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2, 1989
INTRODUCTION
1
Department of the Stone Age, Institute of Archaeology, Academy of Sciences of the USSR,
Dmitri Ulyanov str., 19,Moscow 117036, USSR.
199
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200 Smirnov
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Burial:Middle PaleolithicBeginnings
Intentional 201
Fortification of settlements
00081 Domestication of animals and plants
Pottery
Skis, sledges and boats
0D1 6 Bow and arrows
-UP L Sewing needle
0021 L
DOS!A ARTISTIC ACTIVITY
U Settlement of Autralia and America
0M B
"SANCTUARIES" {BEAR CAVES)
005; L
0
006| y TAPHOLOGICAL ACTIVITY
00718
0081R
m J
A
Si w
02 "c "ZOOLATBIA"
u "RITUAL" CANNIBALISM
DRAWING ACTIVITY
Upright walking
Emergence of hominids
Fig. 1. Chronology of adaptive and nonadaptive human activities in the Stone Age.
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202 Smirnov
There are reasons to suppose that early man would have adopted a new
type of behavior only after the primary, self-conscious, social group had
developed sufficiently strong and stable social ties. Those ties must have
become so strong that they were extended even to dead members of the
group. We may infer from the forms ofMiddle Paleolithic mortuary ritual
that, by that period, the dichotomy was already recognized between the
world of livingbeings and theworld of thedead. It is very likelythat
mortuary practices had also led to the emergence of one of the earliest, and
most fundamental, cosmological models: thatman had invented theworld of
the dead and begun to create his own mythological history.
The beginnings of human history now reach back to at least 2.5-3
million years ago, but there is not a single deliberate burial known from
almost all of this enormous stretch of time. This does not necessarily mean
that until a certain moment humanity had wholly ignored their dead. Some
rituals, apart from cannibalistic ones, could have been performed during
earlier periods, but either they took forms other than burial, such as a "skull
cult" (Wernet, 1948; Bouyssonie, 1954; Bergounioux, 1958), or they leftno
evidence recoverable by modern archaeology.
There is circumstantial evidence for the existence of both skull and
mandible cults in theLower Paleolithic. It isdifficult to explain taphonomically
the facts that cranial remains of fossil hominids (> 50% of the total) far
outnumber postcranial remains (<15% of the total) and that finds of
mandibles may be 20% less common than skulls (although sometimes tjiey
are equally represented). Similarly, in Lower and Middle Paleolithic sites in
Africa and inUpper Paleolithic sites inAsia, mandibles of children under 14
are > 30% more common than adult mandibles and > 20% more common
than adult and juvenile cranial remains (Oakley et aL, 1971, 1975, 1977).
These discrepancies cannot be explained by taphonomy, or by the excavators'
explicit preference for crania and mandibles, or even by an osteodontokeratic
hypothesis such as that of Dart (1957). The most likely explanation lies in
early man's concern for the cranium and for themandible, particularly those
of children. Such a concern could have resulted in their being specially
preserved in habitation areas, instead of being consigned to the rubbish,
where, mixed with other organic debris, theywould have decayed relatively
rapidly (Smirnov, 1987a).
In any case, no intentional burials are known before theMiddle Paleo
lithic.Nevertheless, even the earliest examples already show the full complexity
of structural and other characteristic features, so thatwe should not think in
terms of an "evolution" of interment, as some scholars suggest. Many aspects
of inhumation are inevitably predetermined by the shape and size of the
human body, by general and specific laws of nature, and, equally importantly,
by the logic of themortuary ritual itself. Patterns of burial have been the
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Intentional Banal: Middle Paleolithic Beginnings 203
same from ancient times to the present, and from the very beginning,
we find almost the full repertoire of basic variations. This is in accord
with the common observation that different patterns of social organ
ization can give rise to similar patterns of burials and, conversely,
that similar social organizations may lie behind different mortuary
practices.
The first interments appear in the Mousterian, but at present, only
a few instances can be confidently termed intentional burials. In Europe
and Asia, there are just over 60 such cases of disposal of the dead for
the last 30,000 years of the Mousterian: an average of two burials per
millennium!
Only Middle Paleolithic interments from Eurasia are considered in this
paper, since there are none known from elsewhere except forAfrica, where
thereare fourpossibilities:
Omo 1-Kibish(KHS) (Oakleyetal, 1977,p. 22),
Border Cave 3 (Oakley et al, 1977, pp. 96-97), Fish Hoek 1 (Oakley et al,
1977, p. 101), and Boskop 1 (Oakley et al, 1977, pp. 97-98). [The catalogue
numbers used in this paper are from Oakley et al (1971, 1975, 1977), except
for Shanidar 7-9, Kebara 1-3, Zaskalnaya Vla-c, and La Ferrassie 7.] The
African specimens are difficult to compare with the Eurasian material
(Grigoryev, 1977). In addition, the Border Cave and Fish Hoek interments
are probably more recent, and the contexts of the skeletons found at Omo
Kibish and Boskop are not clear.
