cooling [3]
[4], and [5]. It is common that these kind of concentrators are
modular devices with solar collector areas in the range of
2.5e5.0 m2 and they are used to generate hot water and low
enthalpy steam. Table 1 shows some efciency curves that have
been reported in the literature for this type of PTCs.
The efciency equations shown in Table 1 are established on the
basis of the First Law of Thermodynamics.
Recently, one of the aims of solar-thermal engineering is to
enhance parabolic trough concentrators for industrial processes.
Some research reported in literature is addressed to the develop-
ment of new devices, new applications, control methodologies,
thermodynamic and technical-economic analysis, as well as the
development of components, support structures, reective

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2016.02.046
0960-1481/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
126 O.A. Jaramillo et al. / Renewable Energy 93 (2016) 125e141

Nomenclature Ts 4500 K Apparent temperature of the Sun [K]

UL Global loss coefcient [W/m2K]
V Velocity [m/s]
Symbols ,
V Volumetric ow rate [l/min]
Aa Aperture area [m2]
Wa Aperture width [m]
Ar Receiver area [m2]
w Tape width [m]
Co Aa/Ar Concentration ratio []
y Tape pitch length [m]
Cp Specic heat at constant pressure [kJ/kgK]
Di Internal diameter [m]
Greek letters
Do External diameter [m]
,
a Absorptivity []
ED Exergy destruction [W] ak/rCp Thermal diffusivity [m2/s]
,
EU Exergy useful [W]
DFR Enhancement factor for the heat removal factor []
, Df Change in the friction factor []
ES Exergy supplied via solar energy [W] DP Pressure drop [kgm/s2]
F' Efciency factor [] DNu Enhancement factor for the Nusselt number []
FR Heat removal factor [] DhI Enhancement factor by First Law []
f Focal length [m], Friction factor [] DhII Enhancement factor by Second Law
GB Direct solar radiation [W/m2] Emissivity []
h Heat transfer coefcient [W/m2K] g Intercept factor []
I Irreversibility ho Optical efciency []
l Length [m] k Thermal conductivity [W/mK]
,
m_ Mass ow rate [kg/s], m_ rV m Dynamic viscosity [kg/ms]
NS,a Augmentation entropy generation number [] n Kinematic viscosity [m2/s]
r Density [kg/m3], Reectivity []
Nu, Nu Nusselt number (internal and external ow) []
hI Thermal efciency []
P Pressure [kgm/s2]
hII Exergy efciency []
Pr, Pr Prandtl number (internal and external ow)[]
,
s StefaneBoltzmann constant
Q loss Heat loss [W] [5.67051  108Wm2K4]
, f Rim angle []+
Qu Heat useful [W]
,
Q Solar beam radiation collected by the PTC [W] Subscripts
Re, Re Reynolds number (internal and external ow) [] air air
, D Circular tube
Sgen Entropy generation rate [W/K]
E Empty tube
Ta Ambient temperature [K]
TT Twisted tape inserts
Tin Temperature at the input of the receiver tube [K]
r Receptor
Tout Temperature at the output of the receiver tube [K]
v wind
Tr Temperature of the receptor [K]
w water
TR y/w Twist ratio []

