Heat exchanger

Tubular heat exchanger

A heat exchanger is a device used to transfer heat be- Countercurrent (A) and parallel (B) ows
tween a solid object and a uid, or between two or more
uids. The uids may be separated by a solid wall to
prevent mixing or they may be in direct contact.[1] They
are widely used in space heating, refrigeration, air con-
ditioning, power stations, chemical plants, petrochemical
plants, petroleum reneries, natural-gas processing, and
sewage treatment. The classic example of a heat ex-
changer is found in an internal combustion engine in
which a circulating uid known as engine coolant ows Fig. 2: Shell and tube heat exchanger,
through radiator coils and air ows past the coils, which 2-pass tube side (12 crossow)
cools the coolant and heats the incoming air. Another ex-
ample is the heat sink, which is a passive heat exchanger
that transfers the heat generated by an electronic or a me-
chanical device to a uid medium, often air or a liquid
coolant.

Fig. 3: Shell and tube heat exchanger, 2-

1 Flow arrangement pass shell side, 2-pass tube side (2-2 countercurrent)

There are three primary classications of heat exchang-

ers according to their ow arrangement. In parallel-ow
heat exchangers, the two uids enter the exchanger at the
same end, and travel in parallel to one another to the other
side. In counter-ow heat exchangers the uids enter the
exchanger from opposite ends. The counter current de-
Fig. 1: Shell and tube heat exchanger, sign is the most ecient, in that it can transfer the most
single pass (11 parallel ow) heat from the heat (transfer) medium per unit mass due
to the fact that the average temperature dierence along

1
2 2 TYPES

any unit length is higher. See countercurrent exchange. Shell and tube heat exchangers consist of series of tubes.
In a cross-ow heat exchanger, the uids travel roughly One set of these tubes contains the uid that must be ei-
perpendicular to one another through the exchanger. ther heated or cooled. The second uid runs over the
For eciency, heat exchangers are designed to maximize tubes that are being heated or cooled so that it can ei-
the surface area of the wall between the two uids, while ther provide the heat or absorb the heat required. A set
minimizing resistance to uid ow through the exchanger. of tubes is called the tube bundle and can be made up of
The exchangers performance can also be aected by the several types of tubes: plain, longitudinally nned, etc.
addition of ns or corrugations in one or both directions, Shell and tube heat exchangers are typically used for high-
pressure applications (with pressures greater than 30 bar
which increase surface area and may channel uid ow or
induce turbulence. and temperatures greater than 260 C).[2] This is because
the shell and tube heat exchangers are robust due to their
The driving temperature across the heat transfer surface shape.
varies with position, but an appropriate mean tempera- Several thermal design features must be considered when
ture can be dened. In most simple systems this is the designing the tubes in the shell and tube heat exchangers:
"log mean temperature dierence" (LMTD). Sometimes There can be many variations on the shell and tube de-
direct knowledge of the LMTD is not available and the sign. Typically, the ends of each tube are connected to
NTU method is used. plenums (sometimes called water boxes) through holes in
tubesheets. The tubes may be straight or bent in the shape
of a U, called U-tubes.
2 Types
Tube diameter: Using a small tube diameter makes
Double pipe heat exchangers are the simplest exchangers the heat exchanger both economical and compact.
used in industries. On one hand, these heat exchangers However, it is more likely for the heat exchanger to
are cheap for both design and maintenance, making them foul up faster and the small size makes mechanical
a good choice for small industries. On the other hand, cleaning of the fouling dicult. To prevail over the
their low eciency coupled with the high space occupied fouling and cleaning problems, larger tube diameters
in large scales, has led modern industries to use more ef- can be used. Thus to determine the tube diameter,
cient heat exchangers like shell and tube or plate. How- the available space, cost and fouling nature of the
ever, since double pipe heat exchangers are simple, they uids must be considered.
are used to teach heat exchanger design basics to students Tube thickness: The thickness of the wall of the
as the fundamental rules for all heat exchangers are the tubes is usually determined to ensure:
same. To start the design of a double pipe heat exchanger,
the rst step is to calculate the heat duty of the heat ex- There is enough room for corrosion
changer. It must be noted that for easier design, its better That ow-induced vibration has resistance
to ignore heat loss to the environment for initial design.
Axial strength
Availability of spare parts
2.1 Shell and tube heat exchanger Hoop strength (to withstand internal tube pres-
sure)
Buckling strength (to withstand overpressure
in the shell)
Tube length: heat exchangers are usually cheaper
when they have a smaller shell diameter and a long
tube length. Thus, typically there is an aim to make
the heat exchanger as long as physically possible
whilst not exceeding production capabilities. How-
ever, there are many limitations for this, including
space available at the installation site and the need
to ensure tubes are available in lengths that are twice
the required length (so they can be withdrawn and
replaced). Also, long, thin tubes are dicult to take
out and replace.
A shell and tube heat exchanger Tube pitch: when designing the tubes, it is practi-
cal to ensure that the tube pitch (i.e., the centre-
Main article: Shell and tube heat exchanger centre distance of adjoining tubes) is not less than
1.25 times the tubes outside diameter. A larger tube
2.2 Plate heat exchangers 3

pitch leads to a larger overall shell diameter, which

leads to a more expensive heat exchanger.

Tube corrugation: this type of tubes, mainly used for

the inner tubes, increases the turbulence of the uids
and the eect is very important in the heat transfer
giving a better performance.

Tube Layout: refers to how tubes are positioned

within the shell. There are four main types of tube
layout, which are, triangular (30), rotated triangu-
lar (60), square (90) and rotated square (45). The
triangular patterns are employed to give greater heat
transfer as they force the uid to ow in a more tur-
bulent fashion around the piping. Square patterns
are employed where high fouling is experienced and
cleaning is more regular.

