Sociology Paper 1 (November 2005)

Section A: Research Methods

1. Sources of information that the sociologist has not collected for
him/herself are known as secondary sources. The UK Census a national
survey of the population conducted every ten years by the government is
an example of a secondary source. This, along with regular studies such as
the National Household Survey, keep the government (and sociologists) up
to date with changing social trends in Britain and allow social policy to be
planned. However, sociologists take care not to use government statistics
uncritically.

Other secondary sources include, for example, newspaper reports, letters,

diaries and autobiographies produced by individuals. The secondary sources
used by sociologists may be contemporary or historical, and the data
available from them may be primarily quantitative or qualitative. When
sociologists refer to existing sociological studies by other writers in their own
research, these become secondary sources.

Sociologists find secondary sources very useful but they have to be treated
with great caution. Their reliability and validity are open to question, and
often they do not provide the exact information required by a sociologist for
their research.

(a) What is meant by the following terms

i. Social trends
[2]

A notable pattern of change displayed by a social indicator or index

A persistent change in social relations and social structure over
time.

ii. Quantitative data [2]

Information that is expressed in numerical or statistical form. Information

that can be counted in some way.

iii. Validity? [2]

1
Information or research is valid if it is true to life. It measures what happens
accurately and reflects reality in some way.

(b) Suggest two advantages for a sociologist of using data from a

government census. [4]

Advantages include:

cheap source of data researchers may have limited resources so if

the preliminary research has been done for you with larger samples it
will cost less money
national coverage so representative and statistically
significant have access to much larger samples so can make useful
comparisons over time before and after studies
reliable data so probably high in validity government surveys
are usually well planned and organised and meet the high standards
sociologists require
readily accessible it is very easy to gain access to the information
government offices/libraries/internet

(c) Give three reasons why sociologists are careful not to use
government statistics uncritically. [6]

Reasons include:

government statistics are collected for non- sociological

purposes they have been collected by civil servants not sociologists
and they may not be in the form that is required
they may contain bias the results may have been manipulated for
political reasons eg crime statistics may be distorted so that the
outcome suits the purposes of say the government
they are socially constructed -as in the case of
suicide/poverty/crime statistics -
they may be out of date trends change very quickly and what is
reliable in one year may not be in the next
The research may be unreliable statistics often give a misleading
impression eg the sharp rise in divorce after 1970 when a new law
made it easier does not mean there were more people unhappy with
their marriage than before

2
 (d) Suggest three reasons why newspaper reports may contain bias.
[6]

Reasons for bias include:

poor journalism may be badly written and contain information that

is not true or accurate
need to sell papers leading to sensationalism and distortion
tabloid newspapers especially depend on lurid photos and emotive
articles
editorial direction and/or values of the owners they may only
look at things from one political viewpoint
government censorship - articles may have to be altered to fit in
with government guidelines or laws
lack of access to relevant sources of information journalists
may not have access to the internet or libraries to help them with their
research

(e) Suggest two advantages and two limitations of using historical

documents as a secondary source in sociological research. [8]

Advantages include:

access to events in the past May support or give other evidence

on past events. For example, statistics on disease in the early part of
the century may be supported by personal documents from physicians
(doctors) of the time.
cheap and can be easily accessible May be found quite easily in
personal collections, published form, government archives, libraries or
museums or the internet
useful for drawing historical comparisons - can look at data such
as diaries, letters, personal accounts which all focus on the same event
and compare them
helpful in identifying social changes sources of information about
a particular society, event, etc. can give insight into what was
happening and how society has changed
they can give a picture of how people felt and lived at a
particular time - Can give insight to a particular situation or period in
time and what was going on.

3
limitations include:

content may reflect the bias of the writer Personal accounts only
say what the person wanted others to know they do not tell us what
is missed out.
the authenticity may be difficult to establish - if the person is no
longer alive, then there is no way of checking his/her account. For
example, the case of the Hitler diaries that proved to be a hoax.
not always available or appropriate for a particular study - some
documents are in private collections so it may be difficult to get
permission to use them in research. This may also be the case with
government documents that may be subject to laws regarding
confidentiality and time lapses before disclosure.
quantitative sources may be based on unreliable methods
there is no way of checking how the data was collected so it is difficult
to know how accurate the data is

4
Section B: Culture and Socialisation
2. People who are not socialised into the norms and values of society are
almost unrecognisable as humans in their behaviour.

