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Abstract
The study drew on a sample (n 284) from the hotel industry in Hong Kong to advance our understanding about the perceived
effectiveness of various reward instruments in achieving specic task and extra-task performance behaviors. We found that the perceived
motivating value of a reward varied according to its type. Non-nancial rewards, for example, were found to play a prominent role in
achieving extra-task performance dimensions. Employee characteristics also affected the perceived performance implications of various
rewards. Nevertheless, caution must be exercised when interpreting the results, as other factors may also inuence rewardperformance
relationships, thus paving the way for future research.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
0278-4319/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2007.08.009
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492 F.F.T. Chiang, T.A. Birtch / International Journal of Hospitality Management 27 (2008) 491503
analysis. In doing so, it ignores the perspective of the found considerable divergence between employees and
employee. Effective reward management entails an in- managers in terms of their service and performance
timate understanding of employee values and preferences perceptions. It has also been acknowledged that managers
(Zingheim and Schuster, 1995). Since employees are the often misunderstand what motivates their employees
direct beneciaries of rewards, their perceptions and (Zacarelli, 1985). Non-managerial positions in the hotel
reactions to different rewards are critical to our under- industry have been characterized by their inadequate pay,
standing of the rewardperformance relationship. Second, low job security, overwork (Karatepe and Sokmen, 2006),
where studies do exist (e.g. Dewald, 2003; Lynn, 2003), and excessive turnover (Pizam and Thornburg, 2000).
these tend to focus on nancial rewards (e.g. tips). Non- Hence, position-based differences in perceptions and
nancial rewards (e.g. recognition, training and develop- preferences may also inuence the rewardperformance
ment, job interest, and time-off), which have become relationship.
increasingly prevalent today are by and large being The above gaps in our understanding not only severely
overlooked. restrict the ability of rms to ensure congruence between
Third, earlier work also lacks a systematic empirical rewards and performance dimensions but also inhibit
investigation of the performance implications of specic further knowledge building in this important area of
reward instruments. A reward found to be effective in organizational studies. An examination of the role that
achieving one performance imperative may not necessarily rewards play in motivating and facilitating the develop-
be successful at motivating another desired behavior ment of desirable behaviors is therefore warranted.
(Komaki, 2003). The effectiveness of a homogeneous The purposes of this study were two-fold. First, we
one-size-ts-all approach to reward (i.e. assuming that a attempted to explore the perceived motivating values of
reward is universally effective at motivating all types of different nancial and non-nancial rewards. More speci-
behavior) is therefore subject to question. It is unlikely cally, we aimed to determine which rewards from an array
to be able to respond to the wide range of perform- of alternatives were more effective in motivating and
ance demands, task and extra-task related, expected of achieving specic task and extra-task performance dimen-
employees. sions. Second, we attempted to examine potential gender
Lastly, in a recent review of hospitality journals and position differences in the perceived performance
(Lucas and Deery, 2004), human-resource-related topics implications of various rewards. To these ends, we begin by
(e.g. general HRM, employee sourcing, development and briey delineating reward and employee performance.
relations) gured prominent on the research agenda. Following the development of our hypotheses and a brief
However, attention to reward management issues and overview of the methods employed, we present the relevant
how human capital advantage can be achieved through analyses and ndings. Directions for future research are
eliciting and rewarding employee behaviors that provide also suggested.
value was scant (Boxall and Purcell, 2003). According to
Pfeffer (1994), employees are the main source of compe- 2. Literature review
titive advantage. Moreover, little attention was afforded to
the potential inuence that employment trends in the hotel 2.1. Reward and performance dimensions
industry have on the rewardperformance relationship, in
particular the inux of women into the workforce and the Reward is a broad construct that has been said to
growth in professional management. For example, tradi- represent anything that an employee may value that an
tionally hotels have been characterized as male-dominated employer is willing to offer in exchange for the employees
environments (Ng and Pine, 2003) in which management contribution (Henderson, 2003). A reward infrastructure
has a masculine ethic/bias (Li and Leung, 2001). Some is typically comprised of a variety of nancial and
evidence even suggests that females have been subjected to non-nancial instruments. Direct (e.g. basic pay), indirect
discriminatory personnel and pay practices (Brownell, (e.g. benets), xed (e.g. salary) and/or variable
1994; Sparrowe and Iverson, 1999). With an increasing (e.g. bonus/incentives) rewards are nancial in nature
number of females entering the industry (Ng and Pine, (Armstrong and Murlis, 2004). Non-nancial rewards are
2003), it is imperative that hotels better understand the also tangible rewards provided and controlled by a rm,
potential gender differences that may arise in terms of although they do not necessarily benet employees in a
preferences and perceptions towards rewards in order to monetary sense. Examples include recognition, promotion,
ensure that the value-added contribution of different power and responsibility, and training and development.