materials, materials for the receiver, and absorber surfaces. One general purpose in heat exchangers. In the literature the applica-
way to enhance the efciency of a solar collector is to produce a tions of twisted-tape inserts in tubular heat exchangers, as a pas-
high convection heat transfer coefcient in order to increase the sive technique for heat transfer enhancement, have been widely
heat exchange between the solar energy arriving into the surface of studied. Various designs of twisted tapes have been tested in many
the absorber and the thermal uid. Heat transfer enhancement devices for heat transfer augmentation [15e34].
techniques can be classied into active and passive techniques, the In particular, the use of twisted tapes could play a signicant
former needs an external power source and the later dispenses it. role to improve the performance of solar water heating systems
Both techniques have been applied to improve heat transfer in [35], since twisted tapes can be inserted inside the ow tubes in
several areas such as nuclear reactors, chemical reactors and for solar water heating systems to enhance the heat transfer rate,
however the pumping power may increase signicantly and its cost
becomes signicant during the operation. A brief review of the
Table 1
literature in this topic is presented below.
Thermal efciency for different low-medium-temperature parabolic
trough concentrators.
In 2000, Kumar and Prasad [36] studied the heat transfer and
the pressure drop in a solar water heater with twisted tapes inserts.
Equation Reference
Their experimental investigations showed that the heat transfer
hI 0.660.233(DT/GB) [6] increased by 18e70%, whereas the pressure drop increased by
hI 0.650.382(DT/GB) [7] 87e132%, as compared to plane collectors. They observed that heat
hI 0.6420.44(DT/GB) [8]
losses were reduced (due to the lower value of the plate temper-
hI 0.6380.387(DT/GB) [9]
hI 0.690.39(DT/GB) [11] and [10] ature) consequently increasing the thermal performance by about
hI 0.05430.1889(DT/GB) [12] 30% over the plane solar water heaters under the same operating
hI 0.56082.468(DT/GB) [13] conditions. The effect of twisted-tape geometry, ow Reynolds
hI 0.55232.0099(DT/GB) [14]
number, and intensity of solar radiation on the thermal
 O.A. Jaramillo et al. / Renewable Energy 93 (2016) 125e141
performance of the solar water heater were reported. They re-
ported that the twisted tape collectors perform remarkably better
in the lower range of ow Reynolds number (Re z 12,000), beyond
this regime the increase in thermal performance is monotonous.
They showed that such collectors might perform even better at
higher values of intensity of solar radiation.
In 2008, Jaisankar et al. [37] conducted an experimental inves-
tigation of heat transfer, friction factor and thermal performance of
left-right twisted tape solar water heater with various twist ratios.
They compared their results with a plain tube collector at the same
operating conditions. They developed empirical correlations for
Nusselt number and friction factor with various left-right twist
ratio. They conrmed that the heat transfer augmentation in left-
right twisted tape collector was better than plain tube collector.
They reported that the heat enhancement and pressure drop were
higher with minimum twist ratios.
In 2009, Hobbi and Siddiqui [38] reported an experimental
study conducted to investigate the impact of heat enhancement
devices on the thermal performance of a at-plate solar collector.
They studied different passive heat enhancement devices that
include twisted strip, coil-spring wire and conical ridges. Their
study showed no appreciable difference in the heat ux to the
collector uid. They found signicantly high values of Grashof,
Richardson and Rayleigh numbers indicating that the heat transfer
mode in the solar collector is of mixed convection type with free
convection as the predominant mode. They concluded that due to
the signicant damping of shear-produced turbulence by buoyancy
forces, the applied passive methods based on the enhancement of
shear-produced turbulence are ineffective in augmenting heat
transfer to the collector uid in at-plate solar collectors. In the
same year, Kumar and Prasad [39] developed and tested solar water
heater having twisted tape inserted inside the tubes. Their exper-
imental evaluation was carried out under solar radiation covering
the Reynolds number from 4000 to 20,000, and twist pitch ratio
from 3 to 12. They showed that in the range of parameters inves-
tigated, thermal enhancement factor varied between 1.18 and 2.7
and the maximum value of collector efciency increased by about
30% compared to that of plain ones at same operational condition.
They developed empirical equations for such type of solar water
heater. Other work reported in this year is developed by Hasan and
Sumathy [40]. They carried out an experimental investigation about
the thermal performance of a solar air heater with helical tape
inserts of two different twist ratios (23 and 11). They studied the
friction factor and heat transfer coefcient for a ow in a circular
tube maintained at uniform heat ux conditions. The tested was
carried out at low Reynolds numbers, well in the turbulent region,
for a wide range, 8.05  103e1.36  104. Their results proved that
this system with helical tape inserts could enhance heat transfer by
about 1.15e1.7 times compared to that of plain tube. Also, their
study demonstrated that higher heat transfer rates were recorded
for lower twist ratios.
Also in 2009, Jaisankar et al. published two papers about the
heat transfer and the pressure drop in a solar water heater with
twisted tape inserts. In the paper [41] they reported an experi-
mental investigation of heat transfer and friction factor character-
istics of thermosyphon solar water heater system with full-length
twist, twist tted with rod and spacer tted at the trailing edge for
lengths of 100, 200 and 300 mm for twist ratio 3 and 5. They
compared their results with plain tube collector for the same
operating conditions. They veried with fundamental equations
the experimental data for Nusselt number and friction factor for
plain tube collector. They developed empirical correlations for
Nusselt number and friction factor. They concluded that the
decrease in Nusselt number for full length helical twist compared to
twist tted with rod is minimum and is quite signicant for twist
127
with spacer. They showed that the decrease in friction factor is
maximum in twist tted with spacer compared to twist tted with
rod and described that the over all performance for twist tted with
rod is better than twist tted with spacer. In the work [42], Jai-
sankar et al. carried out an experimental investigation of heat
transfer, friction factor and thermal performance of thermosyphon
solar water heater system tted with helical twisted tape of various
twist ratios. They developed empirical correlations for Nusselt
number and friction factor with various twist ratios 3, 4, 5, and 6.
They compared their results with a plain tube collector at the same
operating conditions. They concluded that heat transfer enhance-
ment in twisted tape collector is higher than the plain tube col-
lector with minimum twist ratio and gradually decreases with
increase in twist ratio. They showed that thermal performance of
twisted tape collector increase with the solar intensity.
In 2013, Bhattacharyya et al. [43] reported an experimental
investigation about the friction factor and the Nusselt number for
laminar ow through a circular duct having integral transverse ribs
and tted with centre-cleared twisted-tape. They found that the
centre-cleared twisted tapes in combination with transverse ribs
perform signicantly better than the individual enhancement
technique acting alone for laminar ow through a circular duct up
to a certain amount of centre-clearance. In the same year, Sekhar
et al. [44] carried out an experimental simulation using at plate
collectors under constant heat ux boundary condition. In their
study, convective heat transfer analysis for a horizontal circular
pipe with uid in mixed laminar ow range was performed
considering passive augmentation techniques such as twisted tapes
and swirl generators in the uid ow path. They studied the vari-
ation of heat transfer coefcient and pressure drop in the pipe ow
for water and water based Al2 O3 nanouids at different volume
concentrations and twisted tapes.
In 2014, Chang et al. [45] presented numerical studies of the
enhanced turbulent heat transfer of molten salt in solar thermal
absorber tubes. They reported that the insert twisted tape can
signicantly improve the uniformity of temperature distribution of
tube wall and molten salt. They found that the decrease of clearance
rate and twisted rate can enhance the heat transfer effectively. They
showed that in the case when clearance rate C 0, heat transfer
enhancement effect with tight-t twisted tape is the most signi-
cant, but at the same time, the decrease of clearance rate and
twisted rate also lead to the increase of the friction factor. In the
same year, Sandhu et al. [46] Reported an experimental study about
the thermal performance of a at-plate solar collector using insert
devices, over a Reynolds number range 200e8000 and a Prandtl
number range 5e8, using water as the working uid. They
considered a variety of conventional and novel insert congura-
tions which include, twisted-tape inserts, wire coil inserts, and wire
mesh insert. Their results showed that the enhancement of the
Nusselt number by all insert devices. Comparison of the best inserts
from different insert families showed that in the laminar ow
regime, the mesh insert performed the best whereas, the concen-
tric coils achieved the highest Nusselt number augmentation in the
turbulent regime, relative to the smooth pipe with no inserts. They
reported that the concentric coils were the best insert among those
tested. Their experimental results showed an overall Nusselt
number enhancement of 110% in the low Reynolds number range
and 460% in the high Reynolds number range. They also investi-
gated the impact of collector inclination of the performance of
those insert devices and their results showed that the channel
inclination does not have a signicant impact on the Nusselt
number enhancement.
In 2015, Chang et al. [47] carried out a numerical study per-
formed with FLUENT 6.3.2 code for investigating the heat transfer
enhancement in a molten salt solar receiver tube with the twisted
128 O.A. Jaramillo et al. / Renewable Energy 93 (2016) 125e141
tapes. They compared their previous correlation of the Nusselt
number and friction factor of twisted tape in order to evaluate the
turbulence models used. They examined the effects of the clearance
ratios (C 0 (tight t), 0.2, 0.5, 0.7 and 1) and twist ratios (y 2.5,
5.0, 12.5, 15.6, 25, 41.7) on heat transfer rate (Nu), friction factor (f)
under non-uniform heat ux using molten salt as the testing uid in
the range of Reynolds number 7485e30,553. They reported the
inuence of grid generation on prediction results Their results
showed that the insert twisted tape can signicantly improve the
uniformity of temperature distribution of tube wall and molten salt.
In the same year, Pavendan et al. [48] developed experimental
studies on solar water heater system tted with seven type of in-
serts cross type insert; twisted tape insert (i) with three different
pitch ratio; (ii) with perforation; (iii) with ns; and (iv) alternative
axis with n. They carried out the experiments both in modied
solar water heater and conventional solar water heater for the same
operating conditions with Reynolds number ranging from 3000 to
9000. They showed that plain twisted tape with PR 3 gives better
performance than cross type insert and other type of twisted tape
due to high whirling effect. They reported that the Nusselt number,
friction factor, and thermal performance factor of solar water heater
tted with alternative axis of nned twisted tape insert for PR 3
are respectively 1.43e1.2, 1.43e1.32, 1.27e1.11 times superior than
plain twisted tape of PR 3 due to better mixing ow with n effect.
Nevertheless, it is important to point out that the use of twisted
tape inserts in the absorber tube of a PTC has not been investigated
in depth. Only a few studies have been reported in the literature.
In 2013, Ghadirijafarbeigloo et al. [49] studied the enhancement
of convection coefcient in the receiver tube of a PTC. They re-
ported a simulation study where they analysed the use of a new
perforated louvered twisted tape in the absorber tube of the PTC. In
their study they described numerical simulations and an experi-
mental validation for three different twist ratios, TR y/w 2.67, 4,
5.33. They assumed that the ow is turbulent due to the louvered
perforated surface and the rotational shape of the tape. The heat
transfer rate and pressure drop were determined for fully devel-
oped condition at several Reynolds numbers. They reported that
the heat transfer coefcient and the pressure drop increase
signicantly in comparison with a typical plain twisted-tape.
In 2014, Jafar and Sivaraman [50] carried out an experimental
investigation about the heat transfer and friction factor of a solar
parabolic trough collector. They studied the impact of absorber
device with nail twisted tape of two different twist ratios of y 2.0,
and 3.0 and using Al2O3/water nanouid as the working uid at
0.1%, and 0.3% particle volume concentration. The tests were per-
formed in the laminar range 710e2130 using indoor simulation
under constant heat ux conditions. They observed that the nail
twisted tape absorber with nanouids can signicantly improve
the heat transfer performance of PTC. They concluded that the
friction factor increases with twisted tape absorber due to swirl
ow and over particle volume concentration and this is due to the
increased nanouid viscosity while increasing particle volume
concentration.
In 2015, Jafar and Sivaraman [51] carried out an experimental
study of an absorber with twisted tape in a PTC. They reported, with
statistical tools, the optimum parameters such as Reynolds number
and twist ratio in order to optimize the performance of the device
taking into account the heat transfer and friction factor. They
concluded that a signicant augmentation in the Nusselt number
and a considerable friction factor can be obtained at high Reynolds
number and low twist ratios parameters. Finally, from the experi-
mental design and the analysis of variance (ANOVA), using Design
Expert software, they found that the twist ratio is the parameter
that most inuences the performance of the PTC absorber. In the
same year, Nayak et al. [52] studied the performance prediction of a
solar thermal parabolic trough concentrator system by enhance-
ment of heat transfer rate using a nanouid, plain twisted tape and
nail twisted tape inserts. Their results were obtained by simulation
modelling.
The main objective of this work is to analyse the thermal-
hydraulic performance of a PTC with twisted tape inserts for low
enthalpy processes by considering the First and the Second Law of
Thermodynamics. In order to estimate the behaviour of the PTC
when twisted tape insert is used, we develop a thermodynamic
model framework based on empirical correlations to calculate the
heat transfer rate and pressure drop for fully developed condition.
The thermodynamic model framework includes an exergetic
analysis to provide useful information for the exergy efciency of
the PTC. It is important to notice that the thermodynamic model
framework is conducted to study low-temperature parabolic
trough concentrators similar in size to smaller-scale commercial
solar collector considering that the temperature range in which the
PTC operates is in the range between 70 and 110
C, without phase
change in the working uid and unshielded receiver. Nevertheless,
if a concentric glass tube is considered around the receiver to
reduce the heat losses or different congurations for the twisted
tape inserts are proposed, we include the necessary modication of
the thermodynamic model at the end of Section 3.
The paper is organized as follows: In Section 2 we present the
background related to the present work. We describe the previous
PTCs developed by the group which are the fundamentals of our
new PTC and are used to compare the results obtained in this work.
In Section 3 we describe the thermodynamic model of the PTC with
twisted tape insert, the thermal efciency using the First Law of
Thermodynamics is calculated in Subsection 3.1 and the exergy
efciency using the Second Law of Thermodynamics is calculated in
Subsection 3.2. The modication of the thermodynamic model
when glass shielded receiver is used or different congurations of
the twisted tape inserts are considered is reported in Subsection
3.3. Results and discussion are presented in Section 4. In Subsection
4.1 we validate the theoretical model with experimental data and in
addition, in Subsection 4.2 we carry out numerical simulations to
compare the behaviour of the PTC with twisted tape insert with the
behaviour of the PTC without insert. Finally we present our con-
clusions at the last section.
2. Background
In 2012, ve parabolic trough collectors were constructed in the
Institute of Renewable Energy (Instituto de Energas Renovables,
IER [54]) in Temixco, Morelos, Mexico, from which two of them
were designed with a 45
rim angle, PTC-45-I, and the remaining
three with a 90
rim angle, PTC-90-I [53]. These collectors were
experimentally evaluated nding out maximum efciency values of
56% for the 90
PTCs and 35% for the 45
PTCs [53]. The PTC-45-I
collectors show less efciency since some of the radiation is not
intercepted on the receiver tube and therefore they have less low
optical efciency.
In order to improve the PTC we constructed a new PCT, PTC-45-
II, with 45
rim angle and twice as long as the previous PTC-45-I.
We decided to double the PTC length to elongate the focal length
and hence, reduce the edge effects [13]. We achieved a 20% increase
in the efciency in the new PTC-45-II compared to the PTC-45-I.
In this work we present a new 90
PTC, namely PTC-90-II. The
new PTC-90-II is twice longer than PTC-90-I, and its construction
was similar to the one reported in Ref. [13]. One of the main
components of the PTC-90-II is its ribs shaping the reective sheet
to its parabolic shape. The PTC-90-II has 6 ribs made of a 10 mm
thick aluminium plate. They were assembled with ve 1 schedule
40 aluminium pipes in 5 m long sections with 5/16  1/2
 O.A. Jaramillo et al. / Renewable Energy 93 (2016) 125e141 129

