Lecture 3

Compaction of Soils
General Concept
Inthe construction of highway embankments, earth dams, and many
other engineering structures, loose soils must be compacted to increase
their unit weights.
Compaction increases the strength characteristics of soils, which increase
the bearing capacity of foundations constructed over them.
Compaction also decreases the amount of undesirable settlement of
structures and increases the stability of slopes of embankments.
Compaction,in general, is the densification of soil by removal of air,
which requires mechanical energy.
The degree of compaction of a soil is a function of its dry unit weight.
 Phase diagrams showing the changes in soil as it moves from its
natural location to a compacted fill.
Note that the volume of solids does not change during the process.
Changes in volume as soil is excavated, transported, and compacted. The
numerical values are examples and would be different for each soil.
 Definition
Soil compaction is defined as the method of mechanically increasing the density of soil by
reducing volume of air.

Load
gsoil (2) > gsoil (1)

Air
Air

Soil
Water Compressed Water
Matrix
soil

Solids Solids

WT1 WT1
gsoil (1) = gsoil (2) =
VT1 VT2
 Principles of Soil Compaction

Dry Side:
Beyond OMC, excess
Water acts as a water results in lower
lubricating agent density.
and replaces the
voids, therefore
results in higher
density
 Principles of Soil Compaction, cont.
When water is added to the soil during compaction, it acts as a softening agent on the
soil particles. The soil particles slip over each other and move into a densely packed
position.
The dry unit weight after compaction first increases as the moisture content increases.
When the moisture content is gradually increased and the same compactive effort is
used for compaction, the weight of the soil solids in a unit volume gradually increases.
When the moisture content is gradually increased and the same compactive effort is
used for compaction, the weight of the soil solids in a unit volume gradually increases.
Beyond a certain water content , any increase in the moisture content tends to reduce
the dry unit weight.
This phenomenon occurs because the water takes up the spaces that would have been
occupied by the solid particles.
The moisture content at which the maximum dry unit weight is attained is generally
referred to as the optimum moisture content.
Standard Proctor Test (ASTM D-698) or
(AASHTO T-99)
In the Proctor test, the soil is compacted in a mold that
has a volume of 944 cm3. The diameter of the mold is
101.6 mm (4 in.).
The soil is mixed with varying amounts of water and
then compacted in three equal layers by a hammer that
delivers 25 blows to each layer.
The hammer has a mass of 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) and has a
drop of 30.5 mm (12 in.).
For each test, the moist unit weight of compaction, g,
can be calculated as:
W
g
Vm
W = Weight of the compacted soil in the mold
Vm = Volume of the mold
Mold and hammer for a Proctor compaction test.
In the standard test we compact the soil in three layers, (as shown),
while in the modified test we compact the soil in five layers.
Standard Proctor Test Results for a
Silty Clay Soil
For each test, the moisture content of the compacted soil is
determined in the laboratory.
With the known moisture content, the dry unit weight can
be calculated as:

g
gd
1 w
The values of gd determined from he above equation can
be plotted against the corresponding moisture contents to
obtain the maximum dry unit weight and the optimum
moisture content for the soil.
Factors Affecting Compaction
Moisture Content
Physical Characteristics of Soils
Particle Size
Particle Size Distribution
Geometry of Particles
Percent Fines in the Mix

Compaction Energy
Typical Compaction Curves for
Various Soil Types
Note that for sands, the dry unit weight has a
general tendency first to decrease as moisture
content increases and then to increase to a
maximum value with further increase of moisture.

The initial decrease of dry unit weight with

increase of moisture content can be attributed to
the capillary tension effect.

At lower moisture contents, the capillary tension

in the pore water inhibits the tendency of the soil
particles to move around and be compacted
densely.
Various Types of Compaction Curves
in Soils

Lee and Suedkamp (1972) studied

compaction curves for 35 soil samples.
They observed that four types of
compaction curves.
 Effect of Compaction Energy on the
MD Curve

Two major effects of the increasing compaction

effort on the same soil:

1. As the compaction effort is increased, the

maximum dry unit weight of compaction is
also increased.