employee groups is maximized (Iverson, 2000; Ng and Given the labor-intensive nature of the hospitality industry
Pine, 2003). and the rising pressure to control costs, non-nancial
Similarly, service delivery is said to involve the interac- rewards are being used increasingly to motivate employee
tion between three constituentsemployees, managers and performance.
customers (Susskind et al., 2000). An accurate under- Employee performance is also a multidimensional
standing of what motivates employees versus managers is construct (Viswesvaran, 2001). It has been dened in terms
therefore critical to customer satisfaction. Ross (1995) of individual characteristics (Barrick and Mount, 1991),
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F.F.T. Chiang, T.A. Birtch / International Journal of Hospitality Management 27 (2008) 491503 493
competencies (Agut et al., 2003), behaviors (Hunt, 1996), to instill team-spirit, enhance cooperation among organi-
and outcomes (Bernardin and Beatty, 1984). Performance zational members, and create exibility (Bartol and
dimensions have also been said to vary according to job, Srivastava, 2002).
position, organization and industry (Brown et al., 1993). Organizations can also utilize a variety of non-nancial
For example, certain performance dimensions, such as the rewards to achieve desired performance behaviors. Train-
ability to satisfy customers and provide a high level of ing and development (T&D), for example, can be used for
service quality, are particularly important performance knowledge/skill acquisition and development, teamwork,
criteria in service-based organizations (Akbaba, 2006) quality improvement, innovation, and productivity
relative to other industries, such as manufacturing, where (Mak and Akhtar, 2003; Schneider et al., 2003). T&D
production costs and efciency are afforded higher priority programs are often employed to develop different compe-
(Slack et al., 1998). tencies (Agut et al., 2003), enabling employees to function
Hospitality organizations operate in a dynamic and more effectively, reduce costly mistakes in performing their
highly competitive environment. To differentiate them- tasks, and enhance job content innovation (Johnson et al.,
selves from their rivals, they are continuously grappling 1986). Opportunities for career growth are also thought to
with ways to develop distinct competencies and capabilities increase employee motivation and have been shown to be
in such performance domains as employee skills, quality, positively correlated with organizational performance
creativity, innovation, team-working, exibility, and (Delery and Doty, 1996). Others, such as promotion and
customer satisfaction (Amit and Schoemaker, 1993; Coff, recognition (praise), are believed to enhance self-esteem.
1997). Customer satisfaction, service orientation, and They have been found to foster a sense of competence
service quality are considered to be the three main pillars (Bartol and Srivastava, 2002), act as positive reinforcers
of differentiation and competitive advantage (Kim et al., (e.g. recognition for a job well done), and provide powerful
2003; Pizam and Ellis, 1999) and are thought to be intrinsic motivation (Deci and Ryan, 2000).
signicantly inuenced by the behaviors and performance The above suggests that nancial and non-nancial
of employees (Schneider and Brown, 1993). According to a rewards produce differential effects and when used
number of researchers (e.g. Bettencourt and Brown, 1997; effectively can realize a wide range of performance
Lee et al., 2006), achieving these strategic priorities dimensions (Lawler, 2000). As theoretical and empirical
involves excelling in several important domains: extra-role research highlights, there is a need to link rewards to
service, role-prescribed customer service, and cooperation. certain behavioral areas. The effectiveness of a reward is
Others (e.g. Akbaba, 2006; Parasuraman et al., 1988) meaningful only when it is interpreted in light of its
suggest service components are critical, such as reliability, outcome. Since rewards differ in the way that they affect
responsiveness, empathy, assurance, courtesy and compe- employee behavior, it is important to determine which
tence, communication, customer understanding, accuracy types of rewards are perceived as most effective by
and speed of service, and personalization. For the services employees for satisfying specic task and extra-task-related
industry, performance dimensions have been classied as dimensions of performance.
either task or extra-task (i.e. relational, process, and
outcome) behaviors (Levesque and McDougall, 1996; 2.3. Hypotheses
Parasuraman et al., 1991).