setscrews. Once we attached the tubes to the ribs, we proceeded to Table 2

place a 1 1/2  4 rectangular hollow section (RHS) 5 m long to The specications of PTC-90-II.

support the PTC as a vertebral column. Six aluminium angles of 6 Feature Value Feature Value
were used to xed the (RHS). Aperture area, Aa 5.187 m2 Reectivity, r 0.92
Fig. 1 shows the PTC-90-II and Table 2 shows its main Receiver area, Ar 0.389 m2 Absorptivity, ar 0.96
parameters. Aperture width, Wa 1.063 m Emissivity, r 0.96
The thermal performance of the PTCs was experimentally Length, l 4.88 m Optical efciency, ho 0.70
External diameter, Do 2.54 cm Intercept factor, g 0.85
evaluated according to the ASHRAE 93-1986 (RA 91) standard [55].
Internal diameter, Di. 2.32 cm Concentration ratio, Co 13.33
The purpose of this standard is to provide test methods for deter- Focal length, f 0.266 m Rim angle, f 90

mining the thermal performance of solar energy collectors that use Material of the tube Copper Working uid Water
single-phase uids and have no signicant internal energy storage. hI 0.62242.368(DT/GB) at 4 l/min at GB 865W/m2
In section 8.2.1.1 of the ASHRAE 93 1986 (RA 91) standard a test
method for determining the thermal efciency of a concentrating
collector is described. This method is widely used to obtain the et al. [33] in order to establish the enhancement of convection
thermal efciency and to compare it with thermal efciencies of coefcient in the receiver tube of PTC when a twisted tape insert is
similar solar collectors. In Refs. [13] and [53] we reported a com- placed. A schematic representation of the twisted tape insert is
plete description of the system for the characterization of the PTCs. depicted in Fig. 2.
Table 3 shows the efciency curves for the different developed The thermal analysis at low temperature PTC with a twisted
prototypes. tape insert is very similar to the analysis performed, for the at-
In the next section we describe a theoretical model to estimate plate collector [56]. The actual useful heat gain Q u , of a
the thermal behaviour of the PTC-90-II based on the First and concentrating solar collector system is based on the so-called
Second Law of Thermodynamics. conceptual energy balance equation and it is given by Ref. [56],

3. Thermodynamic model framework

A passive way to augment the heat transfer in the receiver tube
of a PTC is by inserting a twisted tape insert such that the ow
rotates in the axial direction modifying the Reynolds and the
Nusselt numbers [33]. In this section we develop a thermodynamic
model framework for estimating the behaviour of the PTC, when
the empty tube is considered and when a twisted tape insert is
used. The theoretical framework is based on empirical correlations
to calculate the heat transfer rate and pressure drop for fully
developed condition. We include an exergetic analysis to provide
useful information for the exergy efciency of the PTC.
It is important to notice that the thermodynamic model
framework developed in this section is conducted to study low-
temperature parabolic trough concentrators similar in size to
smaller-scale commercial solar collector considering that the
temperature range in which the PTC operates is in the range be-
tween 70 and 110
C, without phase change in the working uid.
3.1. Modelling the PTC based on the First Law Thermodynamics
In this subsection, we analyse the thermal efciency of the
collector by using the First Law of Thermodynamics. The model
takes into account empirical correlations described by Eiamsa-ard


