93 Phrasal verbs wh ich cannot be separated

Grammar Summary 9 .3.1 Verb + adv erb (no object)

9 .3 .2 Verb + adverb + preposition + object
1 Adjectives 94 O rdina ry verbs + prepos itionS
1.1 Order of adjectives 95 Verb check -list
1.2 Other points to notice about the order and use of adjectives 9.5.1 Verbs which ca n be sepa rated
1.3 Comparative and superlative of adjectives 9.5.2 Verbs which cannot be sepa rated
1.3.1 Form
1.3.2 Adject ives of one syl lable
1.3.3 Adjectives of more than one syllable
10 Prepositions

"""". of
10.1 10.11
2 Adverbs 10.2 er 10 .12 off
2.1 Form 10.3 between 10 .13 M
2.2 Comparative and superlative of adverbs 10.4 beyond 10.14 outo!
2.3 Position of adverbs and adve rb phrases in sentences 10.5 by 10 .15 since
2.4 Adverb or adjective? 10.6 excep t 10.16
'0
10.7
10.8
'0'
from
10.17
10.18
under
3 Articles until/till
3.1 Indefinite article (a/an) 3.4. 1 Meals 10.9 ;n 10.19 "P
3.2 Defin ite article (the) 3.4.2 Tran sport 10.10 into 10.20 wi th/without
3.3 No article (0) 3.4.3 Places
3.4 Changes of meaning
11 Relative clauses
11.1 Defin ing relative claus es
4 Condit ional sentences
4.1 Condi tional 1 11.1.1 Relative pronouns in defin ing claus es
4.2 Conditional 2 11.1.2 Leaving out the relative pronoun in defin ing clauses
4.3 Con ditional 3 11.1.3 Prepositions used with relative pronou ns in de finin9 clauses
11.2 Non -defin ing relative clauses
11.2. 1 Relativ e pronouns in no n-defining Clause s
5 Gerunds and infinitives 11.2.2 Prepositions used with relative pronouns in non-de fining clauses
5.1 Verbs followed by the gerund (or -;ng 100000l
11.3 Partic iple phrases
5.2 Verbs followed by the infinitive
5.2.1 Verb + infinitive with to
5.2.2 Verb + erect object + infinitive with to
5.2.3 Verb + direct objecl + infinitive w ithou t to 12 Reported speech
5.3 Ve rbs lollowed by eithe r the -ing form or the infinitive
12.1 Ten ses 12.2.4 Verb + for + -ing fonn
Other uses 01 the -ing form 12.1.1 Chang es 12.3 Reporti ng requests and orders
5A
55 Other uses of the infinitive 12.1.2 No changes 12.4 Reporting questions
12.2 Reporting statements 12.5 Reporting suggestions
12.2.1 Verb (+ that ) 12.6 Other points to notice about
6 Link words 12.2.2 Verb + pro noun/noun (+ that) reported speech
61 Wo rds exp ressing result 6.5 Words exp ressing time
12.2.3 Verb + infinitive
6.2 Words expressing reason 6.6 Words expressing condition
6.3 WordS expressing purpo se 6.7 Words express ing additional
6A Words expressing contrast information or reinforcing a poin t
13 Tense forms
13.1 Present forms 13.2.1 Past simp le
7 Modals 13.1.1 Present simple 13.2.2 used to and would
7.1 will 7.7 could 13.1.2 Present prog ressive 13.2.3 Past prcqresso e
7.2 shafl 7.8 must
13.1.3 Present pe rfect 13.2.4 Pas t pe rfect
7.3 woold 7.9 have (got) to 13. 1.4 Present pe rfect progreSSive 13.2.5 Past perfect progressive
7.4 """"d 7.10 ougllt to 13 .2 Pas t farms 13.3 Ta lking about the future
7.5 may and might 7.11 need
7.6 " n
14 Wishes, regrets and preferences
8 The passive 14.1 W ishes and regrets
8 .1 Most co mmon torms 14.2 Prefe rences
82 U,.
8 .3 Points to remem be r

15 Words that cause difficulties

9 Phrasal verbs 15.1 have 15.2 do and mese
91 Wha t is a phrasal verb? 15.1.1 Three bas ic uses of have 15.2.1 Mean ings of doand make
92 Phrasal verbs whic h can be separated 15.1.2 Other exp ressions using have 15.2.2 Other expressions using
9.2. 1 Verb + adverb + object 15.1.3 had better do and mak.e

162
 1 Adje ctives
1.1 Order of adjectives
several adjectives can be usee berore a noun in English. See p. 64 for
guide 10 the order in which they can be usee. In general we put the more
precise adject ive nearest the noun but il is not alwa ys easy 10decide
which is the most prec ise; a possible ord er wou ld be:
(1) (2)
determiner, your own opinions. dimensions (size, weight), age.
(5) (6) (7)
shape, co lou r, pla ce 01Ofigin , material, purpose .
Exampl es
- a Chinese silk wedding dress
- some short blue denim jeans
- an awful old staircaIp el
~ .2 Other points to notice about the order
and use of adjectives
Heis 1 metre 30 tall
2 I don't like living alone.
3 It's difficult 10read.
The instructio os are eas y to
follow.
48 She was worr ied about him.
He's a worried man,
b It's all very worryin g .
lt's a worrying time lor us all.
3 Comparative and superlative of
adjectives I> pp. 75, 87
.3.1 Form
! london is bigger than
Edinburg h.
l This armchair IS more
comforta ble than that wooden
seat.
This IS the bigge st factory in the
area.
I have many old books butlhis is
the most Interest ing.
a
(3) (4)
(8) (9)
Adjectiv es describing
measure ment come after the
measurement.
2 Some ececnvee (e.g. 81one,
afraid, alive, awake) com e alte r
t he ve rb, never be fore a noun.
3 A djectives are et tenfollowed by
an infinitive with to .
4a Adjective s end ing in -ec
come
atter a verb like be , seem or
before a nou n and describe a
person's fee lings.
b Ad jeclives endin g in ';ng come
alter a verb or before a nou n and
de scr ibe the pe rson or thing tha t
pr oduces those
feelings.
)
We form the comp arative by
1a ad ding -erto one- syllable
a djectives and to two-sylla ble
adjective s ending in -y
using more + two- and more
than two-syl1able adjective s +
tns n
We form the superlative by
2a add ing -est to one -sy lla ble
adjective s and to two-syllab le
adjective s ending in -y
usin g most + two- and more than
lwO-syila bie adjective s
3 He is a s slro ng as a ho rse. 3 W e use as + adjective + as for
He isn't as/so clever as his po sit ive compari sons or not
sister.
as / so + adjective + as for
negativ e comparis ons .
1.3.2 Adjectives of one syllable
If the adjective ends in two Exceptio n s
consona nts (e.g . -ng, -ra. -rm ) good better best
just add -er, -esno the adjec tive : bad worse worst
long longer longe st much/ma ny more most
hard harder hardest far farther farthesl
warm wa rme r warmest (used to de scribe distance but
2 If the adjective ends in one can al so mean 'a dd itional, extra'
vow el and on e co nsonant (e.g. e .g. furthet details. further
-in , -at , -at) doub le the informati on )
consona nt and add oar, -es t tc old older oldest
the adj ective: (used to describe obj ects and
ltlin thinner thinnest people)
tat fatter fattest old elder eldest
hot hotter acrresr Notice elder, el d esl are used
3 If the adjective ends in -e add -r,
before a nou n to talk about
fami ly relations hips but after a
-st to the adjec tive :
verb only older , oldest are
wide widar widest
pos sible (e.g. My olde r/elder
rud e rud er rudest
b rother. My brot her is oJder than
l am .)
1.3.3 Adjectives of more than one syllab le
I've never been happier than I If the adjective ends in y, change
am now. the y 10i and add -er , -esr 10 the
Friday the 13th is the adjective .
unluckie st d ay 01 the year in Exceptio n friendly , more
Britain. friendly, most fn'endly
2 Sally is cleverer/more c leve r 2 Some adjectives with two
than her brother. sy llab le s can form thei r
The common est/mos t compa rative and su perlative in
co m mo n cause o f road deaths two ways : either by addi ng -(e)r ,
is careless driving. (a)sr or by using more , most.
3 I find sci ence more interest ing 3 If the adjective has three (or
than the art s. mo re) syllables use more. most
He told me the mo st + the adjective .
extraord inary story.
2 Adv erbs
2.1 Form
quick quickly Adverbs can be formed from
slow s lo w ly adjectives by adding -/y.
2 careful carefully 2 The same rule applies to
beautiful beautifu lly adjective s whi ch end in I.
3 lucky luckil y 3 To for m ad verbs trom adj ective s
funny funnily ending in y, chang e they to ; and
4 He greeted me in a friendly add -Jy.
way. 4 To form adverbs from adjective s
She looked at me with a si lly ending in -Iy we use a phrase in
e xpressio n o n her f ace. 8 . . _way etc .