(a) What is meant by the term norms? [2]

Norms are socially expected patterns of behaviour.

(b) Describe two examples of how people learn the norms and values
of society [4]

Norms are the unspoken an unwritten rules of behaviour in everyday life.

We learn them through socialisation.

Examples might include:

Primary Socialisation - children learn from their parents what they should
or shouldnt do in a particular situation for example how to behave at the
table or in other social situations

Secondary Socialisation - we continue learning throughout life- for

example at school or work there are expectations and people learn the basic
attitudes and skills necessary to mix socially with others

(c) Explain why the values that people hold may vary from one group to
another. [6]

Values describe a shared moral system where most people believe in

certain ideas

sub-cultures:

Even if there is an overall shared culture, within it there are clearly

distinguishable sets of values and behaviour that form a subculture
Within these subcultures clear variations exist in the values that people
hold and the pattern of behaviour that they engage in
Within any cultures there are subcultures they are linked to ethnic
social class and age divisions in society
People in these subcultures may be socialised differently and learn
different values according to social class; ethnic group; age group;

5
Reasons they might vary:

the influence of social class the values of the working class are
different from those of the middle class although the extent of those
differences is a matter of debate. Research has suggested that working
class children are brought up in a more rigid way by their parents and
there is less stress on academic success. Working class children do not
receive as much help with reading and writing as middle class children.
All this has consequences for their future success at school and their
future employment
the influence of ethnicity People from different ethnic groups may
bring up their children to have specific values that may differ from the
mainstream values of British society. For example the children of
Indian immigrants to Britain will most likely follow the Hindu or Muslim
religions. They may have different views about the role of family and
the correct behaviour for females especially in terms of marriage which
may be arranged.
the influence of age a typical example would be a youth
subculture, these subcultures emerge for each generation. In each
generation there is a variety of styles of dress; types of music; special
language and attitudes that distinguish youth from older people and
from children. These values make youth distinct or different from the
rest of society but rarely do they represent a complete rejection of the
overall culture

(d) To what extent is socialisation more important than instinct in

shaping human behaviour? [8]

Biologists have argued that genetic influence can explain social

behaviour. For example, some have argued that aggression or male
and female behaviour are inherited.
If we use the term instinct we mean that behaviour is passed on
through the genes from parents to children.
When sociologists talk about nurture they are referring to all the social
behaviour we learn through the socialisation process.
This means the things we do are a result of what we have learned.
This means that our experiences and our environment play a large
part in shaping our behaviour.
Our social behaviour comes from the expectations and guidelines
found within each society or culture.

6
 Recent research into genetics has made a strong case for the nature
argument.

However, there are huge variations in social behaviour between different

cultures that cannot be explained by genetic inheritance

Each society/culture does things in different ways.

This is because we are socialised into accepting and demonstrating the
behaviour that is seen as important and normal in our society.
To support your arguments that socialisation is more important than
instinct talk about unsocialised children who have been found.
Well-documented cases suggest that children who do not grow up with
other humans cannot make up for this later.
One way to test the influence of nature or nurture would be to study
the ways in which people develop without human/social contact.
There are some case studies of wild children, these are children who,
for one reason or another, have been deprived of normal human
contact

Talk briefly about one of them for example:

The wild boy of Aveyron

In 1800, a boy of about 12 years of age was found in a forest in the

South of France. He did not appear to have any parents and was
taken to an orphanage. He was then put into the care of a doctor who
wanted to study his progress.
When he was first found he could not speak. He did make strange
noises and would howl in the dark. He hated wearing clothes, was not
toilet trained and he appeared not to feel cold or heat. He was
observed to go out and play in the snow with no clothes and
apparently he did not suffer from this in fact, he seemed to enjoy it.
He lived until he was about forty years old. During this time he did
learn some words. He also learned to use the toilet, wear clothes and
dress himself. However, he never developed fully.

Nature
When sociologists talk about nature they are referring to what a person
inherits through their genes. This is the genetic inheritance of a
person. Each individual inherits 50% of their genes from their mother and

7
50% from their father. Genes determine such things as what sex you will be
and the colour of your eyes.

However, biologists have argued that genetic influence can also explain
social behaviour and characteristics. For example, some have argued that
aggression, personality and intelligence are all inherited. If we use the
term, instinct, this means that behaviour is programmed in the genes.

