Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 24352442

www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Experimental study on the heat transfer at the heat exchanger of the

thermoacoustic refrigerating system
Emmanuel C. Nsofor *, Serdar Celik, Xudong Wang
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Energy Processes, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901, United States

Received 28 July 2006; accepted 1 March 2007

Available online 19 March 2007

Abstract

Oscillatory ow heat transfer at the heat exchanger of the thermoacoustic refrigeration system was studied. The study identied sig-
nicant factors that inuence this heat transfer as well as the construction of the system. The results from the experimental study were
correlated in terms of Nusselt number, Prandtl number and Reynolds number to obtain a useful new correlation for the heat transfer at
the heat exchangers. Results show that using straight ow heat transfer correlations for analyses and design of this system could result in
signicant errors. Results also show the relationship between the oscillatory heat transfer coecient at the heat exchangers, the mean
pressure and frequency of oscillation. Higher mean pressures result in greater heat transfer coecients if the thermoacoustic refrigerating
system operates at the corresponding resonant frequency. However, a compromise has to be reached to accommodate construction of the
stack.
Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Keywords: Heat transfer; Heat exchanger; Thermoacoustic refrigeration

1. Introduction short stack boundary layer approximation and Minner

Interest in oscillatory ows has increased because of
applications in emerging technologies such as biomedical
and alternative cooling systems. Advances in thermoacou-
stic theory and research have inuenced the potential of
thermoacoustics as a commercial refrigeration technique.
The heat transfer involving the heat exchangers of the ther-
moacoustic refrigeration systems are yet to be fully under-
stood. In a comprehensive article, Swift [1] documented the
history of thermoacoustics up to 1988. Rott [2] developed
theoretical and analytical foundation for thermoacoustic
heat pumps and refrigerators. Merkli and Thomann [3,4]
and Hoer [5] helped to initiate attempts at the develop-
ment of thermoacoustic devices intended for practical cool-
ing applications. Wetzel and Herman [6] studied design
optimization of thermoacoustic refrigerators using the
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 618 453 7021; fax: +1 618 453 7658.
E-mail address: nsofor@engr.siu.edu (E.C. Nsofor).
et al. [7] reported that the choice of working uid and heat
exchanger conguration were critical design factors aect-
ing the performance of the thermoacoustic system.
Worlikar et al. [810] performed numerical studies on a
thermoacoustic refrigeration system with emphasis on ther-
mally stratied ow in the neighborhood of an idealized
thermoacoustic stack. Energy ux density around the heat
exchangers was visualized and implications on the heat
exchanger design were examined. Belcher et al. [11] studied
working gases suitable for use in thermoacoustic systems.
Most of the related studies on oscillatory ows are con-
centrated on the understanding of the uid mechanics.
Cooper et al. [12] presented a review of oscillatory ows.
Zhao and Cheng [13] experimentally investigated the onset
of turbulence and frictional losses in an oscillatory pipe
ow. The reported measurements on the study show that
the onset of turbulence in a reciprocating ow is dierent
from that of conventional steady ow. Peacock and Stair-
mand [14] hypothesized that, the entrance length in a