Qu Aa GB  1  ho Aa GB  Ar hv Tr  Ta  Ar s Tr4  Ta4 :
(1)
As for the at-plate collector, the temperature of the receptor, Tr
in Eq. (1), can be replaced by the uid temperature at the input of
the receiver tube Tin through the use of the heat removal factor [56].
Therefore, Eq. (1) can be written as
,
Q u FR ho Aa GB  Ar UL Tin  Ta ; (2)
where FR is the heat removal factor, ho is the optical efciency, Aa is
the aperture area of the concentrator, GB is the direct solar radia-
tion, Ar is the receiver area, UL is the global loss coefcient, and Ta is
the ambient temperature. Notice that Eq. (2) is usually a second
order equation for concentrated solar collectors, however since we
are dealing with low temperature ranges we neglect the second
order term and it is well justify to approximate it with a linear
equation.
On the other hand, the efciency hI by First Law of Thermody-
namics of the PTC is given by

Fig. 1. Parabolic trough concentrator PTC-90-II.

130 O.A. Jaramillo et al. / Renewable Energy 93 (2016) 125e141

Table 3 Table 4
Thermal efciencies for previous prototypes of PTCs. Constant values for the Zhukauskas relation.

Efciency equation (at 4 l/min) Reference ReD B m

PTC 45 hI 0.35132.117(DT/GB) [53] 0.4e4 0.989 0.330

PTC 45-II hI 0.56082.468(DT/GB) [13] 4e40 0.911 0.385
PTC 90 hI 0.55862.227(DT/GB) [53] 40e4000 0.683 0.466
PTC 90-II hI 0.62242.368(DT/GB) This Work 4000e40,000 0.193 0.618
40,000e400,000 0.027 0.805

,  
Qu FR UL Tin  Ta
hI , FR ho  ; (3) Vv Do
Co GB ReD ; (8)
Q n
,
where C0 Aa/Ar is the concentration ratio, and Q  is the solar where Vv is the velocity of the wind, and Do is the external diameter
beam radiation collected by the aperture area of the PTC, of the receiver tube.
The variables in Eq. (7) are evaluated at a surrounding temper-
, ature which can be considered to be the ambient temperature Ta.
Q  Aa GB : (4) However it is important to mention that the value of Prr depends on
It is important to point out that thermal losses from the receiver the receiver temperature Tr. The values of B and m are listed
are usually estimated in terms of the loss coefcient, UL W=m2 K, in Table 4. If the Prandtl number is Pr  10 then n 0.37, and on the
which is based on the area of the receiver, Ar. For a bare tube contrary, if. Pr>10,n 0.36.
receiver the loss coefcient UL, considering both convection and Therefore, the calculation of the wind loss coefcient, hv, is given
radiation from the surface, and neglecting conduction through the by the following relation [63],
support structure since it is isolated, is given by Ref. [56],
kv
hv NuD ; (9)
Do
UL hr hv ; (5)
where kv is the thermal conductivity of the air.
where hr is the linearized radiation coefcient, and hv is the heat To calculate the coefcients hr and hv it is needed to estimate the
transfer coefcient due to wind. receiver temperature Tr. A rst approximation to calculate the
The values of hr can be estimated as [56]. receiver temperature is through an energy balance in the receiver
tube neglecting the heat losses in order to estimate the maximum
hr 4sr Tr3 ; (6) value of Tr. We consider that the receiver tube has a high thermal
diffusivity and thin walls (the receiver tube is made of copper,
where s is the StefaneBoltzmann constant, r is the emissivity of a117  106[m2/s]), i.e. we suppose the same temperature at the
the surface receptor and Tr is the temperature in the surface of the inner wall and the external surface, such that,
receiver. If a single value of hr is not acceptable due to large tem-
perature variations along the ow direction, the collector can be hw Tr  Tout ho Co GB ; (10)
divided into small segments, each with a constant hr [56].
To estimate the wind loss coefcient, hv, the Zhukauskas relation where Tout is the average uid temperature at the outlet of the
is proposed because a cross-ow over the receiver is considered receiver tube. Therefore, the estimated value of Tr is,
[63],
h o Co GB
Tr Tout ; (11)
 1=4 hw

m Pr
NuD B ReD Prn ; (7)
Prr where hw is the convection heat transfer to the interior of the
receiver given by Eq. (14). Note that we consider the temperature
where the Reynolds number has to satisfy 1<ReD<106 and the along the receiver tube, Tr, to be constant.
Prandtl number is in the range 0.7<Pr<500. The Reynolds number On the other hand, in order to calculate Tout in Eq. (11), we
for a circular cylinder with cross-ow, ReD , is dened by, consider the energy balance,

Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the twisted tape insert.

 O.A. Jaramillo et al. / Renewable Energy 93 (2016) 125e141 131

the Reynolds number Re is estimated when the tube is empty [33],

,
ho Co GB Ar mCp Tout  Tin ; (12) ,
4m
Re ; (18)
where Tin is the average uid temperature at the inlet of the pDi mw
receiver tube. Finally, the outlet temperature, Tout, can be written in
,
terms of the receiver area, Ar piDoL as follows where m and mw are the mass ow and dynamic viscosity of the
uid.
ho Co GB pDo L Finally, the value of FR is calculated by Ref. [56],
Tout , Tin : (13)
mCp , " !#
mCp UL F 0 Ar
The coefcient hw can be calculated by means of the Nusselt FR 1  exp  , ; (19)
Ar UL mCp
number NuD, which is dened as:

kw NuD where m_ is the heat transfer uid ow and Cp is the heat

hw : (14) transfer uid specic heat at constant pressure, and the efciency
Di
factor F' of the collector is given by Refs [56, 58].
where the value of kw can be obtained from the thermodynamic 1
tables reported in the literature [63], and Di is the internal diameter F0
UL
   ; (20)
of the receiver tube. 1
UL hDD
o
Do
2k
ln Do
Di
The thermodynamic framework for the modelling of PTCs is w i

addressed to consider two study cases: a) an empty receiver tube

and, b) a receiver tube with a twisted tape insert.
In the rst case, when an empty tube is considered, the
convective heat transfer coefcient, hw (Eq. (14)), can be obtained
from the standard pipe ow equation [56]:
NuDE 0:023Re0:8 Pr0:4 ; (15)
where the empirical correlation for the Nusselt number, NuDE , is the
well-known the DittuseBoelter equation for heating of the uid, Re
is the Reynolds number, and Pr is the Prandtl number.
Whereas in the particular case of a swirl ow due to the twisted-
tape insert, the coefcient hw (Eq. (14)) can be calculated by using
the equation,

y 0:6
NuDTT 0:224Re0:66 Pr0:4 ; (16)
w
where Do and Di are the external and internal diameters of the
receiver tube, respectively, and k is the thermal conductivity of the
tube.
It is important to note that the thermodynamic framework
developed in this section allows us to calculate the heat removal
factor FR and the global loss coefcient UL either for the empty tube
or when twisted tape inserts are used.
It is clear that Eq. (3) corresponds to a linear equation with the
form of y bmx, where FRho is the y-intercept and FRUL/Co is the
slope. Note that the linear t instead of a 2nd degree t is accept-
able in the present case since we are dealing with solar concen-
trators for low temperature [56]. In the literature, linear models of
thermal efciency for solar concentrators for low temperature have
been reported by Rabl [57], Dufe and Beckman [58], Stine and
Harrigan [59], and Kalogirou [56].