Financial rewards represent the foundation of any
2.2. The reward-performance relationship reward system and provide the instrumental means by
which various human needs are satised either directly or
There is considerable debate surrounding which rewards, indirectly. Financial rewards are signicant not only in
nancial and non-nancial, are more effective at inuen- terms of their instrumental value as a medium of exchange,
cing employee behavior (Deci et al., 1999). The utility and but are also a highly tangible means of recognizing an
incentive values of reward are embedded in a variety of individuals worth, improving self-esteem, and symbolizing
theoretical underpinnings. According to the agency per- status and achievement (Armstrong, 1996). In other words,
spective, nancial rewards, such as variable pay, can be they serve both instrumental (monetary incentives) and
used by an employer to align employees interests with symbolic (recognition) motivational properties (Stajkovic
those of the organization (Eisenhardt, 1989). Expectancy and Luthans, 2001). Unlike nancial rewards, non-
theory also asserts that employee behavior can be directed nancial rewards do not normally provide employees with
through the establishment of a visible link between reward a direct or instant material benet, although in some
and performance (Lawler and Jenkins, 1992). Because of instances, promotion or T&D may signal upcoming
their different nature, rewards can produce differential nancial returns (e.g. pay rise). Cognitively, the anticipa-
impacts on employee behavior. Individual incentives tion of a better career future or further investment in ones
rewards, for instance, are thought to foster a performance development may in turn have a motivating impact on
culture and promote exibility, dynamism, entrepreneurial employee behavior.
spirit and careful allocation of resources (Kessler Since nancial rewards are more universal (Bartol and
and Purcell, 1992, p. 21). Team-based rewards are believed Srivastava, 2002), direct and visible (Montemayor, 1996),
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494 F.F.T. Chiang, T.A. Birtch / International Journal of Hospitality Management 27 (2008) 491503
easier to measure and compare, and can be used more H2b. The perceived motivational effect of nancial
exibly (Stredwick, 2000), individuals tend to perceive rewards on various task and extra-task performance
them as having higher instrumental and incentive value dimensions should be greater for non-managerial than
(Porter and Lawler, 1968) and consequently as being worth managerial employees.
extra effort (Stajkovic and Luthans, 2001). Hence,
3. Methodology
H1. The perceived motivational effect of nancial rewards
on various task and extra-task performance dimensions 3.1. Procedure and sample
should be greater than that of non-nancial rewards.
Data collection was based on both qualitative and
Employee characteristics, such as gender (female versus quantitative methods. A qualitative approach was essential
male) and position (managerial versus non-managerial) are to conrming the types of rewards and performance
also thought to shape reward perceptions and preferences dimensions identied in the literature with organizations.
(Mamman et al., 1996). The relative importance that This process involved interviewing senior managers,
individuals with different characteristics attach to nancial human resource and compensation professionals, and
and non-nancial rewards, for example, money, power, front-line and back ofce staff in hotels and was intended
training, or benets, ultimately affects their motivational to gain a broader understanding of current reward and
potential and effectiveness. performance management practices. The qualitative phase
In terms of gender, men and women are thought to differ was also instrumental to ensuring reliability, validity, and
greatly in their work-related values and reward expecta- comparability of the constructs used.
tions (Iverson, 2000; Jackson et al., 1992) and performance Measures extracted from the literature and conrmed
behaviors (Chiu and Tsai, 2006). The belief that a job is during the qualitative phase were then used to develop a self-
psychologically more central to men than women suggests administered questionnaire. Prior to distributing the ques-
that task-related rewards, such as promotion, power and tionnaire, a pilot test was conducted to ensure that the
responsibility, and job interest, are more important to male instrument would be fully understood by respondents.
employees. Females, on the other hand, are thought to Following some ne-tuning, questionnaires were distributed
place greater value on social interaction, work quality, to participants via the heads of various functions, including
work environment, and workfamily balance (Jackson human resources, food and beverage, front ofce, house-
et al., 1992). That is, rewards such as time-off and keeping, sales and marketing, engineering, public relations,
recognition should be valued more. Empirical evidence and accounting/nance. All job categories in participating
conrms that compared with females, males are more hotels were represented to minimize sample bias.
assertive and task-oriented than relationship-oriented The sampling procedure yielded 284 valid responses
(Eagly et al., 1995). Moreover, as females tend to be less from seven hotels of comparable size and scope (mainly
individualistic and competitive in their work environments 4- and 5-star) located in Hong Kong, representing a
(Subich et al., 1989), team-based bonuses are likely to be response rate of 36 percent. In general, respondents were of
preferred more. Thus, Chinese ethnic origin, represented managerial and non-
managerial levels of the hierarchy, and tended to have been
H2a. The perceived motivational effect of nancial employed with the same organization for an average of
rewards on various task and extra-task performance 5 years. A demographic prole of respondents is provided
dimensions should be greater for male than female in Table 1.
employees.