Bae Design: baes are used in shell and tube

heat exchangers to direct uid across the tube bun-
dle. They run perpendicularly to the shell and hold
the bundle, preventing the tubes from sagging over
a long length. They can also prevent the tubes
from vibrating. The most common type of bae
is the segmental bae. The semicircular segmental Conceptual diagram of a plate and frame heat exchanger.
baes are oriented at 180 degrees to the adjacent
baes forcing the uid to ow upward and down-
wards between the tube bundle. Bae spacing is of
large thermodynamic concern when designing shell
and tube heat exchangers. Baes must be spaced
with consideration for the conversion of pressure
drop and heat transfer. For thermo economic op-
timization it is suggested that the baes be spaced
no closer than 20% of the shells inner diameter.
Having baes spaced too closely causes a greater
pressure drop because of ow redirection. Con-
sequently, having the baes spaced too far apart
means that there may be cooler spots in the corners
between baes. It is also important to ensure the
baes are spaced close enough that the tubes do not A single plate heat exchanger
sag. The other main type of bae is the disc and
doughnut bae, which consists of two concentric
baes. An outer, wider bae looks like a dough- Another type of heat exchanger is the plate heat ex-
nut, whilst the inner bae is shaped like a disk. This changer. These exchangers are composed of many thin,
type of bae forces the uid to pass around each slightly separated plates that have very large surface areas
side of the disk then through the doughnut bae and small uid ow passages for heat transfer. Advances
generating a dierent type of uid ow. in gasket and brazing technology have made the plate-
type heat exchanger increasingly practical. In HVAC ap-
Fixed tube liquid-cooled heat exchangers especially suit- plications, large heat exchangers of this type are called
able for marine and harsh applications can be assembled plate-and-frame; when used in open loops, these heat ex-
with brass shells, copper tubes, brass baes, and forged changers are normally of the gasket type to allow peri-
brass integral end hubs.[3] (See: Copper in heat exchang- odic disassembly, cleaning, and inspection. There are
ers). many types of permanently bonded plate heat exchangers,
such as dip-brazed, vacuum-brazed, and welded plate va-
rieties, and they are often specied for closed-loop appli-
2.2 Plate heat exchangers cations such as refrigeration. Plate heat exchangers also
dier in the types of plates that are used, and in the con-
Main article: Plate heat exchanger gurations of those plates. Some plates may be stamped
with chevron, dimpled, or other patterns, where others
4 2
An interchangeable plate heat exchanger applied to the system of
a swimming pool
may have machined ns and/or grooves.
When compared to shell and tube exchangers, the
stacked-plate arrangement typically has lower volume
and cost. Another dierence between the two is that plate
exchangers typically serve low to medium pressure uids,
compared to medium and high pressures of shell and tube.
A third and important dierence is that plate exchangers
employ more countercurrent ow rather than cross cur-
rent ow, which allows lower approach temperature dif-
ferences, high temperature changes, and increased e-
ciencies.
2.3 Plate and shell heat exchanger
A third type of heat exchanger is a plate and shell heat
exchanger, which combines plate heat exchanger with
shell and tube heat exchanger technologies. The heart
of the heat exchanger contains a fully welded circular
plate pack made by pressing and cutting round plates and
welding them together. Nozzles carry ow in and out
of the platepack (the 'Plate side' owpath). The fully
welded platepack is assembled into an outer shell that cre-
ates a second owpath ( the 'Shell side'). Plate and shell
technology oers high heat transfer, high pressure, high
operating temperature, uling and close approach temper-
ature. In particular, it does completely without gaskets,
which provides security against leakage at high pressures
and temperatures.
TYPES
2.4 Adiabatic wheel heat exchanger
A fourth type of heat exchanger uses an intermediate uid
or solid store to hold heat, which is then moved to the
other side of the heat exchanger to be released. Two ex-
amples of this are adiabatic wheels, which consist of a
large wheel with ne threads rotating through the hot and
cold uids, and uid heat exchangers.
2.5 Plate n heat exchanger
Main article: Plate n heat exchanger
This type of heat exchanger uses sandwiched passages
containing ns to increase the eectiveness of the unit.
The designs include crossow and counterow coupled
with various n congurations such as straight ns, oset
ns and wavy ns.
Plate and n heat exchangers are usually made of alu-
minum alloys, which provide high heat transfer e-
ciency. The material enables the system to operate at
a lower temperature dierence and reduce the weight
of the equipment. Plate and n heat exchangers are
mostly used for low temperature services such as natural
gas, helium and oxygen liquefaction plants, air separation
plants and transport industries such as motor and aircraft
engines.
Advantages of plate and n heat exchangers:
High heat transfer eciency especially in gas treat-
ment
Larger heat transfer area
Approximately 5 times lighter in weight than that of
shell and tube heat exchanger.
Able to withstand high pressure
Disadvantages of plate and n heat exchangers:
Might cause clogging as the pathways are very nar-
row
Dicult to clean the pathways
Aluminum alloys are susceptible to Mercury Liquid
Embrittlement Failure
2.6 Pillow plate heat exchanger
A pillow plate exchanger is commonly used in the dairy
industry for cooling milk in large direct-expansion stain-
less steel bulk tanks. The pillow plate allows for cooling
across nearly the entire surface area of the tank, without
gaps that would occur between pipes welded to the exte-
rior of the tank.
2.10 Phase-change heat exchangers 5

The pillow plate is constructed using a thin sheet of metal
spot-welded to the surface of another thicker sheet of
metal. The thin plate is welded in a regular pattern of dots
or with a serpentine pattern of weld lines. After weld-
ing the enclosed space is pressurised with sucient force
to cause the thin metal to bulge out around the welds,
providing a space for heat exchanger liquids to ow, and
creating a characteristic appearance of a swelled pillow
formed out of metal.
for heating or cooling with high-viscosity products,
crystallization processes, evaporation and high-fouling
applications. Long running times are achieved due to the
continuous scraping of the surface, thus avoiding fouling
and achieving a sustainable heat transfer rate during the
process.
2.10 Phase-change heat exchangers