Chronologically, none of the burials under study is earlier than the Last
Glaciation, orWurm in theAlpine scheme, and all are restricted to the first
two stages, Wurm I and Wurm II, and the intervening interstadial, Wurm
I-II. In absolute dates, this corresponds to theperiod between 70,000-60,000
and 35,000-30,000 years ago (Butzer, 1971; Horowitz, 1979; Gerasimov and
Velichko, 1982).
Taxonomically, all the burials fall into two major groups. The first
comprises theWest European Neandertalers of theChapelle-aux-Saints type
and some more variable Neandertaloids from the Crimea, Central Asia, and
theNear East. The second group ismade up of the sapiens forms from Skhul,
Qafzeh, and Staroselye.
The sample is restricted to burials associated with the diverse typological
and technological variations of theMousterian industrial tradition (Table I).
Thus, the Neandertal skeleton from the Chatelperronian layer of Saint
Cesaire (Leveque and Vandermeersch, 1981) is excluded from the study. It
should be noted that the sample could be enlarged ifadditional information
were to become available on individuals such as La Masque 1 (Oakley et al.,
1971, pp. 140-141), Rene Simard 1-3 (Oakley et al, 1971, pp. 165-166), and
Caminero 1 (Oakley et al, 1971, p. 90) in France and Subalyuk 1 and 2
(Oakley et al, 1971, pp. 226-227) inHungary.
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204 Smirnov
Site Year of
No. Site discovery Excavator(s)
Belgium
France
USSR
9 Zaskalnaya VI (1?, 3) 1973 Yu. G. Kolosov
10 Kiik-Koba (2, 2) 1924 G. A. Bonch-Osmolovskii
11 Staroselye(1, 1) 1953 A. A. Formozov
12 Teshik-Tash (1, I) 1938 A. P. Okladnikov
Iraq
13 Shanidar (6?, 9) 1953-1960 R. Solecki
Israel
'See Fig. 4.
6The firstnumber in parentheses is the number of burials; the second is the number of individuals
found so far.
c includedin thissample;itismen
A juvenileskeletonfoundatKebara Cave in 1964is tentatively
tioned only by Oakley et al. (1975, p. 137) and is not confirmed by the references which they cite.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
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Intentional Burial: Middle Paleolithic Beginnings 205
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
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206 Smirnov
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Burial:Middle PaleolithicBeginnings
Intentional 207
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Smirnov
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Intentional Burial: Middle Paleolithic Beginnings 209
Mortuary Treatment
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210 Smirnov
Mortuary Complex
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Intentional Burial: Middle Paleolithic Beginnings 211
indirectly related to the burial and are made before, at the same time as, or
later than the burial (Leonova and Smirnov, 1977).
Associated features and grave goods may be differentiated on the basis
of their location and relationship to themortuary structure, as well as the
latter's basic form and degree of complexity.
Thus, adjacent burial goods are found within the grave, very close to the
body; accompanying goods are found outside the grave but still within a
relatively elaborate mortuary structure, such as a grave mound; contiguous
goods occur directly outside the grave and themound, such as on the old
surface of themound, at its foot, or in the burial trench; and attendant grave
goods are those outside the burial complex but known to have been used in
arranging the burial or performing, for example, commemorative rituals.
Similarly, adjacent features are within the grave but not constituents of
the burial structure (such as a receptacle containing human remains, a hearth
or a pit). Accompanying features are located outside the grave but within the
inner limits of the burial mound (and vary from a hearth to a funeral temple).
Contiguous features are situated outside themortuary structure (such as a
funeral temple, a road to the burial ground, or a ditch encircling the burial
complex). Finally, attendant features are located outside themortuary complex
(such as a monument to those fallen in battle, erected away from their place
of burial).
Hence, themortuary complex is a system consisting of two constants (a
burial structure and human remains) and two variables (grave goods and
associated features). Such complexes appeared as early as theMiddle Paleo
lithic and have not evolved any fundamentally new features or designs since
then.
METHODOLOGY
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212 Smirnov
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Intentional Burial: Middle Paleolithic Beginnings 213
2
Question marks are placed behind the names or numbers of burials when it is not clear from
the published data whether or not a particular feature is applicable to this individual.