3.2. Measures
Position-related differences are also thought to exist.
Motivation literature (Maslow, 1954) suggests that em- The 10 rewards and 12 performance dimensions included
ployees at different levels in the organizational hierarchy in the survey were consistent with the extant literature
are driven by different needs. Employees at senior ranks (Bateman et al., 2002; Milkovich and Newman, 2005;
(i.e. managerial) tend to be motivated more by higher- Viswesvaran, 2001). The former included both nancial
order needs (intrinsic rewards). By contrast, for those at (i.e. basic salary, individual bonus/tips, team-based bonus)
lower levels in the hierarchy (i.e. non-managerial employ- and non-nancial rewards (i.e. recognition, promotion,
ees), nancial and security rewards are considered more time-off, job security, power/responsibility, training and
important. Social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1985) development, and job interest) commonly used in the
asserts that status identity is an important variable industry. The latter encompassed accuracy of work,
associated with work effort and reward outcomes. In- knowledge, customer-related services, personal grooming,
dividuals classify themselves into multiple hierarchically teamwork, creativity, problem solving, communication
organized social categories (Stryker, 1968). In turn, identity skills, effort, honesty, supervision, and ability to generate
salience motivates attitudes and behaviors in support of the prots/sales. These performance dimensions were extracted
identity and work role (Ashforth and Mael, 1989). Thus, from Levesque and McDougalls (1996) and Parasuraman
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F.F.T. Chiang, T.A. Birtch / International Journal of Hospitality Management 27 (2008) 491503 495
Table 1 Table 2
Characteristics of survey respondents (n 284) Perceived reward-performance linkages
Gender Task
Female 70 Competency/knowledge
Male 30 Basic salary increase 1 3.74 1.18
Individual bonus/tips 2 3.68 1.14
Age Promotion opportunities 3 3.67 1.01
1824 48 Training and development 4 3.61 1.24
2534 25 Job interest 5 3.58 1.16
3544 16 Recognition awards 6 3.44 1.08
4554 9 Team bonus/incentives 7 3.30 1.12
455 2 Responsibility/power 8 3.26 1.07
Job security 9 2.95 1.10
Position Time-off 10 2.46 1.18
Non-managerial 72
Managerial 28 Extra-task
Accuracy of work
Department Basic salary increase 1 3.94 1.08
Accounting/nance 4 Individual bonus/tips 2 3.91 1.13
Engineering 5 Promotion opportunities 3 3.70 1.02
F and B 28 Recognition awards 4 3.57 1.04
Front ofce 25 Team bonus/incentives 5 3.55 1.10
Housekeeping 20 Training and development 6 3.42 1.27
Human resources 4 Job interest 7 3.34 1.23
Purchasing 3 Responsibility/power 8 3.18 1.08
Time-off 9 2.51 1.24
Public relations 3
Job security 10 2.94 1.09
Sales and marketing 8
Relational
Education
Customer-related services
Secondary or below 37
Basic salary increase 1 4.39 0.84
Diploma 18 Individual bonus/tips 2 4.28 1.00
Professional/degree 44 Recognition awards 3 3.76 0.92
4 Master 1 Promotion opportunities 4 3.75 0.89
Job interest 5 3.67 1.26
Team bonus/incentives 6 3.51 1.02
Responsibility/power 7 3.18 1.04
et al.s (1991) classication: task and extra-task (i.e. Training and development 8 3.16 1.22
relational, process, and outcome) behaviors. The above Job security 9 3.03 1.07
Time-off 10 2.61 1.25
reward and performance constructs are considered to be
the most relevant and important to the service industry Personal grooming
Basic salary increase 1 3.72 1.24
(Bettencourt and Brown, 1997; Parasuraman et al., 1988).