163
 5 W e arr ived rete.
Stand up straight.
He works very hard .
Don't walk so fast.
2.2 Comparative and superlative of
adverbs
She drives more carefu l ly than
her husband.
This is the most effic iently run
office in the area.
2 We arrived later than you.
He walked the fastest
2.3 Position of adverbs and adverb phrases
in sentences
1 He plays the piano well,
She sings beaU1ltu Ily .
2. Sh e's very clever.
I ca n hardly read it.
I don't quite und erstand.
0 I have enough money.
He's notlall enough to jo in the
police forc e,
They don't work hard enough.
3. He's com ing tomorrow.
0 Yesterday he wa s in Par is,
Today he's in Rome.
4. The magazine comes out
weekly.
We are paid monthly.
0 Every saturday w e go out.
se He never buys cig arettes.
He always makes his own.
0 She is always late.
0 They have never ctteeed to
help.
W e ar e etten being asked for
infOfTllation 01 this kind.
6 Sit do wn there .
He we nt to the c inema In the
High Street in town .
Put me book on the tab le in the
dining room .
164
5 Some adj ect ives do not change
w hen they be co me adverbs.
Notice lately and hardly have a
different me aning fro m late and
hard : lately = recen tly, hardl y =
scarce ly.
We usually form the
comparative and superlative by
u sing more, most + adverb.
2 Adverbs wit h the same form as
adjectives form their
co mparativ e and superlative
wit h oar , -est.
Notice some exceptions to
these two ru la s
well bertar best
ba dly worsa worst
littl a less least
much more most
Adverns which tell us 'how'
usually come in the end position.
2. Adverbs which tell us 'to w hat
extent or to what d egr ee' us ually
come in the middle positio n.
0 Notice enough co me s before a
noun and after an adjective or
adverb.
3. Adverbs wh ich tell us 'when '
usu ally come in the end position.
0 They can come at the beg inning
for special emphasis.
ea Adv erbs which tell us 'how often'
usually com e in the end posi tion.
0 Phrases lik e e very week, every
Saturday can also come at the
begin ning ot a se nte nce.
5. Adverbs which 'do not te ll us
exactly w hen ' usually co me
before a one-word verb,
0 II the verb is be they always
lollow the verb.
c II it is a two- (o r more) word verb
they come after the firs t part 01
the vern.
6 Adverbs and adverb phrases
which tell us 'where' usually
come in the end position with lt1e
direction (to the cinema )
me ntioned first and the places
second (sm aller places com e
bef ore larger ones).
7 He reads his newspaper
quickly at the breakfast table
every morning.
2.4 Adverb or adjective?
That smells good, but it tastes
awful.
3 Articles
3.1 Indefinite article (a/an )
You will need a pen and an
exercise book.
2 The re was a terrib le storm last
night. The storm swept across
the w hole country.
3 A milli on people received ou r
hel p last year. A few, however,
w ere not so lucky,
4 We come to classe s twice a
week .
5 She's a lorry-driver.
He' s an old-age pensioner.
3.2 Definite article (the)
Jane: A man phoned last night.
Pe ter; Well, w hat did the man
want?
2 Las t night I read the book you
recommended.
3 The sun rises in the eas t and
sets in the west.
7 Adverbs an d adv erb p hrases
wh ich te ll us 'how , wh ere and
when' usuall y come in tha t order
in the sente nce (e.g. how =
quic kly, w here = at the
breakfasf table , w hen = eve!)'
momlng).
Notice If the verb is seem,
appear , look, sound, feel, smeH
or taste we use an adjeCli'ffl not
an adverb.
Use wit h sing ular coun table
roc ns
for more general meaning (it
doesn't m atter wh ich pen).
Notice an is used before a word
that beg ins w ith a vowel sound
(e.g. an hour , an hair, an MP but
a university ),
2 for a noun mentioned for the ~fSt
tim e. Notice we use the Jor the
second men tio n.
3 with n umber s (e.g. a hundred , a
thousand, a million ) and
nacuons (e.q. a hall, a quarter
etc. ).
Notice
a few (pe ople) = some
a little (help) = some
but
o few (peo p le) = not many
0/ittle (he lp) = not much
4 to mean 'e very' with
expressions 01 time (e,g. once a
year)
5 to describe a per son's jo b or
situati on
Use wit h mos t nouns for more
specific meaning
to refer back 10 something
already me ntioned
2 when we know wh ich one we
are talking about
3 when we refer to on ly one of its
kind

4 The computer has
revolutionized office systems.
5 You can buy th e best pizzas In
town at Paulo's,
6 The British and the French
agreed to build a channeltunnel.
The strong should help t he
weak.
7 I live in the United States/the
Nether1andslthe Fa lklalldS/the
wesuonesane Phllippineslthe
USSR.
8 Paris lies on the Seine.
Th e Atlantic se pa rates Britai n
from A merica.
II' s very hot in t h e
Mediterranean al the moment
3.3 No article (0)
1a 0 Museums are interesting
c places.
b 13 Sound travels very fast in
o water.
za I live in 13 RomeJI3 Percy Road!
13 China/a Jersey/near 13 Lake
Windermere.
b I shopat e Harrods,
c I read 0 Punch .
d The Queen lives in Cl
Buckingham Palace .
e He went to 13 Sheffield
University.
3a 13 MAN FOUND DEAD ON 0
TUBE
b Send 13 rep resentativ e
imm ediately,
c a Dinner in 0 oven.
4 You will need a knife and 13 forle..
Take a bucket and 0 spade to
the beach.
Notice th ese other uses of !fie
4 wi th sin gu lar countabl e nou ns
w hen they stand for an invenlion
or a species
5 with a su perlative (the first, the
most enjoyable )
6 with adj ectives as plural nouns
7 w ith the names 01 co untries or
groups of islands w hich are
plural. Noti ce these
e xceptions The Unit ed
Kingdom, The Yamen
8 with names of rivers, oce ans
and seas
We do not use an article
1a with plural countabl e nouns and
b with uncount able nouns when
speaking about the noun in
gen 6f"81 (e .g. lood , mus ic. love,
eta]. Compare I hate the sound
of a drill (a part icu lar sou nd).
Notice a few uncountable noun s
(e.g. advice, news, luggage,
information, research) requ ire a
ph rase like a/the bit of or a/ the
piece of to refer to a particu lar
example of tha t noun: a bit of
ad vic e, the piece of news
2 w ith the names of most
a towns/cities, streets, countries,
sing leJindividual island s, lake s
b shops
c magazines. Notice these
exceptions The Economist, The
Ustener and mo st newspapers
(The TllTles, The Daily Mall)
d nam ed buildings
e na med institutions (e.g.
u niversit ies , schools, church es,
etc .)
aa for news paper hea dli nes
b for telexes (wh ere the message
sh ould be as short as po ssible)
c lor personal , informal messages
4 before a second noun in a link ed
pa ir of nouns
3.4 Changes of meaning
Sometimes the use (or omission 0) of t he article ch anges the mea ning 01
what we say.
3.4.1 Meals
A dinner was he ld last night at a/an or the lor particu lar mea ls
the Savoy. 2 no artiCle (0) for rreammes in
The dinner we had last night
g eneral
was marvellous.
2 Com e to 0 dinl'\Elfn ext Saturd ay.
W hat time d o you have 0
bre akfast ?
3.4.2 Transport
I hailed a taxi but it didn't stop. a/an or the l or pencorar forms
The six o'clock train w as len of t ran sport
minu tes ea rly .
2 no article (0) for the form of
2 I always travel by Gbus. transport in gen eral
I came here on 0 foot.
3.4.3 Places
The meeting was held in a a /a n or the to rerer to a
school. particu lar or known place or
The workme n are b usy in the bui lding
church repairing the roof.
2 He's at 0 university (stud ying), 2 no article (0) to refe r to th e
She's in 0 hospital (receiving norma l act ivity which goes on at
tre atment), a place Of building
He's in 0 prisof'I (serving a
sentence).
4 Conditional sentences
Both if and unless ( 0= if . . . nol) can be used to int roduce ccnomcnar
sentences. Th e if-clause can come before or afte r the main (or ' resu lt')
clause. Notice we often use a com ma when the if -elause com es first.
4. f Condilional 1 ..::> [> pp. 51, 57
U"
t a It you take drugs regularly , you 1a for ge ne ral facts that do not
become addi cted to the m. change
b II yo u mix the colours blue and b lor scientifi c rects.
red. you get purple. No tIce the verbs in both parts of
the sen tences are in the
2 If you work hard, you' ll get a
p resent.
goodjob.
Unless you study, you won 't 2 mai nly lor Mure po ssibilities .
pass your exams. Notice t he verbs afte r if and
1"11 expfaln it again if you don't unless are in the present but the
understand . verbs in the 're sult' part of the
sent ence are in the future.
,.5
4.2 Conditional 2l I> pp.51, 57 manage
mea n
promise
refuse
u" offer
plan
see m
threate n
1, If I had a million pounds. I for 'unreal' or improb able
would buy a yacht. " co nditio ns in the present or prepa re
If he knew the ans wer, he future
wou ldn't tell me.
b lor givi ng advice and
If Mary were here now, she
would drive me horne.
suggestions.
Notice the verbs after if are in
5.2.2 Verb + direct object + infinitive with to
b If I were you. I wou ldn't marry the pa st but the verbs in the He advised me to ta ke the Some ve rbs hav e a direc1object
him. ' res ult' pa rt of the sentence are exam. before the infinitiv e w ith 10. Here
in the pres ent cond itional. They persuaded me 10 stay lor are some of the most common :
a lew days. advise persuade
allow remind
encourag e teac h
4.3 .Conditional 3 I> p. 147 force tell
invite wa rn
U..
t a We wou ld have gone abroad 1a for 'unreal' or im possi ble oro"
for our holidays If we hadn 't conditions in It1e past
bought a new car
b 10 imply reg ret
b If wehadn'tset out late, we
c to imply criticism .
wou ldn't have been caught in
Notice th e verbs after if are in
tnartrarnc jam. the past pe rfect but the verbs in
Som e verbs have a direct obj ect
before the infin itiv e without to.
c If you had li stened to your the ' res ult' part 01the sentence
Here are some of the most
father. you wouldn 't have are in the perf ect conditional.
made so many mistakes. ,,,,,
common :
'01
he" make