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214 Smirnov
Grave Goods and Assessing Their Intended Association with the Burial
(a) The size of an object compared with the size of themortuary structure:
large objects, such as side scrapers and points, being less likely to fall
into a child's burial in a small trench (La Ferrassie 3-6) than is a
small flake into a spacious grave pit.
(b) The condition of an object, such as unburned flints found in the
hearth fill of a burial pit (La Ferrassie 3-4 a, b).
(c) The location of an object: for example, next to the trunk in the angle
formedby the rightupper arm and the leftforearm(Skhul 5); or
between the hands (Skhul 4); or aligned with the bones [La Ferrassie
1, 6, and 5 (in the last case three side scrapers lay in the same plane
and along the same axis)]; or under the skeleton, mixed with objects
from a different cultural horizon that was disturbed by the pit (La
Ferrassie 2); or in a closed complex [in a grave covered with limestone
slabs (Roc de Marsal 1) or beneath and within a pile of stones
(Regourdou 1)].
(d) The placing of an object in the sterile layer of the pit fill (Arcy 5-7,
Teshik-Tash 1,Zaskalnaya Vla-c).
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Intentional Burial: Middle Paleolithic Beginnings 215
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216 Smirnov
the human remains or within the burial structure (Spy 1 and 2; Le Moustier
1 and 2; La Chapelle 1; La Ferrassie 1, 2, and 7; La Quina H5; Kiik
Koba 1 and 2; Shanidar 1;Amud 1;Tabun Cl; Qafzeh 8?; and Kebara
2 and 3?) and those located outside the mortuary structures, both in
close contact with them ("contiguous goods," like the numerous bones,
including some fetishes, on the surface of the stone mound in the Shanidar
1 burial) and in their vicinity ("attendant goods," like the finds associ
ated with the Zaskalnaya VI a, b, and c burials, discovered in a sterile
horizon).
Associated Features
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a with
burials
Boundary
of
ylaciathn | |Sites
V~\ ISites without
burials OI of tapholoifical
\Centens J
1 1 L^Li BotMty
Fig. 4. Distribution ofMousterian sites with human remains inEurope, Central Asia and
theNear East: (1) Spy; (2) Arcy-sur-Cure;(3) La Quina; (4) Roc de Marsal; (5) La
Chapelle-aux-Saints; (6) Le Moustier; (7) La Ferrassie; (8) Regourdou; (9) Zaskalnaya VI;
(10)Kiik-Koba; (11) Staroselye;(12)Teshik-Tash;(13) Shanidar;(14)Mugharet et-Tabun;
(15)Mugharet es-Skhul;(16)Kebara; (17) JebelQafzeh; (18)Amud.
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218 Smirnov
La Ferrassie 1-3, 4a, 4b, and 5-7 (Peyrony, 1934; Heim, 1976a, b; Delporte,
1981);La Quina H5 (Martin, 1911;Hrdlicka, 1930;Vandermeersch,1965,
1976); Arcy-sur-Cure 5-7 (Leroi-Gourhan, 1950); Regourdou 1 (Bonifay,
1962, 1964);Roc de Marsal 1 (Bordesand Lafille, 1962;Van Campo and
Bouchud, 1962; Vandermeersch, 1982; Defleur-Tanoux, 1982); Kiik-Koba 1
and 2 (Bonch-Osmolovskii,1940;Vlcek, 1976;Gladilin, 1979; Smirnov,
1987b);Teshik-Tash 1 (Okladnikov, 1949;Ullrich, 1986); Staroselye 1
(Formozov, 1958; Alexeyev, 1976; Tillier, 1982); Zaskalnaya Vla-c (Kolosov,
1986);Tabun Cl and Skhul 1-10 (Garrod and Bate, 1937;McCown and
Keith, 1939);Qafzeh 3, 6-11, and 15 (Vandermeersch,1970, 1981, 1982;
Tillier, 1982);Amud 1 (Suzuki and Takai, 1970);Kebara 1-3 (Schickand
Stekelis, 1977; Stekelis, 1977; Arensburg et al9 1985; Bar-Yosef et aL9 1989);
and Shanidar 1-9 (Solecki, 1971; Leroi-Gourhan, 1975; Stewart, 1977;
Trinkaus, 1983). [Only the most important publications are mentioned
above; Smirnov (1988) gives a full reference list.]
This sample can be geographically divided into two major groups. The
European sample includes 11 sites with the remains of 26 individuals: 14
children and 12 adults (6 men and 2 women). The Asiatic group consists of
seven sites with the remains of 33 individuals: 11 children and 22 adults (14
men and 7 women). (Children are, as a rule, not sexed, nor has the sex of five
adults been determined.) The distribution of the sites across Eurasia is
uneven, with much greater concentrations in certain regions. However, this
cannot be accounted for simply by the higher level of exploration in, for
example, France or Israel, as Harrold has suggested (1974, p. 6). Investigations
inCentral and Eastern Europe sinceWorld War II have been equally intensive,
but not one burial has yet been discovered (apart from a small area in the
Crimea). Similarly, theMiddle and Far East have yielded numbers of isolated
human remains referable to theMiddle Paleolithic but no deliberate burials.