Nurture
When sociologists talk about nurture they are referring to all the behaviours
we learn through the socialisation process. The things we do are a result
of what we have learned. This means that our experiences and our
environment play a large part in shaping our behaviour. Our social
behaviours come from the expectations and guidelines found within each
society and culture.

Importance of the socialisation process

Sociologists think socialisation is important because it helps to keep

social order.
Some have argued that for society to exist and survive people have to
find a way to live together without constant fighting. Also, large
societies cannot rely on the forces of law and order to keep the peace
and make sure people obey the rules.
The socialisation process allows people to learn the rules of society
and to see what happens if these rules are broken.

All sociologists see socialisation as very important. They disagree on

whether it benefits everyone in society or whether it gives some groups more
advantages than others

3. In most societies, there are certain types of behaviour that are regarded
as appropriate for one gender and inappropriate for the other.

(a) What is meant by the term gender?

[2]

Gender refers to the social expectations (or roles) associated with males and
females respectively.

8
 (b) Describe two examples of appropriate gender behaviour in your
society [4]

Likely answers may focus on:

Girls are encouraged to be more nurturing and play a more passive role.
Mothers may encourage their daughters to pay more attention to their
appearance and take an interest in household activities like cooking

Boys are encouraged to be more active and aggressive

Fathers may encourage their sons to take a more active interest in sports
and outdoor pursuits like camping and fishing

(c) Explain how gender roles are learned. [6]

Parents treat boys and girls in different ways

Anne Oakley suggests that in the early years of life there are four ways in
which gender socialisation takes place

Manipulation
Parents encourage behaviour which they deem as suitable for their childs
sex and discourage behaviour which is associated with the other sex so girls
may be encouraged to pay more attention to their appearance than boys

Canalisation
Children are often channeled by their parents to do activities or to play with
toys which they think are appropriate for their sex
Girls may be encouraged to play with dolls or household items like irons or
play kitchens these encourage an interest in doing housework and being a
mother
Boys may be given cars/trains/sports equipment and are often encouraged in
active outdoor play

Verbal Appellations
The way that parents talk to their children eg good girl naughty boy - they
then learn from a young age how important gender is

Different Activities
Girls and boys are often socialised differently they are encouraged to play
different kinds of games and with different types of toys
Girls are expected to play indoors and help their mothers
Boys have more freedom to play outdoors and be more active
9
 (d) What pressures encourage people to conform to their gender roles?
[8]

People receive messages from agencies of socialisation that often

encourage them to conform to their gender roles.
These groups often reinforce gender stereotypes and put pressure on
people to conform.

Peer Group
Friends of the same age play a big part in establishing gender roles
Children learn from when they are young from their peers what is
appropriate behaviour for their sex
The learn that there are consequence if they play to much with the
other sex or behave too much like them
This can take the form of name calling or bullying
It is worse for boys
Girls are allowed to be tomboys but boys who like more feminine
activities are scorned

Education
Although boys and girls study the same things they learn to behave
differently in the classroom and the playground
Teachers may treat them differently and so reinforce gender roles
The way some subjects are taught and the books that are used may
reinforce this
Children may learn that some subjects are more appropriate for boys
and some for girls
At higher education fewer girls than boys choose to study science

Media images
TV/magazine/books/music all carry representations of gender
according to sociologists
Boys will often be portrayed in stories as adventurous heroes who carry
out brave and heroic deeds
Girls are portrayed as less active and often helpless heroines who need
the help of boys to save them

Parental reaction
Parents have many ways of influencing their childrens behaviour
Children are often rewarded for conforming to the stereotypes that
parents have of them
Parents act as role models their example in terms of gender roles has
a very strong impact on the child who tries to emulate them
10
Section C: Social Stratification
4. Max Weber suggested that there are three factors that divide people in
modern societies: power, status and economic factors.

(a) What is meant by the term status?

[2]

Status refers to the amount of prestige we give to a person based on such

characteristics as occupation, accent, education, etc.