''''
Notice heal and see can be
5 Gerunds and infinitives I> pp. 85, 89 fol lowed by the -ing form to
e xpress hearing Of seei ng only
5.1 Verbs followed by the gerund (or -ing part o f an actio n (e .9. comp are I
heard him singing in the ba th.)
form)
I can't stand waiting in queues. Som e verbs are fo llowed by the
We considered bu ying a .-ing form. Here are som e al tha 5.3 Verbs followed by either the -ing form
house in the coun tryside, but we mos t common :
enjoy being in the town too appreciate kee p (on) or the infinitive I> p. 89
much. avoid loo k fo rwa rd 10
I miss living abroad. can', help mention Some ve rbs take either the -ing
can 't stand mind He con ti nue d worklngllo work form or the infinitive.
co nsider miss after everybody else had left the Sometimes the re is very little
deny object to office, difference in meaning.
dislike practise 2a I like going to the cinema. 2a W hen verbs like can 't bear, like,
enjoy put off She loves dancing. love, hate, prefer are follo wed
feel like risk
by the -ing form , they tend to
b I like to go to the cinema once a
ftnish sugg est refer to a general act ivity
week.
give up be/get used 10
She w ould love to dan ce the b but w hen thes e verbs are
imagine be worth
samba with you. fo llowed by the infinit ive, they
3a I began sludyin glto stu d y in tend to refer to partic ula r
1984. occasions.
I started wr iting/to w rite when I 3a begin and start ca n la ke either
5.2 Verbs followed by the infinitive was very young. the -ing form or the infi nitiv e
b I began t o see that something
5.2.1 Verb + infinitive with to was wrong.
b b ut before a verb expressing
understand ing (see, realize )
I st art ed t o r ealiz e what he had thes e verbs are fol low ed by the
We can ', afford to have a So me verbs are followed by the done lor me. Infin itive.
holiday this year. in ftnitive wiU\lQ.. Here are some
We decided to get mameo. of the most conimon:
I managed to find another aftOfd forget
glass to replace the one I broke, appear happe n
arrange hope
d ecide intend
fail learn

166
4a He stop ped smoking last
.....eek.
He remem bers going to the
seaside when he was a child.
He'll never lorget eating raw
fish !Of the first lime .
b He stop ped the car to pick up a
hitctl-hiker.
Heremembe red to post the
letters.
sa I tried to phone you several
timesbut t couldn't get through .
b 1trlecl worll.lng in a shOP, but it
dic!n'Unterest me.
6 Yourhair needs cunlng.
The garden wants weed ing.
5.4 Other uses of the -ing form
1 Walking is good for you.
2 Aller w.lklng to worK, I'm ready
iosn at my desk all day.
3 I'mafraidof missIn g the train .
He's good at telling others w hat
do.
5.5 Other uses of the infinitive
1 Icame here to study English .
2 Shedoesn'tknowwhaltodo
nen.
Canyou explain howto do it?
4 With verbs like stop, remember,
not forget, regret
a the -ing form refers to what
happ enslhappened before th e
mai n verb e.g. first he smoked,
then he stopped; first he went to
the seaside, now he rem em ber s
me event first he ate the raw
fish , now he remembe rs the
event (never forge t = always
rem ember)
b the infin itiv e refe rs to what
ha ppenslh appeoed after the
ma in verb e.g . first he stopped
the car , then he picked up a
hitch-hiker ; first he rem embered
abo ut the letters, then he post ed
them
5 try can take either the -ing form
or the infinitiv e but
a it is fo llowed by an infinitive
when we mean '10 attempt to do
something '
b it is followed by the -ing form
when we mean 'to experimen t'
6 need and wan/can be followed
by either the -ing form or the
infiniti ve but when they are
follo wed by the -ing form the
me aning is always passive ,
The -ing form is also used
as the subject of a cl ause or
sentence
2 lollowing time wo rds like after,
before , when , since, while
3 after certain adjectives +
prepositions. Here are some of
the most common:
afra id 01 good at
bad at kee n on
bo red wilh inter ested in
clev er at tired 01
lond of worried abou t
The infinitive is also used
to express purpose
t> GS 6.3
2 after who. what , where, ho w ,
w hether and verbs like know,
exp lain , wonder , No tice the
infi nitive is r ot used in this way
after why.
6 Link words
6.1 Wo rds exp ressi ng result
He w as so tired that he werstc so + adjective/a dverb + that )
" bed early.
He spoke Russian so we ll that
1a
~
cl ause
~
b such + noun + thaI +
eve ryone Ihought he wa s
Ru ssian,
I...- clause )
Notice thai can belelt out in
b It wa s such a difficult exam informal speech.
(th at) he knew he wou ldn 't pass
Z:-so+ cla us i )
it.
3a as a result, consequently , can
2 II was tete , so he decided to beg in a new sentence .
take a taxi home,
,. We have invested too mu ch
mon ey in this project.
b and, as a result, is used in the
middle of a sent e nce.
Consequently. we are in
ftnancial difficulties. 4 therefore o ften co mes in the
middle 01 a sent ence (it can also
b His wife left him and, as a oom e at th e beg inning or the
result, he became very
end) .
depr ess ed .
4 We feel, the refore, that a
decision must be mad e.
6.2 Words expressing reason
Seeing that/Since/As we since, as, seeing that + clause
arriv ed late, all the best se ats etten come before the main
had been take n, clau se.
2 We couldn'llind a good seal 2 because + clause usu ally
because all the eest ones had comes after the main clause.
be en taken .
3 because of, as a result 01, owing
3 We w ere unable to go by train to and due to are follo wed by a
because of the rail strike . noun or noun ph rase.
Ma ny of the deaths of older Notice due to means 'caused
people are due to he art attac ks. by ' or ' res ulting from '.
6.3 Words expressing purpose
We came to Ihe co untryside to We can usethe infinitives to (do),
find some peace and quiet. in order (not) to (do) , so as (not)
Handle the flowers ca re fully In to (do) to express purpo se .
order not to damage them , Notice in order to, so as to are
morelorm al.
2 He chose Ihis university so
that/In order that he could 2 so that , in order that + clau se
study Physics. (o fte n wilh the verbs c an, cou ld,
might, w ouid in the clause)
6.4 Words expressing contrast
Although/Even IflEven though although , even if, even though
the car is old, it is snu reliable. + clause can come before or
after the main clause.
2a Despite/In spite of the rain, I
wen t lor a wa lk.
b We enjoyed ou r w alking ho liday
~ -
Notice even though is more
despitet1n spite of the fact that
28 despite, in spir e of + a noun Of
no un ph rase Of jng lorm
it wa s tiring ,
b de sp ite the fact that, in spite of
the fact that + clause
167
3a Buying a house is expensive, It
is, however, a good investment.
3a however can come at the
b It's a big decision to make,
though,
4 John is very rich butlwhilel
whereas his friends are
extremely poor.
S On the one hand lhese
computers are expensive.
On the other hand they are
exactly what we want.
6.5 Words expressing time
WhenlWhile/As I was driving
along the road, I saw a terrible
accident.
He went out after he'd finished
work.
2 Whenever/Every time I see
him, he's driving a different car.
3 First he closed all the windows,
then he locked the doors, Later
he came back to check that
everything was all right.
4 During/All through the summer
we get a lot of visitors,
It rained heavily throughout the
night.
6.6 Words expressing condition
I> p.153 and GS4
Even if you are born rich, life is
still difficult.
You can borrow the car as long
as you're careful with it!
You can't corns with me unless
you promise to keep quiet.
2 I don't know whether you have
met him or not.
a They discussed whether they
should attend the Games.
b II depends on whether the
government takes any action.
The organizers wi ll decide
whether to impose fines.
3 Take this umbrella in case it
rains.
In case of emergency, break
the glass.
168
beginn ing, in the middle or et the
end of a sentence.
b though is more informal and
comes at the end of a sentence.
4 bur, while , whereas are usually
placed in the middle of two main
clauses express ing contrast ing
ideas.
S on the one hand and on the
other hand can be used at the
beginning, in the middle or at the
en d of two sentences
expressing contrast ing ideas.
Notice on the other hand is
often used at the beginning of
the second sentence,
when, while , as and after + there is a ve rb in the second part
clause can come before or atter
the main clause. I> GS 5.4
2 whenever, every time + clause
often come before the main
clause for added emphasis.
3 first, then, later, etc. can be used
to introduce a cha in of
events.
4 during, all through and
throughout are followed by a
noun or a noun phrase.
even if, as long as and unless +
clause can be used before or
after the main clause.
Notice unless means if . . . nor
2 whether + clause usually
comes after the main clause and
is often used in indirect
questions w ith .. . or not.
a Certain ve rbs (e.g. discuss) can
be fo llowed by whether but not
if.
b After prepositions and before to
infinitives use whether but not if.
c- GS 12.4
3 in case + clause usually comes
after the ma in clause.
Notice in case of + noun (often
used in formal written notices)
6 .7 Words expressing additional
information or reinforcing a point
ta I don't really want to go out
tonight. Besides, there's a good
film on TV.
We are still waiting for the goods
we ordered three months ago.
Fu rt h erm ore, we have been
ove rcharged for our last order.
b This theory about the origins of
the universe is new. it is,
m oreo ver , extremely
interesting.
2a The pa inting is not only
valuable but also a work 01 art.
She not only writes novels but
(she) lectu res as well.
The house was not only large
but (was/it was) also modern.
b Not only is rhe restaurant
superb but it is also expensive.
3 They robbed a bank as well as
a post office.
As well as being sent to prison,
they were fined 2,000.
4 They like Indian food. I like
Indian food toolas well.
They aren't very generous
people. They haven't got any
friends either,
7 Modals [> p. 137
will, shall, would, should, may, might, can, could, must,
have (got) to, ought to, need
7.1 will
1 It'll be raining tomorrow.
2 Nothing on TV. I'll go to the
cinema instead.
3 Will you sit down, please?
I won't go with you.
4 I'll take you to the cinema.
5 Cou ld you lend me 1?
Of course I will.
6 You will start work at 8 on
'Monday.
7 I will not be treated in this way.
1a besides, in addition (10 that) and
furthermore can be used at the
beginning of the sentence
fo llow ing the first statement
made. Notice besides is less
formal, furthermore is more
formal.
b moreover can be used at the
beginning or in the middle of the
sentence which gives additional
informat ion ,
2a not oniy ... but euo/es well can
link two sentences, phrases or
words to give add itional
information. No tice but also are
used together when there is no
subject pronoun and verb in the
second part of the sentence. but
. .. also are separated when
of the sentence.
b Not only can come at the
beginning of the first part of the
sentence to emphasize what the
speaker is saying. In this case it
is necessary to change the order
of the subject and verb. In
sen tences like these the subject
pronoun and verb in the second
part of the sentence are usua lly
mentioned and but . . . also are
separated.
3 as well as can be fo llowed by a
sing le word, a phrase or . ,-ing.
4 too, as weli and not either are
inform al and usually come at the
end of the sentence which gives
additional information.
will is used to express.
a prediction about the
future c- GS 13.3
2 a decision made while you are
speaking
3 a request or a refusa l
4 a promise
5 wi llingness
6 an order
7 determination
7.2 shall
1 We shall send you the
information as soon as possible.
2 Shall we go out for a meal
tonight?
3 Shall I carry that case for you?
4 No pupil shall enter the library
without the permission of a
teacher.
7.3 would
I'd like to go now.
I wish you wouldn't smoke so
much.
2 I would move house if I had the
money,
3 Would you type this for me,
please?
4 I'd rather have tea than coffee.
5 Will you ring me?
He asked if I would ring him.
6 He would sing at the top of his
voice in the shower.
7.4 should
t I should really help my mother
with the dishes (but I won't).
2 You should study harder.
3 We should be taking off in a few
minutes.
4 I/We should be most grateful if
you could send us a copy of the
agreement.
5 I should have told you but I
forgot.
7.5 may and might
1 He may/might be the new
teacher.
2 He may/might be late this
evening.
3 May/Mig ht I ask a question?
4 They may/mig ht have been
held up in the traffic.
shall is used to express
the fut ure (in the sa me way as
will but only with I and w e)
2 a sug gestion
3 an offer
4 Notice shall is occ asionally
used in very forma l (wr itten)
orders.
would is used to express
a wis h (some times suggesting
annoya nce or disapproval)
e- GS 14.1
2 the 'result' part of a cond itional
sentence > GS 4.2 -4.3
3 a po lite req uest
4 a preference w ith rather
t> GS 14.2
5 th e reporti ng of will
c- GS 12.1.1
6 a habit in the pas t
c- GS 13.2.2
should is used to expre ss
an obl iga tion (which you may
not carry out)
2 adv ice
3 so meth ing that will almost
ce rtainly happen as long as
not hing unexpected preven ts it
4 conditional senten ces in more
forma llwrillen style w ith I and we
5 (with the pertect infi nitive) an
obligation which was no t carri ed
0",
m ay and mig ht are used to
express
1 a possibi lity now
2 a possibility in th e future.
Notice might is rather less
certain than may in meaning.
3 asking for permission.
Notice may is more common
than might here an d can is ofte n
us ed i nstead of may.
4 (w ith the pertect infin itive) a
poss ible exp lanation for
somethin g in the past
7.6 can
1 I can ski/drive a car .
2 I'm free tomorrow. I can drive
you 10 the airport.
3 Can I go now?
4 Can you come to the party?
5 You can't be tiredl You've been
asleep al l morning.
6 You can't have been pleased
when you real ized what he had
done!
7.7 could
When I was six I could play the
plano.
2 When I was younger I could
drive for hours w ithout a break.
3 Could I use your phone?
4 Could he be right?
5 They couldn't have phoned her.
sne.teeo't got a phone!
7.8 must c- pp. 13, 133
1 I must wash my hair ton ight.
2 The work must be done befo re
tomorrow.
3 You must not smoke in here.
4 You must be exhausted after all
that work.
5 You must have been surprised
when she said she was gelling
married.
7.9 have (got) to
rve got to/have t o be on time
tomorrow.
We haven't got to/don 't have
to do it if we don 't want to.
can IS usee 10 express
1 know ing how 10do something
2 being able 10do something
3 asking for permission (used
informally instead of may)
4 a possibility
5 an unlikely explanation for
something now: It 's impossible
for you to be tired .
6 (wit h the perfect infinit ive) an
unlikely e xp lanation for
something in the past : It wesot
possible for you to be pleased.
could is used to express
know ing how to do som ething in
the past
2 being ab le to do something in
the p ast
3 asking for pe rmission (used
informally instead of may but
ra the r more po lite than can )
4 a possibi lity (rather less strong
than can)
5 (with the pertect infinitive) an
unlikely explanation lor
something in the past: It wasnt
possible for them to phone her.
must is used to exp ress
a pe rsonal ob ligation
2 wh at you consider to be
someone else's
obl igatio n
3 (with not) what is not
allowed
4 a reasonable conc lusion made
about something now
5 (with the perfect infinitive) a
reasonable co nc lusion about
something in the
past
have (got) to is used to ex press
w hat is or isn' t necessary
c- GS 15.1.1
169