Individual bonus/tips 2 3.56 1.34
Using multi-dimensional constructs for reward and Recognition awards 3 3.51 1.11
performance helps to identify more precisely where specic Team bonus 4 3.16 1.24
differences in the rewardperformance relationships lie. To Promotion opportunities 5 3.22 1.14
Time-off 6 2.34 1.19
measure the various rewardperformance relationships, Job security 7 2.72 1.05
respondents were asked to select rewards from the 10 cate- Responsibility/power 8 2.69 1.10
gories and rate them in order of importance (from 1 to 5) Training and development 9 2.79 1.19
according to their perceived effectiveness for achieving Job interest 10 3.25 1.26
each of the task and extra-task performance dimensions. Teamwork
Team bonus/incentives 1 3.68 1.28
Promotion opportunities 2 3.42 1.08
4. Findings
Job interest 3 3.41 1.20
Basic salary increase 4 3.40 1.28
Mean scores, rank results, and a summary of the ndings Recognition awards 5 3.39 1.16
for perceived reward effectiveness in accordance with the Individual bonus/tips 6 3.31 1.25
Responsibility/power 7 3.16 1.11
task and extra-task-related performance dimensions are Job security 8 3.01 1.07
provided in Table 2. Training and development 9 2.99 1.23
Time-off 10 2.49 1.16
4.1. Financial versus non-financial rewards and task and Process
extra-task performance dimensions Innovative and creativity
Promotion opportunities 1 3.99 1.32
Recognition awards 2 3.71 1.06
Hypothesis (H1) was tested by comparing the perceived
effectiveness of different reward instruments affecting each
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Performance dimensions Rank Mean s.d. Performance dimensions Rank Mean s.d.
Table 3
Means, standard deviations, and univariate Fs results for rewardperformance linkages by gender and position
Table 3 (continued )
Table 3 (continued )
Notes: (1) The higher the score, the higher the perceived rewardperformance linkages. (2) *po.05; **po.01; ***po.001 (two-tailed).
orientation than male respondents. For example, they perceived a stronger link between non-nancial rewards
attached more value to basic salary increase and individual and various performance behaviors versus their non-
bonus/tips than their male counterparts. By comparison, managerial counterparts who valued nancial rewards
male respondents perceived job interest and team-based more.
bonus as relatively more important to motivating their
behaviors. No signicant differences in relation to other 5. Discussion
rewardperformance relationships were apparent. Thus,
the results refute Hypothesis H2a that the motivational This study set out to examine two critical aspects of the
effects of nancial rewards on various performance rewardperformance relationship yet to be sufciently
dimensions will be higher for male than female employees. addressed by prior research. First, we set out to examine
For Hypothesis (H2b), the present research found whether certain types of rewards are more appropriate than
signicant position-related differences in terms of the others at achieving particular task and extra-task perfor-
performance implications of certain reward instruments mance dimensions. Second, we explored the possibility that
(see Table 3). For example, the perceived motivational the perceived performance implications of a range of
effects of non-nancial rewards (i.e. job interest, recogni- reward instruments may vary according to gender and
tion, responsibility and power, promotion, and training position.
and development opportunities) on various performance
dimensions were much higher for managerial than non- 5.1. Findings
managerial respondents. On the contrary, non-managerial
employees considered basic salary increase, individual As hypothesized, the ndings demonstrate that nancial
bonus, and time-off as being more important. Overall, rewards do indeed possess the greatest effects on perfor-
the relationships between non-nancial rewards and mance overall. The ndings also conrm that rewards
performance were perceived as being stronger by manage- possess differential performance implications. In particu-
rial employees and nancial reward and performance lar, nancial rewards, such as basic salary increase and
linkages were considered stronger by non-managerial individual-based bonuses/tips, were viewed to provide
employees. Therefore, Hypothesis H2b, that the perceived signicant motivational potential, especially for realizing
motivational effects of nancial rewards on various task task-, relational-, and outcome-performance dimensions.
and extra-task performance dimensions will be greater for Interestingly, in addition to nancial rewards, non-
non-managerial than managerial employees, is supported. nancial rewards were also perceived as important to the
To summarize, both gender and position affected attainment of various performance dimensions. Promotion
rewardperformance perceptions. Female employees were and recognition, for example, were considered highly
found to possess a somewhat higher orientation toward effective for inuencing behaviors such as innovation,
nancial rewards and male employees viewed job interest problem solving, honesty, and acting independently. This
as being relatively more important. Managerial employees tells us that non-nancial rewards also play an important
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