(b) Describe two ways that economic factors may divide people in
modern societies.
[4]

Divisions based on:

Wealth - inheriting a house or land from parents/family the ownership

of personal savings - the ownership of art, jewellery and other valuable
items having these forms of wealth is an important indicator of social
class position. The very wealthy do not need to work
Income it is important because it has consequences for peoples life
chances those with higher incomes will be able to pay for private health
care and education
Housing - Type of house detached/terrace/semi; bought or rented.
Also often certain neighbourhoods or even parts of the country where
people buy/rent their houses are associated with certain social classes.
Those with a low income may find themselves without a choice and suffer
from housing which is damp or overcrowded
Position in the division of labour/occupation the type of job that
you have gives you status. For example a doctor will have a higher status
than a nurse.
Control of household finance Many feminists see society as being
patriarchal, that is, dominated by men. Many feminists argue that men
have the most power in families and tend to have better jobs in terms of
pay and status.
Comsumption patterns - where people shop, the goods they buy, how
much they spend etc. We tend to associate certain shops with certain
social classes for example Harrods is associated with a certain class of
people. In modern society buying things is important to us. Many people
feel it is important to have a certain lifestyle. Money can buy most things,
eg. mobile phone and Play Stations.

11
 (c) Explain how the working class differs from the middle class [6]

Some important points to note about class

Social classes are groups of people who share a similar economic

position through occupation, income an ownership of wealth, as well as
having similar levels of education, status, lifestyle (i.e. living standards)
and power
Class systems are not based on religion or law or race, but on
economic factors such as jobs and money
Class societies are open societies in that people can experience
downward or upward social mobility i.e. they can move up or down the
class structure through jobs, the acquisition of wealth or marriage
Class systems are meritocratic i.e. people are not born into ascribed
roles but are encouraged to better themselves through achievement at
school, and at work through working hard and gaining promotion

The working class differs from the middle class in a number of ways

Values the members of each class share similar values:

Working class values

loyalty to workmates
a belief in pursuing goals as a group rather than individually
an emphasis on immediate gratification (i.e. enjoy yourself now)
a fatalistic attitude to life believing that life chances depend on luck
a belief in traditional conjugal roles (i.e. roles of husbands and wives)

Middle class values

individualism
a belief in deferred gratification (i.e. planning for the future)
an image of society as a place where there are opportunities for
individuals who work hard
a belief in joint conjugal roles (i.e. roles of husbands and wives)

Health living longer and staying healthy seems to be associated with

different social groups

12
Working class

Working class people experience poorer mortality than the middle class
working class people are more likely to die before retirement of cancer
stroke and heart disease than middle class people
working class people are three times more likely to have a serious
illness

Middle class

A professional can expect to live on average seven years longer than

an unskilled working man
Visit the doctor more often and tend to have more regular checkups
Have a better diet and take more exercise so have less serious illness
than working class people

Education - success seems to be associated with different social groups

Working class

less likely to attend nursery school

more likely to start school unable to read
more likely to get fewer GCSEs or to get low grades
less likely to get into Year 12 and go to university
Less likely get a well paid job because of insufficient qualifications

Middle class

more affluent people are more successful than poorer people

higher levels of education which in turn leads to better careers
parents have enough money for their children to stay at school or go
on to university
parents have greater expectations that their children will do well
Work economic success seems to be associated with different social
groups

Working class

The working class tend to receive lower wages

They enjoy less job security
They receive fewer fringe benefits than the middle class
Have less chances for promotion

13
Middle class

Are often in professional jobs and so get paid more than the working
class
Have good job security
Get more benefits and perks from their job
Have more contacts which may help with promotion or finding
employment

(d) To what extent are class divisions disappearing in modern societies?

[8]

Media, politicians and even some sociologists suggest that class is dead
or dying.
Class is based on occupation and money people earn from their
occupations.
It is said that class today is less important than what occupation you
have and how much money you spend
Class is not about workers producing things in factories like before but
about buying things
The importance of consumption and the recognition of other aspects of
stratification have changed the way we think about class

But there is strong evidence that it remains very important.

The power of the elite within society is based upon;

Income
Wealth
A network of social connections sometimes known as the old boys
network

The least powerful within society still have few opportunities to escape from
poverty

Life chances are determined by factors such as:

Social class
Gender
Schooling
Ethnicity, etc

14
 differences in life chances still exist and other aspects of inequality
such as gender and ethnicity have become as important or more
important than class.