7.10 oughtto
1 I reallyoughtto goand see her.
2 I ought to have gone 10see her
but! was busy.
7.11 need
You needn't shout. I can hear
you.
You needn't bring anything to
the party.
2 Need I take anything to the
party?
Need you ask that question?
3 You needn't have phoned. I
already knew you were coming.
8 The passive
8.1 Most common forms
It h
" as been
will be
was
This toy Is made in Japan.
A strange object has been seen
in the night sky.
Further information will be
given in our next news bulletin.
This report was prepared by a
team of experts.
8.2 Use
Five policemen have been
killed in Northern Ireland.
The water was heated and a
solution of chemicals was
prepared.
170
ought to is used to express
an obligation (which you mayor
may not carry out)
2 (with the perfect infinitive) an
obligation which you did not
carry out.
Notice ought to is rather
stronger than should.
needn't is usedhereas a modal
verb.
2 There is also a question form,
constructed in the same way as
questions with can, must and
other models.
3 needn '( with the perfect infinitive
expresses the idea that
something in the past was not
necessarybut it was done.
Compare the ordinary verb
need:
You don't need to shout. I can
hear you.
Do I need to take anything to the
party?
You didn't need to phone. J
already knew you were coming.
e- p. 131
done
seen
reported
The passive is formed by using
a form of be (is, has been, will
be, was, etc.) + the past
participle of the verb (made,
seen, given , prepared) .
Notice when the person or thing
responsible for the action (the
agent) Is mentioned, use the
preposition by .
The passive is used
when the agent is unknown
(we may not know who ki lled the
policemen) or not important.
Notice the passive is often used
in newspaper reports and in
scientific experiments or
processes.
2 to make the object of the active
2 A description of the gunman
verb more important (atlention
was Issued by the police.
is drawn to the description of
3 A charity record has been made
the gunman rather than who
by many famous names in the
Issued It)
world of pop music.
3 when the description of the
agent is very long (many famous
names in the world of pop
music)
8.3 Points to remember
The pa inting should be Use be + past participle after
finished by next week. should and other modals.
C> GS 7
2 The decorating would have
been finished but I ran out of 2 Use been + past participle after
paint. would have, should have, etc.
C> GS7
3 Mother Teresa was awarded
the Nobel Peace Prize. 3 Verbs with two objects which
The Nobel Peace Prize was can form two types of active
awarded to Mother Teresa. sentence can also form two
types of passive sentence.
4 I got stuck In a trattlc jam.
She Is getting married next 4 get + past participle is
month. sometimes used instead of be
with passive meaning.
Sa It Is thought that he started the
Expressions with get are often
fire deliberately.
used in informal English.
b He Is thought to have started
5 The passive is used in
the fire deliberately.
constructions with verbs like
6a He had/got his hair cut think , believe, say, consider,
yesterday, feel, find, know, understand
b He had his car stolen, a after the introductory it
7 This job needs/wants doing. b before an infinitive
6 have/get something done
expresses the idea of
a arranging for or paying for
somebody to do something for
you. Notice get is more
informal.
C> GS 15.1.1
b experiencing something
7 After need, want the -ing form
can be used w ith passive
meaning. C> GS 5.3
9 Phrasal verbs
9.1 What is a phrasal verb?
A phrasal verb cons ists of a verb plus one or two words like
on, up, into, etc.
2 The words which come after the verb are usually adverbs, although
sometimes a phrasal verb can consist of verb + adverb + preposition.
3 When an ordinary verb is followed by a preposition, the meaning of the
verb will usually be clear from the meanings of the individual parts of the
verb . In the case of a phrasal verb, however, the parts of the phrasal
verb together have one basic meaning which may be comp letely
diNerent from their ind ividual meanings,
 Ordi nary ver b s + preposition s Phra sa l v ertls Call Have
I looked in to the mirror . The police are /ooIdng into tM cal l , off - cercet hav e .. . in! - receiv e as
murder. ca ll . . . up - take~ e "'und guests
into the army Hold
She ran out of the room crying. We ranout of money on holiday.
No tice these verbs ch ange thei r Ca"., hold back - res train
meaning when adverbs and carry . . ou t - finish , perform hold up - delay
prepo sitions ere added e.g. look - rob (a bank)
a duty
into (a murd er) invest igate; Kaa p
f un out of (mone y) = have none Ch eck
left. keep . . . back -not tell
check .. . in - present your
(Irom) something .
tickeVluggage
keepsecrel
er an airport
keep . .. down - retain in the
check . . . ouV - make sute
9.2 Phrasal verbs which can be separated over eve rything is
stomach
- control
as it shOuld be
keep . , in - not allow out
9.2.1 Verb + adverb + object C lear
Knock
He looked a word up in the clea r .. . up - make tidy
II the object is a noun it can knock . - make fall
dictionary . co me before or afte r the adverb. Co unt do wn/ove r
He looked up a word in the knock . . . ou t - make lose
2 If the objecl is a pronoun (e.g, it) co unt, .. in - inc lude
dictionary, consciousness
it mu st co me before the co un t, . out - not inclu de
2 He loo ked it up, ad verb. coun t ... up -add up L.ea ve