where NuDTT is the empirical correlation from the experimental 3.2. Analysis of the PTC based on the Second Law of
results reported in Ref. [33], and the relation TR y/w is twist ratio, Thermodynamics
where y is the tape pitch length, and w is the tape width. This
empirical correlation was obtained by using twisted tape insert In this subsection we developed a model for estimating the
with four different twist ratios (y/w 2.5, 3.0, 3.5 and 4.0) for Second Law efciency of the PTC. The set up is dened by the
Reynolds numbers range between 2700 and 21,000 under uniform receiver tube, where different heat transfers occur across the wall-
heat ux conditions. The test tube was made of copper, the twisted uid, and the uid ow. The system comprises dissipative phe-
tapes were made of aluminium strips, and the tests was developed nomena (or spontaneous non-equilibrium processes) since the
in a uniform heat ux tube with water as working uid. The twisted natural tendency of system is to achieve equilibrium with their
tapes are considered to be inserted at the core tube along the tube surroundings, and therefore the irreversibilities always occur in the
providing sufcient contact surface between the tapes and tube actual process. ,
wall for the rm attachment of the tapes to the tube without the The overall entropy generation rate Sgen of the PTC can be
need of any extra tting. During the test reported in Ref. [33], the assessed by considering the simpler form [60,61],
tube was heated by continually winding exible electrical wire 0, , , 1 !
,
providing a uniform heat ux condition and the average Nusselt , Q loss Q u Q A m DP
Sgen @  ; (21)
numbers were calculated by considering all uid properties at the Ta Tin Ts r Ta
overall bulk mean values. Note that variation of heat transfer is
described by means of Nusselt number NuDTT because it is the ratio
where the rst term in parenthesis is due to the heat transfer rate, and
of convective to conductive heat transfer across the boundary. In
the second term is due to the irreversibility caused by the uid friction.
this context, convection includes both advection and diffusion as a
In Eq. (21), Ta is the ambient temperature and Ts is the apparent
n effect due to the twisted tape.
temperature of the Sun as an exergy source which is of the order of
In both study case, the empirical correlations for the Nusselt
4500 K [62]. The pressure difference is dened as DP>0 since there is
numbers, Eqs. (15) and (16), the Prandtl number, Pr, is dened by,
a pressure drop between the inlet and outlet of the absorber tube. The
n PTC has an aperture area, Aa, that receives direct solar radiation, GB, at
Pr ; (17) an energy rate from the sun Q_  as it ,is shown in Eq. (4)
a
In Eq. (21), the ,useful heat gain Q u , is established by Eq. (2),
where n is the kinematic viscosity and a is the thermal diffusivity, and the heat transfer Q loss represents the heat loss to the ambient
132 O.A. Jaramillo et al. / Renewable Energy 93 (2016) 125e141

established by,  
, , 3
, , , Q u 1  TTina  f 32
p2
m l
r2 D5i
Q loss Q   Q u ; (22) E
hII 1  ,D ,
  : (30)
and the pressure drop DP can be calculated by,
Es Q 1  TTas

2
4l rVw Note that if the friction factor, f, is neglected, it is possible to
DP f ; recover the Second Law Efciency of a solar thermal collector,
Di 2
 
where l is the length of the absorber tube, Di is the internal diam- , 1  TTina
eter of the tube, r is the density of the uid, f is the friction factor Qu
, hII ,  ; (31)
and Vw m=rA is the velocity of the uid. , Q 1  TTas
Rearranging Eq. (21), the entropy generation rate, Sgen , of
the PTC can be written as,
where hII establishes the rate of exergy associated with the solar
    ,3 ! radiation incident on the collector surface, that has been converted
, 1 , Ta , Ta 32 m l
Sgen Q 1  Qu 1  f : into the delivered exergy by the collector.
Ta Ts Tin p2 r2 D5i Rearranging Eq. (30), and considering the thermal efciency (Eq.
, ,
(23) (3)), as hI Q u =Q  , we can write
,
0   1 0  
note that there is a contribution from the useful heat gain, Q u , , 3
Ta 1
1  TTina 32 m
f p2 r2 D5l 1  Tin
and the friction factor, f, either in the presence or absence of the B C
FR UL
hII @FR ho    i
A@  A
twisted tape insert. Ta Ta C o Ta
1  Ts Aa GB 1  Ts 1  Ts
The correlation of the friction factor for the empty tube can be
expressed as [33].  
T  Ta
 in :
GB
fE 0:376Re0:259 ; (24)
(32)
and, on the other hand, the friction factor when the twisted tape is It is important to note that Eq. (32) also corresponds to a linear
used is calculated by Ref. [33]. equation with the form of y bmx, where

y 1:31 0   1
fTT 65:4Re0:52
,3
: (25) 1  TTina f 32 m l
w B C
p2 r2
D 5
@FR ho    i
A; (33)
On one hand, the exergy supplied via solar energy to the PTC is 1  TTas Aa GB 1  TTas
calculated by Ref. [60],

, ,
 
Ta corresponds to the y-intercept and the slope is given by,
Es Q 1 ; (26)
Ts  
0 1
1  TTina
some of this exergy is destroyed due to irreversible processes. @F U
R L
  A: (34)
It is important to point out that the exergy EU delivered by a PTC Co
1  TTas
system is given by,

, ,
EU mho  Ta so  hi  Ta si ; (27)
,
where m is the mass ow rate, ho and hi are the specic enthalpies,
at the outlet and the inlet of the PTC, respectively, and so and si are 3.3. Glass-shielded receiver and other congurations for the twisted
the specic entropies, at the outlet and the inlet, respectively.
, tape inserts
However, it is possible to calculate, the exergy delivered EU by
considering the useful energy ,
Qu at the temperature Tin. The overall heat loss coefcient could be improved by using a
Therefore PTC delivers exergy EU at a rate: glass-shielded receiver. If a concentric glass tube is considered
, ,
  around the receiver to reduce the heat losses where the space be-
Ta tween the receiver and the glass is usually evacuated and therefore
EU Q u 1  : (28)
Tin the convection losses are negligible, in this case, the global loss
The exergy destruction ED of the system is calculated by coefcient, UL based on the receiver area Ar, is given by Ref. [56].
considering its irreversibility I, established by the Gouy-Stodola " #1
theorem, Ar 1
UL   ; (35)
hw hr;ca Ac hr;rc
,
ED Ta Sgen I; (29)
instead of the previously proposed by Eq. (5), where hr,ca is the
and refers to the degraded useful energy when real processes are linearized radiation coefcient from cover to ambient estimated by
carried out. Eq. (6), Ac is the external area of glass cover, and hr,rc is the line-
On the other hand, the exergy efciency hII is dened by arized radiation coefcient from receiver to cover, given by Ref. [56],
 O.A. Jaramillo et al. / Renewable Energy 93 (2016) 125e141


s Tr2 Tc2 Tr Tc
hr;rc   ; (36)
1 Ar 1  1
r Ac c
where r and c are the emissivities of the receptor and the glass
cover, respectively, and Tr and Tc are the temperatures of the re-
ceptor and the glass cover, respectively.
To estimate hr,rc it is necessary calculate the temperature of the
glass cover, Tc. This temperature is closer to the ambient tempera-
ture than the receiver temperature.Tr. The estimation of the tem-
perature Tr can be carried out by considering Eq. (11) and the values
of Tc be obtained from Ref. [56],
 