1359-4311/$ - see front matter Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2007.03.008
2436 E.C. Nsofor et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 24352442
Nomenclature
A area
a speed of sound
cp specic heat at constant pressure
D diameter
Dh hydraulic diameter
Dr drive ratio
f frequency of oscillation
HX heat exchanger
h heat transfer coecient
K wave number
k thermal conductivity
L length of n
l displacement
M Mach number
Nu Nusselt number
P perimeter
P0 dynamic pressure amplitude
Pr Prandtl number
q heat transfer rate
Re Reynolds number
laminar reciprocating ow would be shorter than in unidi-
rectional steady ow and speculated that the velocity pro-
les of a reciprocating ow might not change much in the
entrance region because the velocity proles of an oscilla-
tory ow tend to be atter than those of a steady ow.
Iwabuchi and Kanzaka [15] performed experiments to
investigate the heat transfer on a reciprocating ow and
presented the heat transfer data in terms of piston speed,
mean pressure and the phase dierence between the oppos-
ing pistons. However, the study did not attempt to corre-
late the heat transfer data in terms of dimensionless
parameters. Tijani et al. [16] designed, constructed and
tested a thermoacoustic refrigerator.
Poese and Garrett [17] measured the performance of a
thermoacoustic refrigerator driven at relatively high ampli-
tudes. For the heat exchanger performance model, the study
used a modied steady-state correlation obtained from esti-
mated time-averaged convective heat transfer coecient.
Mozurkewich [18] reported on the heat transfer from trans-
verse tubes adjacent to a thermoacoustic stack. The main
objective was to test the usefulness of the so-called time-
average steady-ow equivalent (TASFE) approximation.
This approximation assumes that the heat transfer in an
acoustic standing wave with zero mean ow is the same as
that obtained by using the average of the corresponding
steady-ow correlation over a sinusoidal distribution of
gas speeds. The heat exchanger congurations used con-
sisted mainly of parallel tubes mounted in closed-end hous-
ing. Also, Mozurkewich [19] developed a one-dimensional
model for transverse heat exchange in thermoacoustic
pores. However, comparison with experiments was not
done for the model. Paek et al. [20] investigated the thermal
T temperature
Tb base temperature of the n
Tm mean temperature
Tp period of the acoustic oscillation
T1 gas free stream or time-averaged temperature
u velocity
x axial coordinate, distance
xc length of the heat exchanger
y axial coordinate
a thermal diusivity
D change
dk thermal penetration depth
dv viscous penetration depth
h temperature dierence
k wavelength
l dynamic viscosity
m kinematic viscosity
q density
qm mean density
x angular frequency
performance of microchannel heat exchangers in a thermoa-
coustic cooling system. Calculation methods were devel-
oped for evaluating the oscillating ow heat transfer
coecients. Results from the study were correlated in terms
of the Colburn-j factor and compared with results from
steady ow measurements and predictions from boundary
layer conduction model. The results showed that the bound-
ary layer model did not accurately predict the heat transfer
coecients and the inuence of Reynolds number on heat
transfer performance.
In this research, the convective heat transfer coecient
outside the heat exchanger of the thermoacoustic refrigera-
tion system was studied. The technique of electroplating
and chemical removal was utilized in the construction of
the heat exchanger to achieve the desired conguration
and n arrangement. Based on the experimental measure-
ments made, a new heat transfer correlation was developed
and important factors that inuence the heat transfer at the
heat exchangers were identied. Nusselt number was
related to the thermal property parameters, geometrical
parameters and operating conditions. The correlation
developed was compared to a related correlation in the
literature.
2. Summary of the system design and construction of the heat
exchanger
Fig. 1 is a schematic of the thermoacoustic refrigeration
system. The major components are the acoustic driver, the
stack, the heat exchangers, the resonator and the back vol-
ume system rst introduced by Tijani et al. [16]. The auxil-
iary components of the system include the instrumentation
 E.C. Nsofor et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 24352442 2437

Table 1
Some design and operating parameters of the system at STP
Property or parameter Symbol Value
Gas thermal conductivity k 0.146 W/m K
Gas density q 0.8845 kg/m3
Speed of sound in gas a 978.1 m/s
Gas specic heat cp 5193 J/kg K
Gas dynamic viscosity l 188 107 N s/m2
Gas Prandtl number Pr 0.667
Gas thermal diusivity a 3.19 105 m2/s
Drive ratio Dr 0.02
Fig. 1. Schematic of the thermoacoustic refrigeration system. Mean temperature drop DTm 50 K
Wave number K 2.247/m

and data acquisition system and the gas charging system.