Cross lea ve . . oct - om it

cross... cot -put a line LeI
9.3 Phrasal verbs which cannot be throug h leI. . . down - nOIkeep a
promi se
separated CuI
let. in - allow to come in
cu t. . . oft - disconnect (00 let . . ollloot - allow 10go Iree
9.3.1 Verb + adverb (no object) the phone)
Look
-make
unavailable loo k .. . over -exam ine
They ca lle d In to see us. You can not sepa rate the two
The plans le l l th rough . pa rts 01 the verb. You cannot
cut., .out - rem ov e w ith close ly
scissors look, , up - sea rch lo r and
They turned up unexpec tedly . say 'T hey called to se e us in' .
cut . up - divide into find in a book
part, or lisl
Make
9.3.2 Verb + adverb + preposit ion + object Do
make . . . out - see dearty
do . . out 01 - cheal, stop
We dropped In on the Smiths . - wri te in certai n
Even when the Object is a from having
We dr opped In o n mem. details
pronoun it must come atter the
Draw make .. . up - invent in order
adverb + prepo sition .
draw .. . out - l ake mon ey 10 deceive
(00101 the - Iorget your
bank ) differences!
9.4 Ordinary verbs + prepositions Gel Pass
anger

The boy ran over the bridg e. Th e object mus l come atter the get , . across - explain what pass . . off - pretend to be
He stepped over l he puddle. verb + preposition , ev en you mean (as)
He steeped ove r It. when it is a pronoun. get ... back - rega in
possession 01
Pay
get , down - write down pay . . . back - return
- depress , make something
unhappy borrowed
9.5 Verb check- list G Ive Pick

give , . aw ay - betray , revea l pick .. . 'P - go and collect

9.5.1 Verbs which can be separated
Back Br ing
,,,
- not ta ke mo ney - take hold of
and lift
give , , . back -return Pull
back.. up - support bring , erect - ca use give , . out -distribute pu ll " down - de molish
Break bring back - return give .. up -Slop doing pu ll. . . off - succeed in
bring off - succeed in
break ... off - bring to an end Hand do ing
oo;ng
(talks, Put
bring out - ma ke clear hand , , in - present
engagement)
bring rouod- help to rega in something put .. . off - net da
break . , up - smash to
consciousness official something al
pieces
bring . up - raise (a lamily , hand , , out -distribute Ihe proper
a poin t) h and .. over - give up lime. delay

171
 put . . 00 - switch on la ke . . bac k - withdraw what catch up with - reac h the fall throu gh - not succeed
- dress in you said same level as (e.g. plans )
put . . out - sw itch off - return an
Check Fee,
put. . throu gh -connect people object
an the l ake. . in -d eceive ch eck in - regisler at a
feal like - want to do
tel ephone - absorb, hotel fea l upto - be ca pabl e of
put . . up - raise the price ch eckout - leave a hote l
understand
01 take . on check up (on ) - make sure Ge'
- accept
responsibility everythin g is ge t along (with }- have a good
Ring
ring . . back - phone aga in
10' 00""" relations hip
take . over - gain control ol Clear wrth
ring . . up - phone escepe
take ... up - start a hobby cle ar o ff - disa ppear getaway -c

Rub Th ink Quickly ge t aw ay wit h - 001 be

rub . out - make clear up - slop raining pu nished for
think ... ov er -consider
disa ppear gelby -survive,
car efully Come
maoage
Ruo Throw come across - find by get in(to)/ - enterne eve a
run ov er - hit and knock
throw . . . out -get nd of eccoeot out car
dowo """eby - pa.. get off/on - boardlleave a
T"f
see comedown - be reduced in trainlbus
t~ . . . on - check clothes pnoe get on with - continue doing
see . . off - sa y goodbye to for siz e come forward - appear - have a good
seod by . . out - see if it WOI1<s - present relationship
se-d . . In - present Tum coesea with
som ething.'
tum .. . back- refuse
comecrt <socceeo get out o f -e escape oe
sonecoe oomeout - appear {sun, avoid (work, a
someon e entry
official nowers) meeting, etc.I
tum down - reject an offer
sene . .. off - po st
-lower sou nd (ol
come round - visit get over - recover from
send . .. on - forward by pos1 - regal n (an illness,
TV . radio , etc.)
consciousness surprise. etc.)
set tum ... into - change inl 0
co me up -lace or meal a get round to - find the lime to
se t . back - ha lt prog ress som ething
again st problem do som ething
se t . up - organize , different
come up with - produce. find get throug h - succeed in
es tabl ish tum . .. olf - swilch o ff
-swilchon Count doi ng
tum on
Show - spe nd. reach
tum up - make louder cou nt on - rely or depend
' how . . in - bri ng in the end ol
Wear on
show . . off - display - man ag e to live
wear ... out - make cut through
- boast aboul
exhausted! cut do wn j on) - veouce get togethe r -m eel
Slick
use less e xpen ses getup - get out of bed
slick . . oul - pul upwilh
Work Do Give
Take
work. . . out - so lve a do away wit h - gel rid of,
take . . away < remove
give in < surrender
prob lem abolish
-subtra ct - draw up a plan do without - ma nage if you Go
haven' t got go after - pursue, follow
9.5.2 Verbs which cannot be separated so mething go down - fa ll (prices)

.,'
as k after - inquire how
Burst
burst in{to) - ente r suddenly
Draw
draw up - stop (e.g. car s
go dow n with
go in for
-
-
beco me ill with
take upan
etc.) interest
so meone is < enter
Call Drop
getti ng on com petitions
ask for - reccest call for -c reqinre. drop in (on) - visi t w ithout an go off -become bad
de man d arrange ment
Back (e.g. food)
- pick so meone drop out - no t take pa rt in go on -continue
back-out of - withdraw from up (at their at the last go oul - stop burn ing.
an agreement ho me) minute shining {of
Break call (in) on - visi t
Face light )
breakdown - slop working Care go out with - go to a theatre!
lace up to - co nfron t
(e.g . a ca r) prob lem s cinema!
ca re abo ut - take an inl erest
- co llap se res taurant. etc.
in, lov e Fall
emolionally or with a boyl
car e lor -like, loo k after
physically tamer - be very girlfriend
break into - en ter by force ce'''f strongly gooverl - ell amin e
breakout - escape (e .g. attracted to through
""Y 0o - con tinue
from prison) - be deceived by go through - suffer. endure
Catch - agree to
break up - separate (e .g. fall in with go up - rise , increase
husband and catch on - beccme fallout - reve an go- - match (e.g.
wife ) fashi onable argument co lours)

.72
10.3 between
1 The bank is between lhe post
office and th e bak er's.
2 The ferry sails between Dover
and Ostelld.
An agreementwas made
between the thr ee
super-pow ers.
3 Jus t between you and me, I
think he's awful.
4 I can', choose between these
three dress e s.
l> p.149 10.7 for
Use to e xpr ess
Us e to exp ress
1 Thi s is for you. 'in tend ed to belong to'
a position in the middle (with
things or people on twosides) 2 W e' ve lived here for thr ee 2 length of tim e
yea rs. l> GS 13.1.3
2 brillQ ing two or more thillQs or
people tog ether 3 We wa lk ed for sev eral mile s. 3 distance
3 sharing something togethe r (a 4 Are you tor or aga inst nucl e ar 4 'in favour or
weapons ?
sec ret) 5 reason
4 either one thing or ano ther 5 What did you do t hat tor?
6 purpose (+ noun)
6 Let's go ou t f or a meal.
7 mo ve ment toward s
7 They left for America this
morning.