Further, despite intensive research in both France and Israel during the last
50 years, only 13more burials have been found (four in France and nine in
Israel), and 6 of those were at sites which had previously yielded burials
(1 at La Ferrassie and 5 at Qafzeh).
The number of sites yielding burials, their dating, the habitat, and
the frequency of roughly contemporaneous interments at each site
all indicate the existence of what we may call centers of taphological
activity for early man, which account for about 75% of all Mousterian
burials; chief among them are the Dordogne, the Crimea, and the Levant.
The concept of centers of taphological activity is comparable to that
of centers of primitive art (Formozov, 1983): both reflect the irregular
distribution of particular kinds of sites but do not exclude the possi
bility of similar activities taking other forms, which are archaeologically
undetectable.
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Intentional Burial: Middle Paleolithic Beginnings 219
If we assume that the sex and age of buried individuals have been
correctly determined, then we find thatmen were interred twice as often as
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220 Smirnov
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Intentional Burial: Middle Paleolithic Beginnings 221
f) fermss'ie 5 fterfourdou.~Q>
DC
'Pock Shelter^
Qafzeh3
?Ooa.-fzeh7?6
Qa.?zeh8
T /Rafael
Tl?
flafloehrl
^
errace IFerraWieii
tskhuU
/_ _
]
?cn precise location as>d orietfta.'tion
'vO,l /Jf^ determined o
r\ orierit&tion ofihe body towards
\J? the hock of the rock
\a/<zLL
shatter
shotvn hypotlietfaiUY
Qy_orieritzitian
orientation of the <fr&v& G&X Hot ,
?-ffy\ ^ (5)
determined
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222 Smirnov
(^\Klik-ICoba1/6oe
:errassie2/Hi?
skhul
Qafzeh Shamdar-!T/?<1360
Kiik-Koba
2/185?
O mate
unknown
??azirnutri -female
(f) sex notdetermined ? cniU
Fig. 6. Orientation of bodies (along the pelvic-cranial axis).
It isworthy of note that Shanidar 4, the only case for which we know
the season of burial, probably pointed toward the summer position of the
risingmoon (the site's coordinates are 36?50/N and 44? 13'E, the approximate
burial date is 60,000 B.P., and the orientation angle, along the pelvic-cranial
axis, is 135?). No other correlation has been found between the orientation
of the bodies and any other variable.
Middle Paleolithic burials may be single, double (Spy 2? and 3, La
Ferrassie 4a and 4b, Qafzeh 6 and 7?, Qafzeh 9 and 10), triple (Zaskalnaya
Vla-c? and Arcy 5-7?), or multiple (Shanidar 4 and 6-8). Most of the cases
with more than one individual include at least one body which was intention
ally disarticulated before burial (La Ferrassie 4a, Zaskalnaya Vla-c?, Qafzeh
6 and 10, Shanidar 7 and 8).
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Intentional Burial: Middle Paleolithic Beginnings 223
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224 Smirnov
2jOY
- Ghap&LLe ?ecnourtlou
>
i/V'
vioai>Y"
^ *8m
so-45 / 55-50
y
l/\f
Teshtk -"lash
J9 ^ ? ~iy 9
$
0 v J ~\t
a,
SkhuL 1
b
Skk?L4
^ul7
<<:'
ft
Tabu"
tA1
^ f
2V
Mounter 4 MarsaL
5 y
t
withoutflbcisl part
I Sfrtftf
\/[/] position precise I
\/y I Position hypothetical Sfc/tf
withoutmvelihit
|Q[e]
disarticulated
3oo(k
j^j
a. , yfr.Qmirnov's reconstruction
(? I without Basal part b. T3? flicCows recor^iruct/oo
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Intentional Burial: Middle Paleolithic Beginnings 225
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226 SmirnoY
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Intentional Burial: Middle Paleolithic Beginnings 227
CONCLUSIONS
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228 Smirnov
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Intentional Burial: Middle Paleolithic Beginnings 229
promoted by the research of scholars in those ancient sites 60,000 years later.
Thus, the appearance of deliberate burial, indicating the emergence of a new
pattern of behavior, shows that theMiddle Paleolithic was a crucial stage in
the evolution of humanity, when people were gradually becoming more
humanized and were already creating things of everlasting value.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
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