2.7 Fluid heat exchangers Vapor

This is a heat exchanger with a gas passing upwards

Steam
through a shower of uid (often water), and the uid is
Liquid level
then taken elsewhere before being cooled. This is com-
monly used for cooling gases whilst also removing certain
impurities, thus solving two problems at once. It is widely
used in espresso machines as an energy-saving method
Liquid
of cooling super-heated water to use in the extraction of Condensate
feed
espresso.
Bottoms
product
2.8 Waste heat recovery units
Typical kettle reboiler used for industrial distillation towers
A Waste Heat Recovery Unit (WHRU) is a heat ex-
changer that recovers heat from a hot gas stream while
transferring it to a working medium, typically water or
oils. The hot gas stream can be the exhaust gas from a
gas turbine or a diesel engine or a waste gas from indus-
try or renery.
Big systems with high volume and temperature gas
streams, typical in industry, can benet from Steam
Rankine Cycle (SRC) in a WHRU, but these cycles are
too expensive for small systems. The recovery of heat
from low temperature systems requires dierent working
uids than steam.
An Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) WHRU can be more
ecient at low temperature range using Refrigerant that
boil at lower temperatures than water. Typical organic Typical water-cooled surface condenser
refrigerants are Ammonia, Pentauoropropane(R-245fa
and R-245ca), and Toluene. In addition to heating up or cooling down uids in just a
The refrigerant is boiled by the heat source in the single phase, heat exchangers can be used either to heat
Evaporator to produce super-heated vapor. This uid is a liquid to evaporate (or boil) it or used as condensers
expanded in the turbine to convert thermal energy to ki- to cool a vapor and condense it to a liquid. In chemical
netic energy, that is converted to electricity in the electri- plants and reneries, reboilers used to heat incoming feed
cal generator. This energy transfer process decreases the for distillation towers are often heat exchangers.[4][5]
temperature of the refrigerant that, in turn, condenses. Distillation set-ups typically use condensers to condense
The cycle is closed and completed using a pump to send distillate vapors back into liquid.
the uid back to the evaporator.
Power plants that use steam-driven turbines commonly
use heat exchangers to boil water into steam. Heat ex-
2.9 Dynamic scraped surface heat ex- changers or similar units for producing steam from water
changer are often called boilers or steam generators.
In the nuclear power plants called pressurized water re-
Another type of heat exchanger is called "(dynamic) actors, special large heat exchangers pass heat from the
scraped surface heat exchanger". This is mainly used primary (reactor plant) system to the secondary (steam
6 4 HVAC AIR COILS

plant) system, producing steam from water in the process. high-performance aircraft gas turbine engines[13]
These are called steam generators. All fossil-fueled and
nuclear power plants using steam-driven turbines have heat pumps[14]
surface condensers to convert the exhaust steam from the
air conditioning [15]
turbines into condensate (water) for re-use.[6][7]
To conserve energy and cooling capacity in chemical and heat recovery ventilators[16]
other plants, regenerative heat exchangers can transfer
heat from a stream that must be cooled to another stream
that must be heated, such as distillate cooling and reboiler 3 Optimization
feed pre-heating.
This term can also refer to heat exchangers that con- There are three goals that are normally considered in the
tain a material within their structure that has a change optimal design of heat exchangers: (1) Minimizing the
of phase. This is usually a solid to liquid phase due to pressure drop (pumping power), (2) Maximizing the ther-
the small volume dierence between these states. This mal performance and (3) Minimizing the entropy gener-
change of phase eectively acts as a buer because it oc- ation (thermodynamic). See for example:[17]
curs at a constant temperature but still allows for the heat
exchanger to accept additional heat. One example where
this has been investigated is for use in high power aircraft 4 HVAC air coils
electronics.
Heat exchangers functioning in multiphase ow regimes One of the widest uses of heat exchangers is for air con-
may be subject to the Ledinegg instability. ditioning of buildings and vehicles. This class of heat ex-
changers is commonly called air coils, or just coils due to
their often-serpentine internal tubing. Liquid-to-air, or
2.11 Direct contact heat exchangers air-to-liquid HVAC coils are typically of modied cross-
ow arrangement. In vehicles, heat coils are often called
Direct contact heat exchangers involve heat transfer be- heater cores.
tween hot and cold streams of two phases in the absence
of a separating wall.[8] Thus such heat exchangers can be On the liquid side of these heat exchangers, the com-
classied as: mon uids are water, a water-glycol solution, steam, or a
refrigerant. For heating coils, hot water and steam are the
Gas liquid most common, and this heated uid is supplied by boilers,
for example. For cooling coils, chilled water and refriger-
Immiscible liquid liquid ant are most common. Chilled water is supplied from a
Solid-liquid or solid gas chiller that is potentially located very far away, but refrig-
erant must come from a nearby condensing unit. When
Most direct contact heat exchangers fall under the Gas a refrigerant is used, the cooling coil is the evaporator in
Liquid category, where heat is transferred between a gas the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle. HVAC coils
and liquid in the form of drops, lms or sprays.[2] that use this direct-expansion of refrigerants are com-
monly called DX coils. Some DX coils are microchan-
Such types of heat exchangers are used predominantly nel type.[18]
in air conditioning, humidication, industrial hot water
heating, water cooling and condensing plants.[9] On the air side of HVAC coils a signicant dierence ex-
ists between those used for heating, and those for cooling.
Due to psychrometrics, air that is cooled often has mois-
2.12 Microchannel heat exchangers ture condensing out of it, except with extremely dry air
ows. Heating some air increases that airows capacity
Main article: Micro heat exchanger to hold water. So heating coils need not consider mois-
ture condensation on their air-side, but cooling coils must
Micro heat exchangers, Micro-scale heat exchangers, be adequately designed and selected to handle their par-
or microstructured heat exchangers are heat exchang- ticular latent (moisture) as well as the sensible (cooling)
ers in which (at least one) uid ows in lateral conne- loads. The water that is removed is called condensate.
ments with typical dimensions below 1 mm. The most For many climates, water or steam HVAC coils can be
typical such connement are microchannels, which are exposed to freezing conditions. Because water expands
channels with a hydraulic diameter below 1 mm. Mi- upon freezing, these somewhat expensive and dicult to
crochannel heat exchangers can be made from metal, replace thin-walled heat exchangers can easily be dam-
ceramic,[11] and even low-cost plastic.[12] Microchannel aged or destroyed by just one freeze. As such, freeze pro-
heat exchangers can be used for many applications in- tection of coils is a major concern of HVAC designers,
cluding: installers, and operators.
 7