Useful expression s
101 eve r once and anxious for- pay for
10.4 beyond for goodness' tor all as for reaso n tor
Use to express
'fu rther than' (distance)
sa ke
tor heaven 's
for a whilel
tim e
"'" ,'for"
care
responsible for
search for
1 Thelarm lies beyond that fleld.
",k.
2 His story is beyond belief. 2 'outsid e the understand ing or
She is beyond help. t he reacher
3 The successof the plan was 3 ' mo re or eener tha n'
beyond anything we had hoped 10.8 from
for , Use to expre ss
We travel led fro m Vienna to 1 place of origin
Paris by train.
2 a start ing poin t in time
10.5 by 2 He works from 9 till 5.
3 a starting po int in qua ntity
Use to ex pr ess 3 Prices start from 5. 4 sep ara tion
This book was written by 1 who doesIdid/Wi11do an action 4 I ca n't tell one tram the othe r.
Charles Dicken s.
2 how so mething islwaslwill be
Useful e xp ressio ns
2 This model was made by hand. done
3 The bank is ju st by the Post 3 closeness or nearness to from A to Z from momillQ to away from pr event from
from beginning night "",rtfrom (cioillQ)
Office. 4 'not tater than' to end from tim e to hear from suffer from
4 By next year I'll have finished from head to too time
this book.

Useful expressions
by acc id ent by all means by pos t am azed by' 10.9 In
by air/bus/ca rl by cha nce by sight astonished by' Use to expre ss
plane/seal by day/night by surpri se impressed by plac e
They're In the kitchen .
ship/tr ain (and by (doin g) byyoursel! su rprised by '
other means byl ar (alon e) upset by 2 We got married In 2 a point during a longer period of
of tran spo rt) by mistake Marchlwinter/1985. tim e - wee ks, mon ths , seasons,
= or at ye ars and cent u ries
3 I'll be back in an hou r.
3 'wi thin a certain time '
4 He's In bankinglthe local police
to'ceza mess. 4 a jobIpro fessior\lsituation
10.6 except Useful e x p res sions
Use to express
in all in general in partiwtar in time
1 All the boys had pens except 'e xclud illQ
in any case in I\a" in pnsoo in tum
on. 2 'apa rt from' + noun in bed in a hurry in private In a way
2 The holid ay was excellent.
3 ' apart fro m the fa ct that' + in common in ink/pencil in public in a sen se
except for the rain.
clause
in dan ger in lov e in secret dresse d in
3 He's a good student . except in debt in a loud voi ce insight get in
tha t he's always late.
in difficulties in the morn ing in spite of inter ested in
in the end in my opinion in stock succ eed in
in f act in oth er words in tears take part in

174
10.1 0 into 10.14 outof
Use to exp ress
They came Into the room . Use to express movement
She ran out of the house. movement away from
towards
2 Two out of five cMdren have 2 ' from among ' (with ratios)
Useful expressions leaming problems.
3 place of orig in
bumpinto jump ;olo 3 I copied the recipe out of the
4 the material som ething is made
crashinto run imc new spa per.
r<om
getinto (trouble) throw /olo 4 The dr ess was made out of a
gainfo walk into lace curtain.

Useful expression s
10,11 of ou t of breath out of date outofl he out of reach
Useto express out of cont rol out of order qu estion out of stock
1 The cover ol lhis boo k is 'belonging to' our of dange r out of pract ice (impossible) out of work
attractive.
2 'from among'
2 He's 009 01 my best friends.
3 measure

3 : : , ) 01
a pound butter
1=5 4 cause
5 description
10.15 since
1 t hadn't seen him s ince 1978.
Use to expre ss
a starting poi nt for actions and
4 Hedied of starvation. e n etcos wh ich continue up to
2 Since he had ftu, he decided
5 amanof 4Q1the City of 001 to go to work.
me mom ent of speak ing
l oodonlmade of gok:l l> GS 13.1.3
2 'because' l> GS 6.2
Useful expres sions
ahead of enough of in front of proof o f
because of everyone of instead of remi nd someon e
by means of exampleof lack of o 10.16 to
cure som eon e of expla nat ion of on account o f severa l of Use to exp ress
dieo! nuncreos or on behall of think of
1 We're going 10 Paris. 1 'in the direction of"
dozens of in caseo' 0010' Iypicalof
2 It's a quarter 10 12. 2 be fore (in time)
3 We'll be in the office from 5 t o 6. 3 'until'
10.1 2 off 4 He won by 2 games to 3. 4 oompansoo
Use to express I prefer sleeping to working.
1 Ab le has com e ofUhe root. 1 movement away from
Use ful ex pressions
2 Our bouse is off the Hig h Street. 2 'at a distance lrom'
according 10 in order to
Useful expressions in add ition to so as 10
due to
off duty get off (the bUS)
owing to
off limil s take off (your coat)
off work

10.1 3 on
10.17 under
Use 10 express
Use to express
1 The box is under the stairs. 'be neath '
1 The boo!< is on the table. cont act (on the surface of)
2 Please ocn't sweep the dust 2 'be neath' (with f1"lOV1m1enl)
2 11seeyou on Sal1Jrday 2 li me - a cert ccrar day under the carpet.
mominglChriStmas Daytyour 3 ' In the process of
3 what enterta inment is bei ng
birthday. 3 The bridge is under repair .
offered
3 wnars on TV tonight? Useful expression s
4 wha t somelhing is aooct
There's a good film on al tha
ane ma. under connor un d er orders
undernea th (prepo sition) = under under oath (in a court 01law)
4 xe's written a book o n insects.

Useful expres sions

on business on holiday agree on depe nd on 10.18 until/till
on duly on purpose congratulate have an effect Use to express
ontime on sale someoneon on 1 I'll keep me ring until we meet up to a certain
onloot on the whole
again , time
on the olher
h" " 2 Stir the mixture until it thickens. 2 'up to the poin t or degree when '

175
10.19 up 11 .1.2 Leaving out the relative pronoun in'deflnlnq
Don't run up the stairs. Use 10ex press movement to a
clauses
He went up to the next class. higher place
The man (wholWhomithat) I The relative pronoun can be left
was meeting was an important out when it refe rs to the object
Useful expressions client at the verb in the Clause.
up-la-date (modern) ups and downs (goodtimes and Notice the relative pronoun
uphill bad ones) cannot be left out when lt refers
fed up (bored or unhappy) to the subject o f the verb in the
clause e.g . The man who came
to meet me was an important
10.20 with/without client.
Use to express
Be patientwith the children. 1 'as regards'
2 He hit the burglar with a 2 instrument 11.1.3 Prepos itions used with relative pronouns in
hammer.
3 accompanying/not defining clauses
3 You'll have to go with/without accompanying
mo. 4 having/not having The man who/that I was talking The preposition comes at the
4 A room with/without a view. to is my uncle. end of the clause in informal
speech and writing.
28 The person to whom 1was
Useful expressio ns addressing my comments does 2a The preposit ion comes at the
with best wishes angry with disgusted with tremb ling with not seem to be listening. beginning of the clause in
withfwithoul do without impre ssed with (fear) b The problem about which we formal speech and w riting .
difficulty filled with pleased with (what's)wrong had so much discussion has b Notice the relative p ronoun
withoul any fuss green with envy shivering with with(?) been so lved. cannot be left out in sentences
with love (cold) like these even though it is the
with pleasure have difficulty object of the verb in the clause.
ag ree with with

11 .2 Non-defin ing re lative c lauses

11 Relative clauses
11 .1 Defining relative clauses I> pp. 5, 99
Is that the man who wants to
buy your car?
11 .1 .1 Relative pronouns in defining
clauses
1a The person who deals with
that isn't here at the moment.
The person that interviewed
me was a nice sort of fellow.
b The person wholWhomlthat
you want is out of the office.
c The man whose address
you've asked for has left the
firm.
2a The instructions which come
with this machine are
impossible 10fol low.
The book that you lent me was
very difficult to read.
These claus es are necessary in
order to compl ete t he mea ning
of a sentence. They ident ify
somebody or something. No
commas are used.
Th ese relative p ronou ns are
us ed
for people
a wholthat- as the s u bject of th e
verb in the clause
b whol whom lthat - as the o bject
o f the verb in the clause (whom
is mo re formal)
c whose - mean ing 'belonging 10'
2 far thing s
a whichlthat -as s u b jector
o bject of the verb in the clause.
Notice what can be used to
express 'the th ing w hichlthaf
(e .q. It was difficult to believe
what you to ld me.)
I> pp. 5, 86
I've just met Mr Watts, who These clauses give further
wants to buy your car. information, which could be left
out , about the sentence.
Commas are used.
11 .2.1 Relative pronouns in non-defining clauses
These relative pronouns are
1a The members of the expedition, used
who had been away from for people
home for six months, said they
a who - as the subject of the verb
we re proud of their
in the clause
achievements.
b wholwhom - as the object of
b The candidates, who/whom we
the verb in the Clause
met for the first time
yeste rday, are all preparing c whose - meaning ' belonging to'
their speeches for the debate 2 for things
tomorrow.
a which - as the subject or
c A car manufacturer, whose ob ject of the verb in the clause
name I have forgotten, has
b which - to give further
invented an electric car.
information about the whole
2a Th e report, which was drawn main sentence
up by a special committee,
Notice t he relative pronoun
states that more needs 10be
cannot be left out in non -defin ing
done in the inner city areas.
clauses and that can not be used
b He had been in prison, which to replace the relative pronoun.
was a fact nobody had
'reenzed.