For example

ethnic minorities often face a glass ceiling at work due to discrimination

upon racial grounds; which can be either overt (or obvious), or covert
(in other words, hidden).
Women also face the same problem.
There is also a group of people who dont do well and have not
benefited from the new affluence in society, they are the underclass

the Underclass
Members of the underclass form norms and values that often differ to
the rest of society.
They are caught in a poverty trap (or cycle) from which they find very
difficult to escape from.
This is despite changes to the welfare and benefits system designed to
get welfare claimants into work.

Embourgeoisement
This is a term that means becoming bourgeois or becoming middle class.

The term has been used as the basis of a theory that suggests that the
manual working class are becoming more like the middle class.
The argument is that all industrial societies have seen an increase in
equality and affluence since the end of the Second World War.

For example:

increased salaries
greater job security
higher disposable income

These changes have eroded (worn away/changed) the distinctive values and
lifestyle of the working class.

As the incomes of the working class have increased, so have their

capacity to buy consumer goods such as mobile phones, PCs, iPods,
cars and their own homes.

15
 Those who put forward the theory of embourgeoisement argue that
working class people are also adopting middle-class values and
lifestyles to match their incomes.
So

Even though there are more chances for embourgeoisement we cant

say that class divisions are disappearing in modern societies
the claim that Britain is becoming a meritocrary is questionable. The
odds still seem to be stacked in favour of those at the top, there is still
not equality of opportunity

Definitions of words that would be useful
meritocracy = when those with talent and ability, and who put in effort,
get the highest positions in society regardless of background or class
Embourgeoisement = assumption of middle-class values: when the
affluent working class becomes part of the middle

5. The main difference between caste and class societies is that in a class-
based society there is social mobility.

(a) What is meant by the term social mobility?

[2]

Social mobility means the movement of people up and down the social scale.

(b) Describe two ways in which a person can achieve a higher social
position [4]

Examples:

Job promotion they can work hard and get a better position
in the company that they work in. for example they could start
out on the factory floor but end up in a management position if
they work hard and have talent.
Entrepreneurial success they could start their own company
and through a combination of luck and hard work could become
successful and make a lot of money. They could then achieve a
higher social position

16
 (c) Explain the main features of the caste system. [6]

Features:
absence of social mobility the status of an individual is determined
by his birth (ascribed) and not by selection or by accomplishments
(achieved). This is a closed society with little or no chance of upward
mobility
rules against marriage outside of ones caste the caste system
imposes restrictions on marriage - inter-caste marriages are still looked
down upon in traditional Indian society.
status hierarchy certain occupations are very much associated with
the caste system. Each caste has its own specific occupations which are
almost hereditary. Some occupations are considered superior and sacred
while certain others degrading and inferior. There is not much scope for
individual talent, aptitude, enterprise or abilities
underpinned by religious beliefs religion can be seen as a way of
keeping control of people. This is because religion lays down what is right
and wrong and what will happen if the rules are broken. People may be
afraid to break the rules because they will be rejected by other believers
or they may also be afraid they will be punished in the afterlife
the various castes are rigidly separated - Each caste has its own
customs, traditions practices and rituals. It has its own informal rules,
regulations and procedures.
formally legalised the caste rules are enforced strictly through fear of
religious and political authority - there are caste councils to regulate the
conduct of members

(d) Assess how much social mobility there is in modern societies [8]

Social mobility is defined as the ability to be able to move up the hierarchy

(embourgeoisement) or down the hierarchy (proletarianisation) from
one social group to another.

embourgeoisement, meaning the adoption of the norms and values of the

bourgeoisie

proletarianisation, meaning as more work becomes deskilled the workers

become proletarian

Sociologists generally refer to two forms of social mobility: vertical and

horizontal.

17
 Vertical mobility describes movement between strata both up and down
the stratification system. It can usually be seen as an example of long-
range mobility, displaying a change in class status and can be examined
through:

- intra-generational, which is mobility that describes movement of an

individual over his or her lifetime, for example, as a result of changing
career or promotion

- inter-generational, which is mobility that refers to movement

between generations. As mentioned earlier, people who grew up in
working class areas with working class parents have themselves
become middle class through obtaining middle class lifestyles.

Horizontal mobility is a geographical term used to describe movement

around the country to new forms of similar employment. This can be
seen as short-range mobility, because there is little change in the
individuals class status.

How much social mobility is there?

There are a number of practical problems when conducting research into

whether social mobility (and social closure) either exist or are possible within
the class structure of the UK.

Samples of the population need to be quite large in order to represent

the whole of the UK.