Ar hr;rc Tr Ac hr;ca hw Ta
Tc   : (37)
Ar hr;rc Ac hr;ca hw
The procedure to nd Tc is by iteration, i.e., estimate UL from Eq.
(35) by considering an arbitrary value of Tc (close to Ta). Then, if Tc
obtained from Eq. (37) differs from original value, iterate. Usually,
no more than two iterations are required [56].
The theoretical framework developed in this section is based on
empirical correlations for the Nusselt number, NuD, (Eqs. (15) and
(16)), and for the friction factor, f (Eqs. (24) and (25)), either in
the presence or absence of the twisted tape insert. If other con-
gurations are considered for the twisted tape inserts, Eqs. (16) and
(25) can be modied by the most suitable empirical correlations.
For example: if the tube is tted with the counter-swirl ow gen-
erators [33], the Nusselt number is established by,

y 0:9
NuDCT 0:473Re0:66 Pr0:4 ; (38)
w where hI,TT is the thermal efciency of the receiver tube with
and the friction factor is dened by,

y 1:01
fCT 72:29Re0:53 : (39)
w ciencies calculated from the theoretical model are shown with the
or in the case where the tube is tted with the co-swirl ow gen-
erators [33], the Nusselt number is dened by,

y 0:61
NuDCoT 0:264Re0:66 Pr0:4 ; (40)
w
and the ction factor is calculated as,

y 0:84
fCoT 41:7Re0:52 : (41)
w tapes and tube wall for the rm attachment of the tapes to the tube
In the next section we show our results and a discussion about
the using of twisted tape insert in a parabolic trough concentrator
that operates a low temperature range and without the use of a
glass shielded receiver.
4. Results and discussion
In this section we present the experimental validation and the
numerical simulation of important thermodynamical quantities. In
particular, we perform an experimental validation of the PTC with
twisted tape insert in Subsection 4.1. We report the instantaneous
measured thermal efciency and compared it with the efciency
calculated from the theoretical model. Additionally we compared
the theoretical efciency of the PTC with the twisted tape insert
with the efciency of an empty PTC. In Subsection 4.2 we present
numerical simulations to show the behaviour of the most impor-
tant quantities of the system such as the Nusselt number, the
133
removal factor, the thermal efciency calculated by using the First
and the Second Law of Thermodynamics, the friction factor, and the
entropy generation number.
4.1. Experimental validation
In this subsection we validate the theoretical model with
experimental data. We consider the empty tube and a twisted tape
insert in order to evaluate the efciency of the PTC. We experi-
mentally evaluated the thermal performance of PTC at low-
temperature testing according to the ASHRAE 93-1986 (RA 91)
standard [55]. This standard is widely known and provides test
methods for determining the thermal efciency of a concentrating
collector (section 8.2.1.1).The experimental procedure imple-
mented in this work is the same as the one reported in Ref. [13].
The experimental evaluation of PTC was carried out in Temixco,
Morelos, Me
xico (18
500 21.8200 N, 99
140 07.5900 W, 1254 m.a.s.l.) by
using outdoor experimental measurements where the solar beam
radiation at noon was GB 865 W/m2, the ambient temperature
was Ta 20C+, and the wind velocity was Vv 2.3 m/s. It is
important to point out that during the evaluation process of the PTC,
it was rotated about a horizontal eastewest axis with an adjustment
in the northesouth plane in order to minimize the angle incidence.
Additionally, the PTC was evaluated under steady irradiation and
steady state uid ow rate during the experiment procedure.
Fig. 3 shows the thermal efciency and the enhancement factor
for the thermal efciency, dened as
hI;TT
DhI ; (42)
hI;E
twisted tape insert and hI,E is the thermal efciency of the empty
tube. The points show the instantaneous measured thermal ef-
ciency of the PTC with twisted tape insert (purple points) and of the
empty PTC (green points). On the other hand, the thermal ef-
straight lines for both cases. Additionally, as the green line shows,
the enhancement factor increases as DT/GB increases.
In order to implement the theoretical model we consider two
study cases: a) an empty receiver tube and, b) a receiver tube with a
twisted tape insert y/w 2. It is important to point out that the tube
of PTC was made of copper and the twisted tapes were made of
aluminium strip in order to validate the experimental results re-
ported in Ref. [33]. The twisted tapes were inserted at the core tube
along the tube providing sufcient contact surface between the
without the need of any extra tting.
In Table 5 we describe the main key features in the imple-
mentation of the theoretical model, corresponding to the thermo-
physical properties of saturated water at a pressure of 1.21 atm
(absolute pressure) and air at 20
C and an pressure of 1 atm. These
values were taken from Ref. [63] for averaged properties at the
operating range of 25e90
C.
In Table 6 we report the values of the theoretical thermal ef-
ciency, hI in (Eq. (3)), the heat removal factor, FR, in Eq. (19) and the
overall heat loss coefcient, UL, in Eq. (5), for both two study cases. As
it is shown in the results, the heat removal factor, FR, increase close to
3% while the overall heat loss coefcient, UL, decrease in about 1.5%
when the twisted tape insert is placed in the receiver tube.
The results show that it is possible to enhance the efciency
close to 3.5% when a twisted tape insert is used. Note that the
twisted tape insert inherently affects the performance of the heat
transfer in the absorber tube. If the heat removal rate is increased,
the average absorber temperature decreases and more useful heat
134 O.A. Jaramillo et al. / Renewable Energy 93 (2016) 125e141

Fig. 3. Comparisons of experimental data and predicted values from the theoretical model.

Table 5
Relevant values used into the modeling process.

Property Value Property Value

Density, rw 992.23kg/m3 Twist ratio, y/w 2

Dynamic viscosity, mw 0.653  103kg/ms Tape width, w 0.023 m
Heat capacity, Cp,w 4.1785 kJ/kg,K , 0.0331 kg/s
Mass ow rate, m
Kinematic viscosity, nw 0:659  106 ms
2 , 2.0l/min
Volumetric ow rate, V
Kinematic viscosity, nair 0:153  106 ms
2
Ambient temperature, Ta 20
C
Thermal diffusivity, aw 1:522  107 ms
2
Wind velocity, Vv 2.3 m/s
Thermal conductivity, k 380.5 W/m,K B 0.683
Thermal conductivity, kair 0.0263 W/m,K n 0.37
Thermal conductivity, kw 0.631 W/m,K mm 0.466

Values used in the modelling process.

is delivered. since it describes the ratio of convective to conductive heat transfer

across the receiver tube. We dene the enhancement factor for the
Nusselt number DNuD, which describes the activity when a twisted
4.2. Numerical simulations tape insert is used, as

Once the theoretical model is validated based on experimental

NuDTT
y 0:6
data, we carry out different simulations in order to compare the
DNuD 9:739Re0:14 ; (43)
behaviour of PTC when twisted tapes inserts are used with respect NuDE w
to the empty tube. For the numerical simulations we consider ve
different twist ratios (TR y/w 1,2,3,4,
,
and 5), that operate under where NuDTT corresponds to the Nusselt number when twisted tape
six different volumetric ow rates (V 1:0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0 and inserts are used and NuDE is the Nusselt number for the empty tube.
6.0 l/min). During the simulation the heat transfer rate and pres- Note that DNuD does not dependent on the Prandtl number because
sure drop are determined for fully developed conditions for the kinematic viscosity n and the thermal diffusivity a remain
different Reynolds numbers based on the tube diameter and mean practically constant in the presence of an empty tube or when the
ow velocity. twisted tape is inserted.
We begin by studying the behaviour of the Nusselt number, Fig. 4 shows the dependence of DNuD on the Reynolds number

Table 6
Theoretical values of the thermal efciency.
, Empty tube y/w 2 Variation
m 0:0331 kg
s

hI[] 0.5920092.33235DT/GB 0.6106552.37068DT/GB 3.5%

FR[] 0.8457 0.8723 3.1%

36.76 36.22 1.5%
UL mW2 K
 O.A. Jaramillo et al. / Renewable Energy 93 (2016) 125e141 135

Fig. 4. Enhancement factor for the Nusselt number, DNuD.