Some parameters related to the design and operation of
the system is shown in Table 1. The thermophysical prop-
erties of the helium, the working gas given in the table are
with respect to standard temperature and pressure condi-
tions. The function of the heat exchanger in the system is
to transfer time-averaged heat to/from the oscillating gas
from/to an external heat source or sink. The heat exchang-
ers used in the system in many cases are of the nned-tube
type. The conguration and geometry of the nned-tube
heat exchanger used in this study is illustrated in Fig. 2.
In this heat exchanger, water ows in the tube, which forms
the circumference and the thermoacoustic gas oscillates
across the ns outside the tube. An oscillatory ow can
either be a reciprocating ow or a pulsating ow. In the
reciprocating ow, the ow direction reverses periodically
whereas in the pulsating ow, the ow direction never
reverses. The ow of gas in the thermoacoustic refrigera-
tion system is reciprocating and so the focus of this study
is on reciprocating ow. The gas moves a limited distance
before the ow direction is reversed. The desired cooling
power, the mean temperature dierence DTm between the
hot and cold sides of the stack, the operating frequency
of the system, mean pressure and drive ratio are some of
the items selected for the design. The Mach number M
was limited to about 0.1 to eliminate nonlinear eects [1].
The Reynolds number dened as
qudv
Re
l copper ns (0.15 mm thick) in the direction of the oscillat-
for gas ow over the stack plates was also limited to less
than 500 to avoid turbulence [3]. The drive ratio, dened as
Dynamic pressure amplitude
Dr
Mean pressure
of 0.02 was selected to satisfy the relationships M < 0.1 and
Re < 500 [16]. Thermal penetration depth dk was calculated
using the equation
s cylindrical plate, which was electroplated with copper to
2k
dk 3 and bottom surfaces of the plate was machined to expose
qm cp x
The thermal penetration depth is the layer around the
stack plate where the thermoacoustic eect occurs. It is
measured perpendicular to the direction of motion of the
gas and it gives approximately the distance heat can diuse
T
through the gas during the time interval pp . The viscous
penetration depth dv which gives the distance momentum
can diuse through the gas during the same time interval
was calculated using the equation
s
2l
dv 4
qm x
An optimized k/4 length, resonator tube, introduced by
Hoer [5], was adopted for this study, but a cone-shaped
buer was substituted for the sphere in order to produce
an open-end condition [16]. Following these recommenda-
tions, the optimized half-angle of the cone for minimum
losses was determined to be 8 for this design. The choice
of helium as the working gas was inuenced by the study
by Belcher et al. [11]. The acoustic driver selected provided
the required acoustic power within a wide range of fre-
quency and drive ratios. The driver is a high excursion
and low distortion speaker with a maximum excursion of
54 mm peak-to-peak. It has an outer diameter of 268 mm
and a weight of 7.7 kg. The resonator was constructed from
aluminum tubing but with plastic tubing at the inner diam-
eter portion to reduce heat loss by conduction. The stack
was fabricated from a thermoplastic material to reduce
conduction along the stack plates.
The inside and outside diameters of the heat exchanger
tube are 59 mm and 65 mm respectively. The width of the
1
ing gas is 6.6 mm and the gap between the ns is
0.95 mm. The technique of electroplating and chemical
removal was used in constructing the heat exchanger to
ensure proper n arrangement. Stycast 1266 epoxy was
2
applied to a set of copper and aluminum strips cut to the
desired thicknesses and arranged to form a stack of alumi-
num and copper strips. Clamping this tightly with a vice, the
lathe machine was used to machine the stack to form a
cover the edge and join all the sheets together. The top
the edges of the copper and aluminum sheets and the plate
was immersed in sodium hydroxide to dissolve the alumi-
num sheets resulting in a heat exchanger with copper
ns with uniform n spacing. Fig. 2 illustrates the heat
2438 E.C. Nsofor et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 24352442

Fig. 2. Heat exchanger showing the geometry and arrangement of the ns.

exchanger geometry and arrangement of the ns. This heat This equation can be written as
exchanger was located at the hot side of the resonator. An dqx
electrical resistance heater arrangement was located at the qx hP DxT 1  T qx Dx 7
dx
cold side to supply the variable load for the refrigerating
system. With substitutions for the heat transfer rate and rearrange-
ment, this equation yields
3. Heat transfer at the heat exchanger d2 h
 m2 h 0 8
dx2
Fig. 3 shows a schematic of the heat transfer at the n of
where h = T(x)  T1 and m2 hP :
the heat exchanger. Fig. 3(a) shows a single n of the heat kA
Solution of Eq. (8) yields
exchanger and Fig. 3(b) illustrates the control volume for
the heat balance. The optimum length lc of the heat exchan- h C 1 emx C 2 emx 9
ger should be equal to the peak-to-peak displacement of
where C1, and C2 are constants determined by using the
the working gas and is given by [16]:
following boundary conditions.
P0
lc SinKl 5 1: At x 0; h T b  T 1 hb 10
axqm
L dh
Energy balance on a small element of the n of the heat 2: At x ; 0 11
exchanger shown as a shaded portion in Fig. 3(a) and 2 dx
shown magnied in Fig. 3(b) can be represented by the Using the boundary conditions given in Eqs. (10) and (11),
equation the equation for the temperature distribution along the n
is obtained as
qx qconvection qxDx 6
T b  T 1  p
hP xL
p 
 hP
T x T 1 p e kA e kA x 12
hP
1 e kAL
Except the heat transfer coecient h, all the variables in
Eq. (12) could be determined or measured directly from
experiments.