It might be that social mobility and social closure have been easier for
certain generations depending on the availability of certain types of work
or the conditions of the economy.

Women have not been represented in much of the work done on social
mobility and social closure, despite their presence in the workforce in
small numbers in the past to their present very strong position in the
labour market now.

Look at these studies and give an example from one of

them

Sociologists have carried out the following influential studies concerned with
questions of social mobility.

18
The Social Mobility in Britain Study by Glass (1954)

Glass studied inter-generational mobility in the UK of men only. He drew a

number of conclusions, including:

While individuals did move up and down the hierarchy, it was generally
short-range and within certain types of work only, so that few people
broke through from manual work to professional work.

Generally the pattern was of sons taking similar jobs with a similar status
to their father.

While it was possible to rise in the system, membership of the middle

classes seemed to offer children some protection from dropping back
down into lower-status work.

He suggested this was an example of self-recruitment.

As this study only included men and excluded women it is considered to

be dated.

The Oxford Mobility Studies by Goldthorpe et al. (1972, 1980 and

1986)

Goldthorpe et al. studied only men aged between 20 and 64 years; women
were not included. They found that two-thirds of the sons of unskilled or
semi-skilled workers were in manual occupations. Four percent of blue-collar
workers came from professional backgrounds. Approximately thirty percent
of professionals were from working class backgrounds. Downward mobility
appeared to be declining, but more men from working class backgrounds
were unemployed.

Among the conclusions of these studies were the following:

Long-range social mobility rates had increased in the UK since after World
War Two, suggesting that class categories and society had become more
open.

However, it was suggested that this increase could have been due to
changes in the occupational structure of the UK; de-industrialisation had
led to fewer traditional working class jobs.

19
Marshall, Rose, Newby and Vogler, Social Class in Modern Britain
(referred to as the Essex Study) (1988)

This study looked at both male and female rates of mobility. The findings
were based on the class of the respondent (male or female) and the class of
the chief childhood supporter (male or female). The study found high rates
of upward mobility overall, including:

For men, the rates were similar to those found in the Oxford studies.

For women there was evidence of upward and downward mobility into
class 3, that is, routine, non-manual work.

The conclusions of this study were that the expansion of white-collar

jobs, after de-industrialisation, explained the high rates of upward
mobility.

Large numbers of women were working in routine, non-manual

occupations, such as clerical, admin and retail.

A.H. Halsey, Change in British Society (1995)

Halsey found that the evidence supported the claim that there was more
upward social mobility in British society over the past century with less
downward social mobility, although some did exist.
These changes in the class system Halsey likened to a shift from a
pyramid to a lemon shape.
The pyramid contained a small number of upper class at the top, a larger
number of middle class in the middle and a disproportionate number of
working class at the bottom.
The lemon shape contained small numbers of upper and working class at
either end with a large middle class in-between.

Social Closure (the old boys network)

Another area of discussion when talking about class stratification is social

closure.

20
 Social closure is a term which is used to explain how people who share
similar life chances as a result of factors such as status and party close
ranks to mark themselves out from other groups.
This leads to questions of inclusion and exclusion.
For example, entry to certain clubs, schools and occupations offer
mutual support through this social network.
This is often referred to as networking or elite self-recruitment.
This can lead to a situation where access to life chances is better for
some than the rest of society and consequently worse for those not
included.

Elite self-recruitment

This form of social closure is a process by which, it is claimed,

members of wealthy and powerful groups are drawn from children of
those who already belong to it and is known as elite self-
recruitment.
The suggestion is that social mobility is closed to newcomers from
lower social classes as a result of opportunities being restricted to
those from within the elite groups themselves.

The following studies indicate a degree of social closure or elite self-

recruitment in the UK. Willmott and Young conducted a study in 1970
in the London area and found that 83 percent of managing directors were
the sons of professionals and managers. The sample was 174.

A survey by Stanworth and Giddens (1971) found that out of 460

company chairmen studied, only 1 percent had a manual working class
background. However, 66 percent came from the upper class, such as
industrialists and landowners.

In 1991, Borthwick et al. studied the educational background of

Conservative MPs in the general elections of 1979, 1983 and 1987. They
found that in 1987 over half of these MPs had been to public (the top
private) schools and just under half had graduated from either Oxford or
Cambridge University. In the general election of 1997, the backgrounds of
Labour MPs were more varied.

21