(Re), in the range of 1350e8350, and on the twist ratio (TR), in the Fig. 5 shows the behaviour of both the variation factor for the
range of 1e5. global loss coefcient, DUL, and the removal factor, DFR, as a func-
As it is shown in Fig. 4, the values of DNuD increase as the tion of the Reynolds number (Re), in the range of 1350e8350, and
Reynolds number and the twist ratio decrease. The results show the twist ratio (TR), in the range of 1e5.
that the highest value of DNuD is around 3.5 corresponding to a As it is shown in Fig. 5, the variation factor for the global loss
Reynolds number (Re) of 1350 and at a twist ratio equal to 1. Note as coefcient is diminished as the Reynolds number and the twist
the twist ratio increases, the increment of DNuD is neglected and ratio decrease, therefore the energy losses to the ambient are
indeed, it tends to 1. diminished by the using of the twisted tape inserts operating at low
On the other hand, the variation factor for the global loss coef- volumetric ow rate. The results show that the minimum value for
cient, DUL, calculated using twisted tape inserts with respect to the DUL is close to 0.96 and the variation of the values of DUL are
the empty tube, is dened by neglected for high twist ratios and high Reynolds numbers.
UL;TT In the same Fig. 5, the removal factor exhibits a similar to the
DUL (44) one of the Nusselt number. The values of DFR increase as the Rey-
UL:E
nolds number and the twist ratio decrease. By comparing the
and the enhancement factor for the removal factor DFR denes the behaviour between DFR and DNuD, it can be seen that DFR decreases
ratio of useful energy calculated using twisted tape inserts with faster than DNuD at the same Reynolds numbers and its behaviour
respect to the empty tube, is not linear. The results show that the highest value of DFR is close
! to 1.077 and the values of DFR are neglected for high twist ratios in
0 0
UL;TT FTT Ar 1 the same way that DNuD.
1  exp  , The enhancement factor of the thermal efciency DhI, which
FR;TT UL:E BB
mCp C
DFR @ !CA; (45) accounts for the increase in thermal efciency when the twisted
FR;E UL;TT U F A 0
tape is placed in the receiver tube of the PTC, is dened by,
1  exp  L;E, E r
mCp

where FR,TT is the heat removal factor when twisted tape inserts are
used and FR,E is the heat removal factor for the empty tube.

Fig. 5. Variation factor for the global loss coefcient, UL, and enhancement factor for the removal factor, DFR.
136 O.A. Jaramillo et al. / Renewable Energy 93 (2016) 125e141

Fig. 6. Thermal efciency, hI, and enhancement factor, DhI.

and includes the enhancement factor DhI for each thermal ,

ef-
   ciency. We consider 6 different volumetric ow rates (V 1:0, 2.0,
U
FR;TT ho  CL;TT Tin Ta 3.0, 4.0, 5.0 and 6.0 l/min), and 5 different twist ratios (TR y/
hI;TT o GB
w 1,2,3,4, and 5).
DhI    : (46)
hI;E UL;E Tin Ta As it is shown in Fig. 6, the thermal efciency, hI, is higher as the
FR;E ho  Co GB
twisted ratio gets closer to 1, regardless of the volumetric ow. On
the contrary, as the twisted ratio increases, the thermal efciency
Fig. 6 shows the thermal efciency, Eq. (3), for 30 study cases
 O.A. Jaramillo et al. / Renewable Energy 93 (2016) 125e141 137

Fig. 7. Change in the friction factor, Df.

decreases. Additionally, as the ow rate increases the efciency
increases, and at high ow rates the efciency becomes indepen-
dent of the twisted ratio. On the other hand, as it can be seen in
Fig. 6, the enhancement,
factor, DhI, is close to 9% in the case of a
volumetric ow rate V 1:0l=min and twist ratio y/w 1. The use
of twisted
,
tape inserts when the PTC operates at volumetric ow
rate V 1:0l=min shows an enhancement factor, DhI in the range of
9e4%. In the cases when the volumetric ow rate is in the range of
2e3 lpm, and taking into account twist ratios between 1 and 2, the
values of DhI are in the range of 5e3%. Moreover, as it is shown, in
the case of high volumetric ow rates and high twist ratios the
values of DhI are close to 1%, and therefore, in such conditions, there
are no advantages to using twisted tape inserts in order to enhance
the performance of the PTC.
It is important to point out that when a twisted tape insert is
used in the PTC, we must consider the change in the friction factor,
Df, which is dened by,
fTT
y 1:31
Df 173:936 Re0:261 : (47)
fE w
The change in the friction factor, Df, as a function of the Reynolds
number and the twisted ratio is shown in Fig. 7. Once again, we
encounter the same behaviour, the friction factor increases as the
Reynolds number and twisted ratio decreases. Indeed, the pressure
drop increases signicantly when a twisted tape insert is consid-
ered at both low Reynolds numbers and low twisted ratios. Note for
example that the value of fTT is close,
to 26 times the value of fE in
the case of a volumetric ow rate of V 1:0l=min, corresponding to
a Reynolds number of 1389.67, and a twist ratio of y/w 1. However
the values of Df drastically decrease for high twist ratios.
The enhancement factor, DhII, established by considering the
Second Law of Thermodynamics as follows,
,
cases corresponding to 6 different volumetric ow rates (V 1:0,
2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0 and 6.0 l/min), and 5 different twist ratios (TR y/
w 1,2,3,4, and 5). This gure shows the augmentation of DhII for
different volumetric ow rates and different twist ratios as function
of the three parameters dening the operating conditions: the solar
irradiance GB, i.e. (TinTa)/GB, the uid inlet temperature Tin, and the
ambient air temperature Ta. It is possible to consider two cases for
the values of DhII, one corresponding to values less than unity and
the other one corresponding to values greater than unity. For low
volumetric ow rates DhII is greater than one regardless of the twist
ratio. However for ow rates m_  3 the behaviour of DhII depends
on the twist ratio.
As it is shown in Figure 8, there are some values of the
enhancement factor, DhII, greater than unity, therefore there are
some advantages in the use of twisted tape inserts in order to
enhance the performance of the PTC. This behaviour is basically
established for small volumetric ow rates between 1 and 2 lpm.
Other combination of volumetric ow rates and twisted tape in-
serts that exhibit a DhII bigger than unity is for example by using
twist ratios between 1 and 2 at different ow rates. However, in
general, for cases where the Reynolds number is high combined
with high twist ratios the values of DhII are less than the unity, and
therefore there are no advantages to using the twisted tape inserts
in order to enhance the performance of the PTC.
On the other hand, the effect of the augmentation entropy on
the thermodynamic performance is evaluated by comparing the
entropy generation rate before and after implementing the twisted
tape inserts. The augmentation entropy generation number, NS,a, is
dened as [60],
  ,  
,
, , 3
Q 1  TTas  Q u;TT 1  TTina fTT 32 m l
Sgen;TT p2 r2 D5i
NS;a , ,   ,   , 3
:
Sgen;E Q 1  TTas  Q u;E 1  TTina fE 32 m l
p r D
2 2 5