The introduction of indentations placed within the heat
exchange ns controlled condensation, allowing water
molecules to remain in the cooled air. This invention
allowed for refrigeration without icing of the cooling
mechanism.[19]
The heat exchangers in direct-combustion furnaces, typ-
ical in many residences, are not 'coils. They are, in-
stead, gas-to-air heat exchangers that are typically made
of stamped steel sheet metal. The combustion products
pass on one side of these heat exchangers, and air to heat
on the other. A cracked heat exchanger is therefore a
dangerous situation that requires immediate attention be-
cause combustion products may enter living space.
5 Helical-coil heat exchangers
to be more dicult than its shell and tube coun-
terpart; however the helical coil unit would require
cleaning less often.
These have been used in the nuclear industry as a method
for exchanging heat in a sodium system for large liquid
metal fast breeder reactors since the early 1970s, using an
HCHE device invented by Charles E. Boardman and John
H. Germer.[22] There are several simple methods for de-
signing HCHE for all types of manufacturing industries,
such as using the Ramachandra K. Patil (et al.) method
from India and the Scott S. Haraburda method from the
United States.[20][21]
However, these are based upon assumptions of estimat-
ing inside heat transfer coecient, predicting ow around
the outside of the coil, and upon constant heat ux.[23]
Yet, recent experimental data revealed that the empirical
correlations are quite in agreement for designing circu-
lar and square pattern HCHEs.[24] During studies pub-
lished in 2015, several researchers found that the bound-
ary conditions of the outer wall of exchangers were essen-
tially constant heat ux conditions in power plant boilers,
condensers and evaporators; while convective heat trans-
fer conditions were more appropriate in food, automobile
and process industries.[25]

6 Spiral heat exchangers

Helical-Coil Heat Exchanger sketch, which consists of a shell,

core, and tubes (Scott S. Haraburda design).

Although double-pipe heat exchangers are the simplest to

design, the better choice in the following cases would be
the helical-coil heat exchanger (HCHE):
1
2
The main advantage of the HCHE, like that for the
SHE, is its highly ecient use of space, especially
when its limited and not enough straight pipe can 21
be laid.[20]

Under conditions of low owrates (or laminar ow),

such that the typical shell-and-tube exchangers
have low heat-transfer coecients and becoming Schematic drawing of a spiral heat exchanger.
uneconomical.[20]
A modication to the perpendicular ow of the typical
When there is low pressure in one of the uids, usu- HCHE involves the replacement of shell with another
ally from accumulated pressure drops in other pro- coiled tube, allowing the two uids to ow parallel to
cess equipment.[20] one another, and which requires the use of dierent de-
sign calculations.[26] These are the Spiral Heat Exchang-
When one of the uids has components in multiple ers (SHE), which may refer to a helical (coiled) tube con-
phases (solids, liquids, and gases), which tends to guration, more generally, the term refers to a pair of
create mechanical problems during operations, such at surfaces that are coiled to form the two channels in a
as plugging of small-diameter tubes.[21] Cleaning of counter-ow arrangement. Each of the two channels has
helical coils for these multiple-phase uids can prove one long curved path. A pair of uid ports are connected
8 7 SELECTION

tangentially to the outer arms of the spiral, and axial ports

0% near 50%
are common, but optional.[27] flow

The main advantage of the SHE is its highly ecient use exchange gradient

of space. This attribute is often leveraged and partially flow

100% near 50%

reallocated to gain other improvements in performance, Concurrent Flow
according to well known tradeos in heat exchanger de- near 0% 100%
sign. (A notable tradeo is capital cost vs operating cost.) flow

A compact SHE may be used to have a smaller footprint exchange gradient

and thus lower all-around capital costs, or an oversized flow

SHE may be used to have less pressure drop, less pump- 0% near 100%
Countercurrent Flow
ing energy, higher thermal eciency, and lower energy
costs.
Concurrent and countercurrent ow.

6.1 Construction
Spiral Flow/Cross Flow: One uid is in spiral ow
The distance between the sheets in the spiral channels is and the other in a cross ow. Spiral ow passages
maintained by using spacer studs that were welded prior are welded at each side for this type of spiral heat
to rolling. Once the main spiral pack has been rolled, al- exchanger. This type of ow is suitable for handling
ternate top and bottom edges are welded and each end low density gas, which passes through the cross ow,
closed by a gasketed at or conical cover bolted to the avoiding pressure loss. It can be used for liquid-
body. This ensures no mixing of the two uids occurs. liquid applications if one liquid has a considerably
Any leakage is from the periphery cover to the atmo- greater ow rate than the other.
sphere, or to a passage that contains the same uid.[28]
Distributed Vapour/Spiral ow: This design is
that of a condenser, and is usually mounted verti-
6.2 Self cleaning cally. It is designed to cater for the sub-cooling of
both condensate and non-condensables. The coolant
Spiral heat exchangers are often used in the heating of u- moves in a spiral and leaves via the top. Hot gases
ids that contain solids and thus tend to foul the inside of that enter leave as condensate via the bottom outlet.
the heat exchanger. The low pressure drop lets the SHE
handle fouling more easily. The SHE uses a self clean-
ing mechanism, whereby fouled surfaces cause a local- 6.4 Applications
ized increase in uid velocity, thus increasing the drag
(or uid friction) on the fouled surface, thus helping to The Spiral heat exchanger is good for applications such
dislodge the blockage and keep the heat exchanger clean. as pasteurization, digester heating, heat recovery, pre-
The internal walls that make up the heat transfer sur- heating (see: recuperator), and euent cooling. For
face are often rather thick, which makes the SHE very sludge treatment, SHEs are generally smaller than other
robust, and able to last a long time in demanding envi- types of heat exchangers. These are used to transfer the
ronments. They are also easily cleaned, opening out like heat.
an oven where any buildup of foulant can be removed by
pressure washing.
Self-Cleaning Water lters are used to keep the system 7 Selection
clean and running without the need to shut down or re-
place cartridges and bags. Due to the many variables involved, selecting optimal
heat exchangers is challenging. Hand calculations are
possible, but many iterations are typically needed. As
6.3 Flow arrangements such, heat exchangers are most often selected via com-
puter programs, either by system designers, who are typ-
There are three main types of ows in a spiral heat ex-
ically engineers, or by equipment vendors.
changer:
To select an appropriate heat exchanger, the system de-
Counter-current Flow: Fluids ow in opposite di- signers (or equipment vendors) would rstly consider the
rections. These are used for liquid-liquid, condens- design limitations for each heat exchanger type. Though
ing and gas cooling applications. Units are usu- cost is often the primary criterion, several other selection
ally mounted vertically when condensing vapour and criteria are important:
mounted horizontally when handling high concen-
trations of solids. High/low pressure limits
8.1 Fouling 9