176
11 .2,2 Prepositions used with relative pronouns in
non-defining clauses
The organization , to which w e
owe so much, has announced a
further COI'ltnbulion to our
appeal.
11.3 Participle phrases
In participle phrases the relat ive pronouns and t he auxiliary verb(s)
are left out .
The boy (who is) sitting in that
corner has been there all
morning.
The bricks (which have been)
used to build this church we re
specially made.
2 Simone de Beauvoir, (who was)
well known for her fight for
women 's rights, died in 1986.
12.1 .2 No changes
Some verb tenses used in direct speech do n o t change in reported
speech. The 'reporting ' ve rb is often in the present tense.
Prepo sitions usua lly come at the
beginn ing 0 1 the clause as the
Direct s peech Reported speech
use is raltler 1000000l ,
The verbs do not f1OfTT1ally change wh en
reporting a present state of 1 The reporter says.'S3ld that the
a t tairs e.g. cost of living here is h'9h
'T he cost of living here is h '9h .'
2 reporting things which are 2 Mary says it's always cold at this
always tru e e.q. time of year.
' II's always cold at this lime of
year.'
These p hra ses can be
3 reporting something wh ich we 3 The umon representative said
defining believe (or som eone be lieves) they are going to sack 300
w ill happen e.g. workers next week.
'They're going to sac k 300
work ers next week.'
4 they are the modal structures 4 She said (that) he m ight be
would , could, might, oug ht and mistaken.
2 non-de fin ing should, e.g . 'You might be
metaken,'

12.2 Reporting statements

12 Reported speech [> pp. 29, 37, 54
9 a.m. 12 midday 12.2.1 Verb (+ that)
(e.q . say , claim , admit, explain, insis t, agree, complain ,
deny , reply)

'I'm an art student. ' She said (that) she was an art
student.
'I don't know you .' He claims he d oesn't know her.
" w as lying.' She a dm itt ed she ha d been
ly ing.
' I'm ho t.' He exp lai ned (thai) he was
hot.

Notice admit and de ny can also be fo llo wed by the -ing form .
12.1 Tenses

12.1.1 Changes 12.2.2 Verb + pronoun/noun (+ that)

Verbs used in direct speech et ten change the ir tense in reported (e.g. ell )
speech, especia lly wh en the 'reporting ' verb is in the past (e.g. said) .
'I'm an art student.' She told him (that) she w as an
Direct speec h Ch an g e Reported s peech art student.
'11Iputthe will He said he would put the

-
lettersin 10 letters in the post
thepost.' would 12.2.3 Verb + infinilive
2 'I worlc fOf 2 2 She said she woril.ed loran (e.g. offer, refuse, agree, promise )
annsurance to insurance company.
c::ompany.' _ed 'I'll take you to the dance.' He offered t o ta ke her to the
3 'WeC81l~ a can 't a They said they couldn 't dance.
bOrrOw any to borrow any more money from
morelrom couldn 't the ban~.
lhebank: 12.2.4 Verb + for + -ing form
4 'We'vemoved 4 have moved 4 They said they had moved to
(e.g. apologize, thank )
lo a bigger 10 ? bigger house.
house.' hadmoved 'I'm sorry I trod on you r foot. ' She apologized for tr eading
5 'lmus/pay 5 must 5 She said she had to pay the on his loo t.
thegas bill.' to gas bill. "T han k you for doi ng the shopping. ' He thanked her for d oing the
had to shopp ing.