2. As the compaction effort is increased, the

optimum moisture content is decreased.
Compaction Energy in Standard
Proctor Test
The compaction energy per unit volume used for the standard Proctor test can be calculated as:

In SI Units:

In English Units:
Modified Proctor Test (ASTM D-1557) or
AASHTO T-180
With the development of heavy rollers and their use in field compaction, the standard Proctor
test was modified to better represent field conditions.

For conducting the modified Proctor test, the same mold is used with a volume of 944 cm3, as
in the case of the standard Proctor test.

Soil is compacted in five layers by a hammer that has a mass of 4.54 kg (10 lb).

The drop of the hammer is 457 mm (18 in.).

The number of hammer blows for each layer is kept at 25 as in the case of the standard
Proctor test.

Because it increases the compactive effort, the modified Proctor test results in an increase in
the maximum dry unit weight of the soil. The increase in the maximum dry unit weight is
accompanied by a decrease in the optimum moisture content.
Example
The laboratory test results of a standard Proctor test are given in the following table.

I. Determine the maximum dry unit weight of compaction and the optimum
moisture content.
II. Calculate and plot gd versus the moisture content for degree of saturation,
S = 80%, 90%, and 100% . Assume Gs = 2.7.
 Solution-Step 1
Calculation of the dry unit weight at different moisture
contents to establish the MD curve.
You can then graphically determine the OMC and gd (max).
W g
g gd
Vm 1 w
Solution-Step 2

Calculation of the dry unit weight for various degrees of saturation to establish
the ZAV curve.

Gsg w
gd
Gw
1 s
S
Final Solution
Velocity and Displacement Plots for
Impact Hammer Method
Layer Separation Resulted from the Impact
Compaction in Volumetric Shrinkage Test
Evidence of layer Separation along the
Compaction Plane in Fine Grained Soils
Specimen Blanket Image Digital Image
Compaction and the Clay Structure
If clay is compacted with a moisture content on the
dry side of the optimum, as represented by point A, it
will possess a flocculent structure. This type of
structure results because, at low moisture content, the
diffuse double layers of ions surrounding the clay
particles cannot be fully developed; hence, the inter-
particle repulsion is reduced. This reduced repulsion
results in a more random particle orientation and a
lower dry unit weight.

When the moisture content is increased, as shown by

point B, the diffuse double layers around the particles
expand, which increases the repulsion between the
clay particles and gives a lower degree of flocculation
and a higher dry unit weight.
Compaction and the Clay Structure, Cont.
A continued increase in moisture content from B to C
expands the double layers more. This expansion
results in a continued increase of repulsion between
the particles and thus a still greater degree of particle
orientation and a more or less dispersed structure.
However, the dry unit weight decreases because the
added water dilutes the concentration of soil solids
per unit volume.

At a given moisture content, higher compactive effort

yields a more parallel orientation to the clay particles,
which gives a more dispersed structure. The particles
are closer and the soil has a higher unit weight of
compaction. This phenomenon can be seen by
comparing point A with point E.
 Influence of Compaction Energy and Moisture Content
on the Orientation of Clay Particles (Lambe, 1958)

Variation in the degree

of particle orientation
with molding water
content for compacted
Boston blue clay, after
Lambe, 1958.
Effect of Compaction Energy on the
Permeability of the Fine Grained Soils
The plots show the results of permeability tests on Jamaica
sandy clay. The samples used for the tests were compacted at
various moisture contents by the same compactive effort.

The hydraulic conductivity, which is a measure of how easily

water flows through soil, decreases with the increase of
moisture content.

It reaches a minimum value at approximately the optimum

moisture content.