Thermal performance methods. These methods conrm the integrity of the

plates or tubes to prevent any cross contamination and
Temperature ranges the condition of the gaskets.
Product mix (liquid/liquid, particulates or high- Mechanical integrity monitoring of heat exchanger tubes
solids liquid) may be conducted through Nondestructive methods such
as eddy current testing.
Pressure drops across the exchanger
Fluid ow capacity
8.1 Fouling
Cleanability, maintenance and repair
Main article: Fouling
Materials required for construction Fouling occurs when impurities deposit on the heat ex-
Ability and ease of future expansion
Material selection, such as copper, aluminum,
carbon steel, stainless steel, nickel alloys, ceramic,
polymer, and titanium.

Small-diameter coil technologies are becoming more

popular in modern air conditioning and refrigeration sys-
tems because they have better rates of heat transfer than
conventional sized condenser and evaporator coils with
round copper tubes and aluminum or copper n that have
been the standard in the HVAC industry. Small diam-
eter coils can withstand the higher pressures required
by the new generation of environmentally friendlier re-
frigerants. Two small diameter coil technologies are
currently available for air conditioning and refrigeration
products: copper microgroove[29] and brazed aluminum
microchannel.[30]
Choosing the right heat exchanger (HX) requires some
knowledge of the dierent heat exchanger types, as well
A heat exchanger in a steam power station contaminated with
as the environment where the unit must operate. Typ-
macrofouling.
ically in the manufacturing industry, several diering
types of heat exchangers are used for just one process
change surface. Deposition of these impurities can de-
or system to derive the nal product. For example, a ket-
crease heat transfer eectiveness signicantly over time
tle HX for pre-heating, a double pipe HX for the carrier
and are caused by:
uid and a plate and frame HX for nal cooling. With
sucient knowledge of heat exchanger types and operat-
ing requirements, an appropriate selection can be made Low wall shear stress
to optimise the process.[31] Low uid velocities
High uid velocities
8 Monitoring and maintenance Reaction product solid precipitation

Online monitoring of commercial heat exchangers is Precipitation of dissolved impurities due to elevated
done by tracking the overall heat transfer coecient. The wall temperatures
overall heat transfer coecient tends to decline over time
due to fouling. The rate of heat exchanger fouling is deter-
mined by the rate of particle deposition less re-
U=Q/AT entrainment/suppression. This model was originally
By periodically calculating the overall heat transfer coef- proposed in 1959 by Kern and Seaton.
cient from exchanger ow rates and temperatures, the Crude Oil Exchanger Fouling. In commercial crude oil
owner of the heat exchanger can estimate when cleaning rening, crude oil is heated from 21 C (70 F) to 343 C
the heat exchanger is economically attractive. (649 F) prior to entering the distillation column. A se-
Integrity inspection of plate and tubular heat exchanger ries of shell and tube heat exchangers typically exchange
can be tested in situ by the conductivity or helium gas heat between crude oil and other oil streams to heat the
10 10 IN INDUSTRY

crude to 260 C (500 F) prior to heating in a furnace. In species that have external testes (such as humans), the
Fouling occurs on the crude side of these exchangers due artery to the testis is surrounded by a mesh of veins called
to asphaltene insolubility. The nature of asphaltene solu- the pampiniform plexus. This cools the blood heading to
bility in crude oil was successfully modeled by Wiehe and the testis, while reheating the returning blood.
Kennedy.[32] The precipitation of insoluble asphaltenes
in crude preheat trains has been successfully modeled as
a rst order reaction by Ebert and Panchal[33] who ex- 9.2 Birds, sh, marine mammals
panded on the work of Kern and Seaton.
Cooling Water Fouling. Cooling water systems are sus-
ceptible to fouling. Cooling water typically has a high to-
tal dissolved solids content and suspended colloidal solids.
Localized precipitation of dissolved solids occurs at the
heat exchange surface due to wall temperatures higher
than bulk uid temperature. Low uid velocities (less
than 3 ft/s) allow suspended solids to settle on the heat
exchange surface. Cooling water is typically on the tube Countercurrent exchange conservation circuit
side of a shell and tube exchanger because its easy to
clean. To prevent fouling, designers typically ensure that
Further information: Countercurrent exchange in bio-
cooling water velocity is greater than 0.9 m/s and bulk
logical systems
uid temperature is maintained less than 60 C (140 F).
Other approaches to control fouling control combine the
blind application of biocides and anti-scale chemicals "Countercurrent" heat exchangers occur naturally in the
with periodic lab testing. circulation system of sh, whales and other marine mam-
mals. Arteries to the skin carrying warm blood are in-
tertwined with veins from the skin carrying cold blood,
8.2 Maintenance causing the warm arterial blood to exchange heat with
the cold venous blood. This reduces the overall heat loss
Plate and frame heat exchangers can be disassembled and in cold waters. Heat exchangers are also present in the
cleaned periodically. Tubular heat exchangers can be tongue of baleen whales as large volumes of water ow
[36][37]
cleaned by such methods as acid cleaning, sandblasting, through their mouths. Wading birds use a similar
high-pressure water jet, bullet cleaning, or drill rods. system to limit heat losses from their body through their
legs into the water.
In large-scale cooling water systems for heat exchang-
ers, water treatment such as purication, addition of
chemicals, and testing, is used to minimize fouling of
the heat exchange equipment. Other water treatment is
9.3 Carotid rete
also used in steam systems for power plants, etc. to mini-
mize fouling and corrosion of the heat exchange and other The carotid rete is a counter-current heat exchanging or-
equipment. gan in some ungulates. The blood ascending the carotid
arteries on its way to the brain, ows via a network of ves-
A variety of companies have started using water borne sels where heat is discharged to the veins of cooler blood
oscillations technology to prevent biofouling. Without the descending from the nasal passages. The carotid rete al-
use of chemicals, this type of technology has helped in lows Thomsons gazelle to maintain its brain almost 3 C
providing a low-pressure drop in heat exchangers. (5.4 F) cooler than the rest of the body, and therefore
aids in tolerating bursts in metabolic heat production such
as associated with outrunning cheetahs (during which the
9 In nature body temperature exceeds the maximum temperature at
which the brain could function).[38]