177
12.3 Reporting requests and orders
'Close the door , please :
' Please don'l shout.'
'Sit , Rover.'
' Don't move .'
'Attack:
12.4 Reporting questions
~.
Remember to use if or whe ther if there is no questionword.
'Al e you tired ?'
'Do you wa nt the ca r or not?'
12.5 Reporting suggestions
suggest can be followed by an ';ng form or that + should + infinitive .
't ers go home .'
12.6 Other points to notice about reported
speech
Direct sp eech
Th e prono un often changes e.g.
'tve washed the dishes.'
2 Words like tomorrow change to
words not directly related to
presen t time e.g.
'I'll do it tomorro w.'
a 'rocay'.....
b 'yesterday' .....
c 'next weelclyear ' etc .....
d tesr weeklyear ' etc .....
e 'oow ' .....
here .....
g 'this ' (in tim e expres sions )
e.g. thls w eek ' .....
3 Oth er changes are
a this, these . that, thos e ' (as
adjecti ves) .....
b thlS, these . that,those (as
pronouns)
4 Some words like please and
no w disappear e.g . 'Please
com e in: 'Now what do you
want to talk to me about ?
178
He asked meto close the door.
She asked them not to shout.
The boy told his do g to sit.
The po liceman ordered the
burglar not to move.
The Captain o rdered his
soldiers to attack.
-- report ed question to sub;ect
He asked what time It was .
She asked how much mon ey I
....ee.
He asked if I was tired.
She woodered whether I
wanted 1M car or I10l
[> p.117
He suggested going home .
He auggested that they should
go home.
Reported speech
She said she had washed the
dishes.
2 He said he would do it the
fo ll owin g daylthe ne xt day .
a th e same day lthat day
e th e day beforelthe previou s
d. y
c t he f o ll o wi ng weeklyear etc.
d t he pre v ious weeklyea r etc.
e t he n
t ther e
g tha t (e.g. th at week)
aa the
b It, theytthem
4 He asked her 10come in.
Sheasked him what he
wa nted to talk to her about
13 Tense fo rms
13.1 Present forms
13.1.1 Present simple
We go out every Saturd ay
night.
He ne ver gives me presents.
2 He lives in Greece.
The ea rth travela round the sun.
3 Jane: I don't like big cities.
They smell o f cars.
Peter: I know wha t you mean.
4 Fi rst you check the gears and
handbrake. theoyou switch on
the engine .
S A gorilla goes into a bar and
asks lor a drink . . . .
The Pope visits Tokyo today.
13.1.2 Present progressive
Look. they're com i ng out of the
cinema now.
The standard 01living in this
country Is slowly ri sing .
2 She's alwa ys b o rrowin g
money from me.
It's always rainin g here.
3 A man is standing on the
pavement when SUddenly a
spaceship lands.
U"
for som ething wh ich happens
regularly or which is a habit
(often w ith adverbs of time e.a.
always , usually , etc .)
2 lor something which rema ins
true lor a long time or for a
scientific fact
3 wit h verbs not normally used in
any of the prog ressive forms
(bel ieve. understand, imagine.
suppose, hear, see, taste. Jove.
hate. need, wan t. p refer, seem.
appear, belon g, des erve ).
Notice feel ca n be used either in
the simple or progressive forms
e.g. I feel ilf/am feeling ill .
4 to give instnJctions (mo re
friendly and pe rsona l than the
im per ativ e Check, switch on
.. .j
5 to describe eve nts in joke s.
stories or news items 10 ma ke
them sea m more c remate
r> GS 13.3 for the future
use o f the prese nt Simple
U"
for an ev ent in progress at the
present time
2 w ith always to snow surprise or
disap prov al wh en an action is
repeated
3 to set the sce ne in a joke or a
story and describe events which
have already begun but w hich
are not complete
t> GS 13.3 for the future
use of the present progressive
13.1 .3 Present perfect
I've seen that film.
I've just seen him.
I haven't fini shed yet.
I've never been there.
2 She' s been a widow for about
six months/since last year.
3a I can' t write because I've
broken myarm.
b look altha mess you've made.
4 This is the third time he's mhn
his driving test.
This is the worst film I've eve r
oeeo
13.1.4 Present perfect progressi ve
ta We've been living here for six
years/since 198 1.
b We' ve been slandlng al this
bus slop for hall an hour in the
pounng rain .
2 I've been stayin g with my
cousin for the test week.
3 look at the mess you're in! wnet
on earth have yo u been doing?
t can see that you've bee n
decorallng. The house looks
lovely!
I> pp.41,53
U"
'Or an event which happened at
an indefinite time in th e pa st.
Co m pare I saw thai film last
week where the time re ference
is definite.
Not ice adveros which express
indefini te limes are often used:
already, jus t, yet, often, never,
so far, stiN, etc.
2 lor an even t which began in the
past and is still going on now.
NotIce we use forto talk about
the length of lime r> GS 10.7;
we use since to talk about when
the event started
c- GS 10 .15
3 lor an event which
a is finished but wh ich still affects
the present (e .g. compare The
President di ed and The
Presi dent has died (so we must
ma ke various arra llgemenls l
b has a result which can be seen
in the presen t (e.g. compare
Wha thave I drawn? and What
did I draw?)
4 aft er expressons like
first, second .. .
Thi, )
best, worst , . .
Tha t is the mos t interesting
II
only " ,
I> p. 53
U..
1a for an actlvlty which began in th e
pa st a nd is sti ll going on (to
em ph asiz e the lengt h of time
taken by the act ivity)
b (No t ic e it often shows anger,
sur pr ise, et c .)
2 to describe a l em por ary
arrangemen t whic h m ay still be
going on or wh ich m ay just have
finished
3 l o r an activity wh ich was go ing
o n, which has no w finished and
the result of wh ic h is still
evident. (This, too , often shows
anger, surp rise , el c.)
13.2 Past forms
13.2.1 Past simpl e I> p p. 41, 53
Last nighll we nt to a concert.
T he last time I saw Maria was
three years ago.
2 Jane: Did you h ave a nice time
in Paris?
Peler: Yes , we did.
3 The thief wen t into the bank,
p u l led o ut a gun and poInted it
at !he cashier,
4 When I was at school, I g ot up
every day at seven c'ccce.
--
13.2.2 used toand would
~
1a I u sed t o S/TIOke Cigars but now I
prefer cigarettes.
He used 10 be very fat but he 's
lost a 101 of weight.
b I didn't use t o go 10 the theatre
but I try and go about once a
month now.
I n ev er u sed t o like him but I do
row.
c Did you u se t o do sport a t
school?
Didn 't you use t o be much
thinner?
2 He would keep lelling me wh at
to do!
U"
w hen a definite point in time is
mentioned w hen ta lking about
th e past
2 when the event took place at a
lime the speaker is aware of but
does not mention
3 for a n um ber of e vents which
took p lace ooe alle r ano the r in
the past
4 10 describe a pa st
habit c- GS 132 .2 .
us ed to only ex is ts in the pas t
form. Use it to expr ess
- ~-- .
ta a habit or a slal eln the
~t ?~y
[>
b something which did not happen
in the past but which has now
becom e a habit or sta le. Not ice
t he neg alive fo rm (e.g . I used
not to go to the theatre ) is
becoming less common in
speech b ut is sliil foun d in formal
o r written English .
-<;
c an inqu iry about a ha bit o r stale
l-.-
in the past
Com pa re the expression s
be /get used to:
I' m used to ge tting up earty.
f wa s used to ge tting up early.
You'll soon get used to drinkmg
tea!
I so on go t used to workin g so
hard.
Notice after be/get used to we
use the verb + ing
Use wou ld
2 fo r a ha bit or repeated event in
th e p ast whi ch is no w finis hed
a nd whic h Shows the speake r's
atti tud e to the even t (a ng er ,
irrita t ion , etc.] e-GS 7. 3
17.
13.2.3 Past progressive
1a I was driving along the
motorway when I had a
puncture.
b It wassix o'clock and darkness
was failing.
2 1was digging the garden while
John was painting the kitchen.
3 He was coming 10dinner but he
had to go away on business.
13.2.4 Past perfect
I went back home because I'd
forgotten my keys.
I was sure I hadn't seen him
before.
By 1986 Bob Geldot had raised
millions of pounds for charily.
2 I had scarcely/hardly put the
phone down when the bell rang.
No sooner had I teft the house
than it started 10rain.
13.2.5 Past perfect progressive
They'd been studyIng for hours
when they suddenly realized it
was midnight.
He knew they hadn't been
paying attention during the
lesson.
13.3 Talking about the future
I'm going to wash my hair.
It's going to snow.
I'll see you tomorrow.
Term starts on Monday.
I'm meeting the boss at 10.
This time tomorrow I'll be
sitting my exam.
I'll have finished it by 4
o'clock.
We'll have been living here
for ten years next spring.
They're about to announce the
election results.
He's on the point of changing
his job.
180
U"
1 a for an event wh ich was in
progress when another event
happened
b to set the scene and provide the
background for a
story
2 tor two (or more) events which
were in p rogress at the same
time in the past
3 for an event which had been
arranged but wh ich did not
happen
U"
for an event which happened
before another in the past (first I
forgot my keys, later I went back
home)
2 with scarcelyfhardly + when or
no sooner + than. Notice these
words (scarcely, hardly, no
sooner) are often put at the
beg inning of the se nte nce to
emphasize that one eve nt
happened almost immediately
afte r the other (notice the word
order) .
u"
to emphasize the continuous
nat ure of an action or activity
wh ich happened befo re ano ther
in the past
be going to
future simp le
present simple
p resent prog ress ive
futu re p rogressive
futu re perfect
futu re perfect progressive
be about to or be on the
point of
t a I'm going to write some letters.
b Look at those black clouds. I
think n'e going to rain,
The work is not going to be
easy.
2 Tomorrow will be fine and
sunny.
We shall expect you next week.
3 Easter is early this year.
The match begins at 3.30.
When he comes, 1'1I1eli you.
4 We're flying to Spain next
week.
I'm taking my driving test
tomorrow.
5 This time next week I'll be
swimming in the
Mediterranean.
6 They'll have done their
homework by tomorrow.
7 He'll have been working for lhe
bank for 30 years next summer.
8 The plane is on the point of
taking off.
Nick was Just about to put the
money in his pocket.
14 Wishes, regrets and preferences
14.1 Wishes and regrets
I wish I were rich!
If only we could see each other
more often!
I wish we didn't live in this
terrible place.
2 I wish you wouldn't make so
much noise!
If only they would stop that
terrible noise!
J wish it would stop raining!
3 I wish I had never married him.
If only I had studied harder at
SChool.
I wish you hadn't told me your
secret.
Use be going to for
a an intention
b an indication that something is
probable
2 Use future simple (will/shalf) to
make a precicnon about the
f ut ure. c> GS 7,1
Notice shall is on ly used for I
and we. e- GS 7.2
3 Use present simple fo r future
events on a timetable or a fixed
programme. Not ice when can
be used with the present simple
for an event in the future.
4 Use present progressive for a
definite arrangement, plan or
appointmen t.
5 Use future progressive for an
event which wi ll be in progress
at a certa in time in the future.
6 Use future perfect for an event
wh ich will be ove r not later than
a certain time in the future .
7 Use futu re perfect progressive
for something sti ll in progress
but which will be complete not
later than a certain time in the
fut ure (often used to emphas ize
t he length of time involved).
8 Use be about to or be on the
point offor an event which is or
was just going 10ta ke place.
[> pp. 43, 47
These examples express
wishes (o ften suggesting that
the spea ker is sorry about
something - I'm sorty/'m not
rich).
Notice the 'past' form of the
verbs (were, could see, didn't
iive) alter / wish and if only as
with conditional 2. t- GS 4,2
2 These examples exp ress
wishes for a change in the future
and often suggest that the
speaker is angry or dissatisfied
about (or tired of) the present
situation, C> GS 7.3 ,
3 The se e xamples exp ress
wishes or regrets about the pas t
(I wish I had studied harder but I
didn't!) .
Notice the past perfect is used
in the same way as cond itio nal 3
sentences. C> GS 4 .3
2 -Preferenc~
1a ~ the summer better than
the winter,
b .!Jllif.ir sott drink~alcohOI.
2a 1'Q.rathet.haYe.a snaclU!ll!n a
take-away meal.
b I'd rather not go to the football
match, if you don't mind.
3 I would rather you stayed at
home tonight. I think it's going to
snow.
I'd rather you didn't ~hirn
again.
15 Words that cause difficulties
have, make and do
15.1 have
15.1.1 Three basic uses of have
She has bought a new car ,
He said he had seen the film.
2 I have (got) to be ready at 6.30.
You don't have to (haven't got
to) do it if you don't want to.
00 I have to (Have I got to) go?
3 They' re having the house
decorated.
Old he have his hair cut
yesterday?
I didn't have the curtains made.
I made them myself.
4 I've got a headache.
Have you got a big family?
I haven't got any brothers or
sisters,
15.1.2 Other expressions using have
1a like belter than . . . and have in these exam ples me ans
I'll have the chicken/some tea , 1 'eat' or 'd rink '
b prefer to ... express general
please. 2 't ake'
preferences.
2 He's having a shower/bath/rest. 3 'g ive birth to'
2a 'd rather + infinitive withou t to
... than . . . expresses either a 3 She's just had a litlle gir l. 4 'wea r'
general preference or a 4 She had an enormous hat on.
5 'experience '
preference for a particular
5 We've had a marvellous
occas ion ('this is what I usually 6 In these examp les and others
prefer' or 'this is what I wou ld holiday. like the m, hav e means the same
like now'). We didn't have any trouble with as the wo rd il is used with (e.q.
Notice 'd prefer expresses a the car. 't ry', 'quarrel').
pr eference for a particular 6 Have a try!
occasion (e.g . I'd prefer (to Did they have a quarrel?
have) a glass of wine now).
b 'd rather not + in~nitive without
to expresses the tact that you
would p refer not to do 15.1.3 had better
something which has been
You had better decide quickly. had be tter is used to give strong
suggested .
You'd better not have any more a dvice (= ought I> GS 7 ,10)
3 would rather + (you etc.] + past to drink!
te nse suggests that you would
be hap pier if someone d id or
didn't do something .
NotIce the 'unreal' present is 15.2 do and make
expressed by a 'pa st' form of the
verbs stayed, didn 't see ,
I> GS 4.2 15.2.1 Meanings of do and make
What are you doing? do c an me an 'p e rfo rm an actio n
in gene ra l' and 'so lve or put
I'm doing a puzzle.
together' .
2a I'm making a cake.
This firm makes TV sets, 2 make can mean
b The car journey made him sick, a 'create' o r 'co nstruct'
c They made him work very hard, b 'c a use to happen'
c 'force'
have can be used
1 as an auxi liary ve rb 15.2.2 Other expressions using do and make
2 10express what is or Isn't
necessary. Notice have got to DO MAKE
can be used to express the - acourse - History, M aths, - arrangements - money
sam e ide a as have to. - a favour Science (as - an attempt - a noise
I> GS 7.9 - homework subjects) - the beds - an offe r
- military - work or jo bs - a decisio n - a phone ca ll
3 to express the idea 01arrang ing
service in gen eral ~ an effort - a profi t
for or paying somebody 10do
- something! (the cleaningl - a n ex cuse - a speech
something for you. Notice the
nothing! gardening - love - a suggestio n
ob ject of the sentence comes
a nything etc.) - a rnls tak e - trouble
between have and the past
part iciple. [> GS 8.3 Notice there a re many phrasal ve rbs wit h do and make. [> GS 9.5
4 with got to express a condition
or state (less common in the
past tense and often suggesting
the ide a of 'possession').
Notice have got is now more
common in statements than the
rather formal I have lour
brothers, but question fo rms
.a nd negatives with do and have
are commonly used (e. g. Do you
have a big family? I don 'f have
any brothers or sisters).
181