Beyond the optimum moisture content, the hydraulic

conductivity increases slightly. The high value of the hydraulic
conductivity on the dry side of the optimum moisture content is
due to the random orientation of clay particles that results in
larger pore spaces.
 Unconfined Compressive Strength of a
Compacted Silty Clay Soil

The specimens A, B, and C have been

compacted, respectively, on the dry side
of the optimum moisture content, near
optimum moisture content, and on the
wet side of the optimum moisture
content.

The unconfined compression strength,

qu, is greatly reduced for the specimen
compacted on the wet side of the
optimum moisture content.
 Nature of Variation of Swelling and
Shrinkage of Expansive Clays
Expansive soils owe their characteristics to the presence of
swelling clay minerals. As they get wet, the clay minerals absorb
water molecules and expand; conversely, as they dry they shrink,
leaving large voids in the soil.

Swelling clays can control the behavior of virtually any type of

soil if the percentage of clay is more than about 5 percent by
weight. Soils with smectite clay minerals, such as montmorillonite,
exhibit the most profound swelling properties.

Inorganic clays of high plasticity, generally those with liquid

limits exceeding 50 percent and plasticity index over 30, usually
have high inherent swelling capacity.

In the field, expansive clay soils can be easily recognized in the dry
season by the deep cracks, in roughly polygonal patterns, on the
ground surface.
Expansive Soils
Polygonal pattern of surface
cracks in the dry season. These
cracks are approximately one
inch wide at the top.

Note sewer manhole in

background in the right photo.

The depth of the crack in the

left photo is approximately 32
inches deep.
Open tension cracks formed due to
loss of moisture and shrinkage of soil.
 Damage to Homes
Supported by Piers
(1) At the beginning of the rainy season, the piers
are still supported by friction with the soil.
When it begins to rain, water enters deep into
the soil through the cracks.

(2) After several rainfalls, the soil swells, lifting the

house and piers.

(3) In the dry season, the groundwater table falls

therefore the soil dries and contracts. As tension
cracks grow around the pier, the skin friction is
reduced.

(4) When the building load exceeds the remaining

skin friction, adhesion is broken by this
straining, and the pier sinks.
Growth Curves
Growth curves in compaction show the
relationship between dry unit weight and
number of passes of a roller.

The dry unit weight of a soil at a given

moisture content increases to a certain point
with the number of roller passes.

Beyond this point, it remains approximately

constant.

In most cases, about 10 to 15 roller passes yield

the maximum dry unit weight economically
attainable.
Variation of the Dry Unit Weight (gd)
with the Number of Passes and Depth

The plot shows the variation in the unit weight

of compaction with depth for a poorly graded
dune sand for which compaction was achieved
by a vibratory drum roller.

The dry unit weight of compaction increases

with the number of roller passes. However, the
rate of increase in unit weight gradually
decreases after about 15 passes.
Determination of the Compaction Lift Thickness
for Minimum Required Relative Density
(DAppolonia,1969)
Relative Compaction ( %RC) and
Relative Density (Dr)
In most specifications for earthwork, the contractor is instructed to achieve a compacted field
dry unit weight of 90 to 95% of the maximum dry unit weight determined in the laboratory
by either the standard or modified Proctor test.
Relative Compaction can be calculated as:

g d ( Field )
RC 100
g d ( Lab)
For the compaction of granular soils, specifications sometimes are written in terms of the
required relative density Dr or the required relative compaction.
 Typical Compaction Specifications

g d ( Field )
Relative Compaction (RC) in percent: RC 100
g d ( Lab )
 Moisture Content for Field Compaction
The compaction curves A, B, and C are for the same soil with
varying compactive effort.
Let curve A represent the conditions of maximum compactive
effort that can be obtained from the existing equipment.
Assume that the contractor be required to achieve a minimum
dry unit weight of gd(Field) =Rgd(max) .
To achieve this, the contractor must ensure that the moisture
content w falls between w1 and w2. As can be seen from
compaction curve C, the required gd(Field) can be achieved with
a lower compactive effort at a moisture content w = w3.
However, for most practical conditions, a compacted field
unit weight of gd(Field) =Rgd(max) cannot be achieved by the
minimum compactive effort. Hence, equipment with slightly
more than the minimum compactive effort should be used.
The compaction curve B represents this condition.
The most economical moisture content is between w3 and w4.
In-Situ Compaction
Sand Cone Method
In-Situ Compaction
Sand Cone Method