9.1 Humans

The human nasal passages serve as a heat exchanger, 10 In industry

which warms air being inhaled and cools air being ex-
haled. Its eectiveness can be demonstrated by putting
the hand in front of the face and exhaling, rst through
the nose and then through the mouth. Air exhaled through
the nose is substantially cooler.[34][35] This eect can be
enhanced with clothing, by, for example, wearing a scarf
over the face while breathing in cold weather.
Heat exchangers are widely used in industry both for
cooling and heating large scale industrial processes. The
type and size of heat exchanger used can be tailored to
suit a process depending on the type of uid, its phase,
temperature, density, viscosity, pressures, chemical com-
position and various other thermodynamic properties.
 11

In many industrial processes there is waste of energy or a
heat stream that is being exhausted, heat exchangers can
be used to recover this heat and put it to use by heating a
dierent stream in the process. This practice saves a lot
of money in industry, as the heat supplied to other streams
from the heat exchangers would otherwise come from an
external source that is more expensive and more harmful
to the environment.
Heat exchangers are used in many industries, including:
Waste water treatment
Refrigeration
(mass per unit time), where the subscript i applies to pipe
1 or pipe 2.
Temperature proles for the pipes are T1 (x) and T2 (x)
where x is the distance along the pipe. Assume a steady
state, so that the temperature proles are not functions of
time. Assume also that the only transfer of heat from a
small volume of uid in one pipe is to the uid element
in the other pipe at the same position, i.e., there is no
transfer of heat along a pipe due to temperature dier-
ences in that pipe. By Newtons law of cooling the rate
of change in energy of a small volume of uid is propor-
tional to the dierence in temperatures between it and the
corresponding element in the other pipe:

Wine and beer making

du1
Petroleum rening = (T2 T1 )
dt
nuclear power du2
= (T1 T2 )
dt
In waste water treatment, heat exchangers play a vital role ( this is for parallel ow in the same direction and op-
in maintaining optimal temperatures within anaerobic di- posite temperature gradients, but for counter-ow heat
gesters to promote the growth of microbes that remove exchange countercurrent exchange the sign is opposite in
pollutants. Common types of heat exchangers used in this the second equation in front of (T1 T2 ) )
application are the double pipe heat exchanger as well as , where ui (x) is the thermal energy per unit length and is
the plate and frame heat exchanger. the thermal connection constant per unit length between
the two pipes. This change in internal energy results in a
change in the temperature of the uid element. The time
11 In aircraft rate of change for the uid element being carried along
by the ow is:
In commercial aircraft heat exchangers are used to take
heat from the engines oil system to heat cold fuel.[39] This
du1 dT1
improves fuel eciency, as well as reduces the possibility = J1
dt dx
of water entrapped in the fuel freezing in components.[40]
du2 dT2
= J2
dt dx
12 Current market and forecast where Ji = Ci ji is the thermal mass ow rate. The
dierential equations governing the heat exchanger may
now be written as:
Estimated at US$42.7 billion in 2012, the global demand
of heat exchangers will experience robust growth of about
7.8% annually over the next years. The market value is T1
expected to reach US$57.9 billion by 2016 and to ap- J1 = (T2 T1 )
x
proach US$78.16 billion by 2020. Tubular heat exchang-
ers and plate heat exchangers are still the most widely ap- T2
[41] J2 = (T1 T2 ).
plied product types. x
Note that, since the system is in a steady state, there are
no partial derivatives of temperature with respect to time,
13 A model of a simple heat ex- and since there is no heat transfer along the pipe, there are
no second derivatives in x as is found in the heat equation.
changer These two coupled rst-order dierential equations may
be solved to yield:
A simple heat exchange [42][43] might be thought of as two
straight pipes with uid ow, which are thermally con-
nected. Let the pipes be of equal length L, carrying u- T = A Bk1 ekx
1
ids with heat capacity Ci (energy per unit mass per unit k
change in temperature) and let the mass ow rate of the Bk2 kx
uids through the pipes, both in the same direction, be ji T2 = A + k e
12 15 REFERENCES

where k1 = /J1 , k2 = /J2 , Heat pump

Heat recovery ventilation
k = k1 + k2 Jacketed vessel
(this is for parallel-ow, but for counter-ow the sign in Log mean temperature dierence (LMTD)
front of k2 is negative, so that if k2 = k1 , for the same
thermal mass ow rate in both opposite directions, the Marine heat exchangers
gradient of temperature is constant and the temperatures Mechanical engineering
linear in position x with a constant dierence (T2 T1 )
along the exchanger, explaining why the counter current Micro heat exchanger
design countercurrent exchange is the most ecient )
Moving bed heat exchanger
and A and B are two as yet undetermined constants of
integration. Let T10 and T20 be the temperatures at x=0 Packed bed and in particular Packed columns
and let T1L and T2L be the temperatures at the end of
the pipe at x=L. Dene the average temperatures in each Pumpable ice technology
pipe as: Reboiler
Recuperator, or cross plate heat exchanger
L
1
T1 = T1 (x)dx Regenerator
L 0
L
Run around coil
1
T2 = T2 (x)dx. Steam generator (nuclear power)
L 0
Using the solutions above, these temperatures are: Surface condenser
Toroidal expansion joint
Thermosiphon
Choosing any two of the temperatures above eliminates
the constants of integration, letting us nd the other four Thermal wheel, or rotary heat exchanger (including
temperatures. We nd the total energy transferred by in- enthalpy wheel and desiccant wheel)
tegrating the expressions for the time rate of change of
Waste heat
internal energy per unit length:

L 15 References
dU1 du1
= dx = J1 (T1L T10 ) = L(T 2 T 1 )
dt 0 dt
[1] Sadik Kaka; Hongtan Liu (2002). Heat Exchangers: Se-
L lection, Rating and Thermal Design (2nd ed.). CRC Press.
dU2 du2
= dx = J2 (T2L T20 ) = L(T 1 T 2 ). ISBN 0-8493-0902-6.
dt 0 dt
By the conservation of energy, the sum of the two en- [2] Saunders, E. A. (1988). Heat Exchanges: Selection, De-
ergies is zero. The quantity T 2 T 1 is known as the sign and Construction. New York: Longman Scientic
Log mean temperature dierence, and is a measure of the and Technical.
eectiveness of the heat exchanger in transferring heat [3] Industrial Shell-and-tube heat exchangers; American In-
energy. dustrial Heat Transfer Inc.; http://www.aihti.com/pdf/
fbf.pdf

[4] Kister, Henry Z. (1992). Distillation Design (1st ed.).

14 See also McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-034909-6.

Architectural engineering [5] Perry, Robert H.; Green, Don W. (1984). Perrys Chem-
ical Engineers Handbook (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN
Chemical engineering 0-07-049479-7.

Cooling tower [6] Air Pollution Control Orientation Course from website of
the Air Pollution Training Institute
Copper in heat exchangers
[7] Energy savings in steam systems Figure 3a, Layout of sur-
Heat pipe face condenser (scroll to page 11 of 34 PDF pages)

[8] Coulson, J. & Richardson, J. (1983), Chemical Engineer-
ing Design (SI Units), Volume 6, Pergamon Press, Ox-
ford.
[9] Hewitt G, Shires G, Bott T (1994), Process Heat Transfer,
CRC Press Inc, Florida.
[10] Table: Various Types of Gas Liquid Direct Contact Heat
Exchangers (Hewitt G, Shires G & Bott T, 1994)
[11] Kee Robert J.; et al. (2011). The design, fabrication,
and evaluation of a ceramic counter-ow microchannel
heat exchanger. Applied Thermal Engineering. 31 (11):
20042012. doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2011.03.009.
[12] Denkenberger David C.; Brandemuehl Michael J.; Pearce
Joshua M.; Zhai John (2012). Expanded microchannel
heat exchanger: design, fabrication and preliminary ex-
perimental test. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechan-
ical Engineers Part A: Journal of Power and Energy.
226: 532544. doi:10.1177/0957650912442781.
[13] Northcutt B.; Mudawar I. (2012). Enhanced de-
sign of cross-ow microchannel heat exchanger
module for high-performance aircraft gas turbine en-
gines. Journal of Heat Transfer. 134 (6): 061801.
doi:10.1115/1.4006037.
[14] Moallem E.; Padhmanabhan S.; Cremaschi L.; Fisher
D. E. (2012). Experimental investigation of the
surface temperature and water retention eects on
the frosting performance of a compact microchan-
nel heat exchanger for heat pump systems. inter-
national journal of refrigeration. 35 (1): 171186.
doi:10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2011.08.010.
[15] Xu, B., Shi, J., Wang, Y., Chen, J., Li, F., & Li, D. (2014).
Experimental Study of Fouling Performance of Air Con-
ditioning System with Microchannel Heat Exchanger.
[16] D. Denkenberger, M. Parisi, J.M. Pearce. Towards Low-
Cost Microchannel Heat Exchangers: Vehicle Heat Re-
covery Ventilator Prototype. Proceedings of the 10th In-
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ics and Thermodynamics (HEFAT), 1416 July 2014, Or-
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[17] A new conguration of bend tubes for compound opti-
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[18] MICROCHANNEL TECHNOLOGY
[19] Patent 2,046,968 John C Raisley issued July 7, 1936; led
Jan. 8, 1934
[20] Patil, Ramachandra K.; Shende, B.W.; Ghosh, Prasanfa
K. (13 December 1982). Designing a helical-coil heat
exchanger. Chemical Engineering. 92 (24): 8588. Re-
trieved 14 July 2015.
[21] Haraburda, Scott S. (July 1995). Three-Phase Flow?
Consider Helical-Coil Heat Exchanger. Chemical Engi-
neering. 102 (7): 149151. Retrieved 14 July 2015.
[22] US 3805890, Boardman, Charles E. & John H. Germer,
Helical Coil Heat Exchanger, issued 1974
13
[23] Rennie, Timothy J. (2004). Numerical And Experimental
Studies Of A Doublepipe Helical Heat Exchanger (PDF)
(Ph.D.). Montreal: McGill University. pp. 34. Re-
trieved 14 July 2015.
[24] Korane, Ashok B.; Purandare, P.S.; Mali, K.V. (June
2012). Heat Transfer Analysis Of Helical Coil Heat
Exchanger With Circular And Square Coiled Pattern
(PDF). International Journal of Engineering & Science Re-
search. 2 (6): 413423. Retrieved 14 July 2015.
[25] Kuvadiya, Manish N.; Deshmukh, Gopal K.; Patel, Rankit
A.; Bhoi, Ramesh H. (April 2015). Parametric Analysis
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trieved 14 July 2015.
[26] Rennie, Timothy J.; Raghavan, Vijaya G.S.
(September 2005). Experimental studies of a
double-pipe helical heat exchanger. Experimen-
tal Thermal and Fluid Science. 29 (8): 919924.
doi:10.1016/j.expthermusci.2005.02.001. Retrieved 14
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[27] Cooling Text
[28] E.A.D.Saunders (1988). Heat Exchangers:Selection De-
sign And Construction Longman Scientic and Technical
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[29] Microgroove: The Microgroove advantage; http://www.
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[30] Q&A: Microchannel air-cooled condenser;
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[31] White, F.M. Heat and Mass Transfer 1988
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For manufacturing engineers who use heat process-
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2007 Last Accessed 17/3/08
[32] I. A. Wiehe and R. J. Kennedy, Energy & Fuels, 14, 56
63 (2000).
[33] Panchal C;B; and Ebert W., Analysis of Exxon Crude-Oil-
Slip-Stream Coking Data, Proc of Fouling Mitigation of
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[34] Heat Loss from the Respiratory Tract in Cold, Defense
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[36]
14 16 EXTERNAL LINKS

[37] Heyning and Mead; Mead, JG (November 1997).