,
  , 3
i

Q u;TT 1  Ta
 fTT 32 m l (49)
hII;TT Tin p2 r2 D5i
DhII   ; (48)
hII;E , , 3
where S_gen;TT is the generation rate when twisted tape insert is used
Q u;E 1  TTina  fE 32 m l
p2 r2 D5i and S_gen;E corresponds to the entropy generation rate for the empty
absorber tube. As the entropy generation number gets smaller, the
takes into account the exergetic behaviour of the PTC when a heat exchange process exhibits a better performance. Therefore, the
twisted tape is used in the receiver tube. entropy generation analysis due to uid ow and heat transfer
Fig. 8 shows the efciency calculated by the Second Law of evaluates the effectiveness of different congurations. Indeed, the
Thermodynamics, hII, and the enhancement factor, DhII for 30 study augmentation techniques yielding NS,a less than unity are
138 O.A. Jaramillo et al. / Renewable Energy 93 (2016) 125e141

Fig. 8. Second Law efciency, hII, and enhancement factor, DhII.

thermodynamically better since they enhance heat transfer and
reduce the irreversibility of the apparatus [60].
Fig. 9 shows the augmentation entropy generation numbers for
different volumetric ow rates and different twist ratios as function
of the three parameters dening the operating conditions: the solar
irradiance GB, i.e. (TinTa)/GB, the uid inlet temperature Tin, and the
ambient air temperature Ta. It is possible to consider two regions for
NS,a, one region corresponding to values less than unity and the
other one corresponding to values greater than unity.
As Fig. 9a shows, a volumetric ow rate between 1 and 2 liter per
minute, regardless of the twist ratio, allows to obtain a NS,a less than
unity. This region describes an enhancement in heat transfer and a
reduction in the irreversibility of the PTC. Note that the best con-
dition occurs, when the twist ratio is y/w 1 and the volumetric
ow rate is V 1:0 lpm. Note that Fig. 9b shows other combina-
tions of volumetric ow rates and twisted tape inserts that describe
 O.A. Jaramillo et al. / Renewable Energy 93 (2016) 125e141 139

Fig. 9. Augmentation entropy generation number, NS,a.

a NS,a less than the unity, for example, twist ratios between 1 and 2
and volumetric ow rates between 3 and 4 lpm.
On the other hand, as it can be seen in Fig. 9b, there is a region
with values of NS,a greater than unity, therefore there are no ad-
vantages to using twisted tape inserts in order to enhance the
performance of the PTC. This region is located for example at
volumetric ow rates between 4 and 6 lpm combined with twist
ratios between 4 and 5.
In Table 7 we summarize the behaviour of the augmentation
entropy generation number, NS,a for the different study cases.
It is clear that the overall heat loss coefcient could be improved
by using a glass-shielded receiver. However, considering the tem-
perature range in which the PTC operates (between 70 and 110
C),
we consider that augmenting the thermal availability by adding a
glass tube is not necessary. Reference [14] reports that the instan-
taneous thermal efciency for low temperature PTC's. As can be
seen in Fig. 10, the use of a glass shield does not translate into a
signicant increase in the efciency for temperatures under 100
C.
It should also be mentioned that the use of glass-shielded receivers
in developing countries represents an increase in the associated
costs given that such tubes are not fabricated locally and must be
imported. The use of twisted tape to enhance the thermal
140 O.A. Jaramillo et al. / Renewable Energy 93 (2016) 125e141

Table 7
Values of augmentation entropy generation number.

Twist ratio TR / y/w 1 y/w 2 y/w 3 y/w 4 y/w 5

, , Re[]
V l=min mkg=s

1.0 0.0165 1389.67 NS,a<1 NS,a<1 NS,a<1 NS,a<1 NS,a<1

2.0 0.0331 2779.34 NS,a<1 NS,a<1 NS,a<1 NS,a<1 NS,a<1
3.0 0.0496 4169.02 NS,a<1 NS,a<1 NS,a<1 NS,a<1 NS,a>1
4.0 0.0661 5538.69 NS,a<1 NS,a<1 NS,a<1 NS,a>1 NS,a>1
5.0 0.0827 6948.36 NS,a<1 NS,a<1 NS,a>1 NS,a>1 NS,a>1
6.0 0.0992 8338.03 NS,a<1 NS,a>1 NS,a>1 NS,a>1 NS,a>1

The bold values highlight the numbers bigger than unity.

performance of low-temperature PTCs can be a solution with a low
cost associated instead of using a glass-shielded receiver.
In the next section we present our main ndings about the use
of twisted tape inserts in order to enhance the efciency of a
parabolic trough solar collector for low enthalpy processes.
5. Conclusions
The thermodynamic model framework presented here allows to
describe a detailed simulation of a parabolic trough solar collector
for low enthalpy processes without changes of phase in the thermal
uid. The model allows to predict the thermal efciency and the
exergy efciency of a PTC when a twisted tape insert is used in
order to increase its performance.
The simulation results show that in the presence of a twisted
tape insert, the Nusselt number, the removal factor, the friction
factor and the thermal efciency increase with respect to the ones
associated to an empty tube, as both the twist ratio (y/w) and the
Reynolds number decrease. On the contrary, the results show these
quantities does not present an enhancement when the twist ratio
(y/w) increases.
From this work we can conclude that a twisted tape insert is a
good passive way to augment the heat transfer in a PTC only under
certain conditions. These optimal conditions to enhance the heat
transfer of the system correspond to a system with twist ratio close
to 1, and low Reynolds number corresponding to small ow rates of
the order of 1lpm. It is clear that typical twisted tape inserts
enhance heat exchange between the absorber tube surface and the
thermal uid by generating a swirling ow, but they also increase
Fig. 10. Thermal efciency of PTC (with glass-shielded and unshielded receivers) re-
ported in Ref. [14].
the pressure drop through the tube length. The analysis based on
the Second Law of Thermodynamics shows that the enhancement
of the exergy efciency takes place only under certain conditions
where the augmentation entropy generation number NS,a is less
than one. On the contrary, if NS,a is bigger than one it is not worth to
use the twisted tape insert. On the other hand, from our results, it is
clear that the thermal efciency increases as the volumetric ow
increases. Additionally, our results suggest that a minimum irre-
versibility rate may exist for a particular combinations of the twist
ratio y/w and the Reynolds number.
It is worth to keep shedding more light in these passive tech-
niques for heat transfer enhancement. For instance, in future work
it will be worth to perform a similar analysis with other kind of
inserts and study their effect in PTCs.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Ing. Jose
de Jess Quin~ ones Aguilar
for his technical assistance in the development of the experimental
device and evaluation. We thank also Dr. Maximiliano Valdez
Gonzalez for their technical support in the network management.
Mo
nica Borunda wish to thank Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tec-
nologa, CONACYT, support for her Cathedra Research Position with
ID 71557, and to Instituto de Investigaciones Ele
ctricas, IIE, for its
hospitality. This work was supported by PAPIIT-UNAM under the
project IT100514.
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