A small hole (6" x 6" deep) is dug in the compacted

material to be tested. The soil is removed and
weighed, then dried and weighed again to determine
its moisture content. The specific volume of the hole is
determined by filling it with calibrated dry sand from
a jar and cone device. The dry weight of the soil
removed is divided by the volume of sand needed to
fill the hole. This gives us the density of the
compacted soil in lb per cubic foot. This density is
compared to the maximum Proctor density obtained in
the lab, which gives us the relative density of the
compacted soil in the field.
In-Situ Compaction
Different Types of Nuclear Density Gauge
In-Situ Compaction
Nuclear Density Gauge (ASTM D2292)

Nuclear Density meters are a quick and fairly accurate way of determining density and
moisture content. The meter uses a radioactive isotope source (Cesium 137) at the soil
surface (backscatter) or from a probe placed into the soil (direct transmission). The isotope
source gives off photons (usually Gamma rays) which radiate back to the mater's detectors
on the bottom of the unit. Dense soil absorbs more radiation than loose soil and the
readings reflect overall density. Water content (ASTM D3017) can also be determined, all
within a few minutes.
Intelligent Compaction
Intelligent Compaction (IC) measures stiffness (the ability of a
material to resist deformation under a load) rather than
density of the compacted soil. A strong correlation exists
between stiffness and bearing capacity of foundations.

A machine equipped with an intelligent compaction system

provides four basic functions:

1) Measures the stiffness of the soil.

2) Controls or guides the compaction effort in response to the

measured stiffness.

3) Displays the stiffness measurement to the operator.

4) Maps and records the compaction results.

Such a system would enable the user to produce detailed

plots of the soil stiffness levels, the number of roller passes, as
well as the location and time of the application.
Variation of gd with Organic Content (Franklin, 1973)

Franklin et al. (1973) conducted several laboratory

tests to observe the effect of organic content on the
compaction characteristics of soil.

The plot shows the effect of organic content on the

maximum dry unit weight. When the organic
content exceeds 8% to 10%, the maximum dry unit
weight of compaction decreases rapidly.
Variation of Optimum Moisture Content with
Organic Content (Franklin, 1973)

Franklins study showed that the optimum

moisture content for a given compactive effort
increases with an increase in organic content.

Franklin also showed that the maximum

Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS)
obtained from a compacted soil (with a given
compactive effort) decreases with increasing
organic content of a soil.

Therefore he concluded that soils with organic

contents higher than about 10% are unstable and
therefore undesirable for compaction work.
 Filed Compaction
Different types of rollers (clockwise from right):

- Smooth-wheel roller
- Vibratory plate
- Pneumatic rubber tired roller
- Sheepsfoot roller
 Field Compaction
Smooth Wheeled Roller

Compacts effectively only to 200-300 mm; therefore,

place the soil in shallow layers (lifts)
 Field Compaction
Vibrating Plates

For compacting very small areas, effective for

granular soils
 Field Compaction
Sheepsfoot Roller

Provides kneading action; walks out after compaction,

very effective on clays.
 Field Compaction
Impact Roller

Provides deeper (2-3 m) compaction. e.g., airfield

Grid Roller
Evaluation of Fill Materials for
Compaction (Sowers, 1962)
Soil types best suited for various kinds of compaction equipment.
(Adapted from Caterpillar, 1993.)
Construction Equipment

Large Dump Truck

Construction Equipment

Grader for spreading soil

Construction Equipment

Bulldozer for evenly spreading soil

Construction Equipment

Loader
Construction Equipment

Backhoe
Construction Equipment

Crawler mounted Hydraulic Excavator

Construction Equipment

Rock Breaker
Construction Equipment

Water Truck