Thermoregulation in the Mouths of Feeding
Gray Whales. Science. 278 (5340): 11381140.
doi:10.1126/science.278.5340.1138. PMID 9353198.
Retrieved 2010-01-19.

[38] Carotid rete cools brain: Thomsons gazelle -- AskNature

[39] United States Patent 4498525, Fuel/oil heat exchange

system for an engine. United States Patent and Trade-
mark Oce. Retrieved 3 February 2009.

[40] Boeing links Heathrow, Atlanta Trent 895 engine roll-

backs. FlightGlobal.com. Retrieved 3 February 2009.

[41] Market Report: Global Heat Exchanger Market.

Acmite Market Intelligence. External link in |publisher=
(help)

[42] Kay J M & Nedderman R M (1985) Fluid Mechanics and

Transfer Processes, Cambridge University Press

[43] MIT web course on Heat Exchangers. [MIT].

Coulson, J. and Richardson, J (1999). Chemical

Engineering- Fluid Flow. Heat Transfer and Mass
Transfer- Volume 1; Reed Educational & Profes-
sional Publishing LTD

Dogan Eryener (2005), Thermoeconomic opti-

mization of bae spacing for shell and tube heat ex-
changers, Energy Conservation and Management,
Volume 47, Issue 1112, Pages 14781489.

G.F.Hewitt, G.L.Shires, T.R.Bott (1994) Process

Heat Transfer, CRC Press, Inc, United States Of
America.

16 External links
Heat Exchangers at DMOZ

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger Design Software for

Educational Applications (PDF)

Plate Heat Exchanger Maintenance

EU Pressure Equipment Guideline

A Thermal Management Concept For More Electric

Aircraft Power System Application (PDF)
 15

17 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

17.1 Text
Heat exchanger Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_exchanger?oldid=762967070 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Maury
Markowitz, Jdpipe, Ronz, Glenn, Samw, Robbot, COGDEN, Hadal, Dina, Buster2058, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Wolfkeeper, Tom har-
rison, Pashute, Khalid hassani, Rinkjustice, Wmahan, Gunnar Larsson, H Padleckas, Sonett72, Spiy sperry, NathanHurst, Discospin-
ster, Brianhe, Vsmith, Flatline, GPoss, Arcadian, SpeedyGonsales, Slambo, VBGFscJUn3, Linuxlad, Free Bear, Atlant, PAR, Velella,
Kbolino, Firsfron, Mindmatrix, Rtdrury, Rjwilmsi, Dennyboy34, Fred Bradstadt, FlaBot, Old Moonraker, Latka, Margosbot~enwiki, Kri,
Bgwhite, YurikBot, RobotE, DMahalko, Arado, Akamad, Hammadi, Gaius Cornelius, Yjo, David R. Ingham, Grafen, Ravedave, Ospalh,
Zzuuzz, Petri Krohn, Alasdair, Crost, Caballero1967, Veinor, Crystallina, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, UbUb, McGeddon, Oswald-
frank~enwiki, Man with two legs, Gilliam, Chris the speller, Mattythewhite, Jfsamper, Nbarth, OrphanBot, VMS Mosaic, Huon, Mion,
John of Paris, Molerat, Jrvz, Copeland.James.H, Mbeychok, Xofc, JHunterJ, Fedallah, Waggers, Spiel496, IvanLanin, Hyperman 42, Cour-
celles, Mikiemike, CmdrObot, Van helsing, I.C Coils, Iokseng, Funnyfarmofdoom, Gogo Dodo, rico A. Henrique, Thijs!bot, Memty Bot,
Dtgriscom, Pjvpjv, Electron9, Gerry Ashton, Dachande, Davidmack, Sikkema, Uruiamme, Dawnseeker2000, Saidivyav, QuiteUnusual,
Prolog, me Errante, Ioeth, JAnDbot, Albany NY, Ccrrccrr, Rhys jw, Magioladitis, Drewjewbe, Orionist, Tjcognata, Fallschirmjger,
User A1, Curtman, Leftfoot69, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Mausy5043, Rlsheehan, Mike Winters, Salih, Stan J Klimas, Inwind, Vyn-
bos, Sherifelshamy, Kelapstick, Kyle the bot, TXiKiBoT, Technopat, Gmacleod, Pablowerk, Andy Dingley, Biscuittin, Gbawden, SieBot,
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dale, Chaosdruid, Fella22, Acsmith7, DumZiBoT, Anasoapaixao, Addbot, AkhtaBot, Jamesbayliss, Cst17, Glass Sword, Cesiumfrog,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, Themfromspace, Naudefjbot~enwiki, P024005, Zagothal, Daniele Pugliesi, Theseeker4, Mostiquera, Materialscien-
tist, Citation bot, Tristantech, LilHelpa, Xqbot, UBJ 43X, J JMesserly, Azimbaj, Jhbdel, This is ECS, Laura Sterna, Marianne Holmen,
RJPotters, FrescoBot, Jakeboening, Alysonburston, Ijam7727, Mfwitten, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Dfowler001, Red-
Bot, Richard, Hyd12, Trappist the monk, DixonDBot, Vrenator, Stegop, Woodlot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Dewritech, Alexabbrevoir,
FAEP, Pahazzard, Enviromet, Mmeijeri, Dcirovic, Gertdam, Checkingfax, TomasMartin, Donner60, Francesco.Brocchi, Chuispaston-
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Leewestonwiki, Laurenbryant93, Levi Lampe, Prokaryotes, NottNott, HeatExpert, Jihelmers, Monkbot, Mh.hajmohammadi, Annadra,
Taneshajns, Clevervibration, Fluoropolymerguy, Weegeerunner, Loins5, Stonejm9, KasparBot, Oluwa2Chainz, Gsmith14, Dhaya4mail,
Highly Ridiculous, Baptisteg and Anonymous: 348

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