4. Experimental setup and procedure

The experiments were performed using the setup illus-

Fig. 3. Schematic of the heat transfer at the heat exchanger.
trated in Figs. 1 and 4. Fig. 4 shows a representation of
the locations of thermocouples in the system. The gas
charging system includes a vacuum pump, pressurized
working gas tanks and appropriate valves for the desired
controls. An acoustic driver, which has an input power of
 E.C. Nsofor et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 24352442 2439

Fig. 4. Locations of the thermocouples in the system.

400 W, connected to an amplier and an audio generator
produced the required sound waves in the resonator. The
temperature, pressure and ow measurements were made
via thermocouples, pressure transducers, and ow meters
respectively. A pressure transducer was used to measure
the dynamic pressure. It was mounted on the aluminum
ange by threading and O-ring sealing. Thermocouples
were installed at the base of the ns (shown in the diagram
as location No. 7 and No. 10) to measure base temperature
Tb. Thermocouples which measure the temperature distri-
bution T(x) along the length of the n were mounted at
variable locations from the base of the n (shown at this
point as location No. 9, No. 12 and No. 13). Although
the temperatures at the ns were taken at the center of
the thin ns, the locations were from the center to the base
of the ns. Thermocouples were also located in the gas ow
(shown as No. 8 and No. 11) away from the n to measure
T1. The thermocouples measuring the ambient tempera-
tures between the ns were mounted in between the two
ns in such a way that the leads did not touch any of the
ns. All the thermocouples were Type T, capable of mea-
10 bars in the resonator. The gas was charged after evacu-
ation and care was taken to do it as gently as possible to
avoid damage to the speaker cone. The system was oper-
ated at dierent frequencies for various mean pressures
and h was determined for each case using Eq. (12). This
equation was applied to all the ns having dierent lengths.
To reduce precision error, the data acquisition system
took several readings for each data and averaged them
out. The uncertainties were estimated at 95% condence
level according to the methods described by Coleman and
Steele [21] and Moat [22]. The experimental result R,
which is a function of N number of variables, Vi was
described as
R RV 1 ; V 2 ; V 3 ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ::; V N
13
If the bias uncertainty BR in the measurement of each indi-
vidual variable is independent of the bias limit in each of
the other measured variables then
X
N

suring temperatures in the range of 200C to 350C. B2R /2i B2i 14

i1
Thermocouples were also installed at both ends of the
stack. The temperature of the acoustic driver was moni- where Bi is the bias error in the values of the variable Vi
tored by a thermocouple mounted at the surface of the dri- and /i @V@R
. If the bias limits in the measurements of dif-
i
ver. Two thermocouples were installed to measure the inlet ferent individual variables are not independent of one an-
and outlet temperatures of the cooling water. other, then
Data acquisition was achieved by means of a personal " #
XN X N
computer connected to a data acquisition system which 2
BR 2 2
/i Bi /i /k qik Bi Bk 1  dik 15
consisted of a board with 16 dierential analog inputs i1 k1
and Wave View for windows software. Although the man-
ufacturers calibrated the thermocouples and pressure trans- where the Kronecker delta is dik = 1, for i = 1 and dik = 0,
ducers, calibration and qualication tests were performed for i 5 1. The coecient of correlation between the biases
using suitable calibrators. The choice of the working gas in Vi and Vk is qik = qki. The precision limit PR for R was
used in the system was based on the study by Belcher given by
et al. [11] which recommended working gases suitable for X
N
use in thermoacoustic refrigeration systems. The system P 2R /2i P 2i 16
was pressurized and tested for leaks using pressures up to i1
2440 E.C. Nsofor et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 24352442

where Pi is the precision error in the measured variable Vi.

The uncertainty (UR) in the experimental result was ex-
pressed by combining the two error components BR and
PR using the root-sum-square model to give
q
U R B2R P 2R 17

5. Results

The results of the experimental measurements are shown

in Figs. 58. The values of the convective heat transfer Fig. 6. Prediction of the proposed correlation compared with experimen-
coecient obtained from the experiments were correlated tal data.
in terms of Nusselt number, Prandtl number and Reynolds
number. Table 2 shows the properties used for the heat
Trapezoidal ducts, straight flow New correlation, oscillating flow
transfer coecient. The nonlinear regression function in 4
the Excel Scientic Graph System was used for the curve
tting. The function ts equations to data which are non- 3
linear functions of their parameters, and determines the

Nu
2
best parameters that minimize the sum of the squares of
dierences between the dependent variables in the equation 1
and the observation. The result obtained was
0
Nu 0:61Re0:31 Pr0:11 18 15 25 35 45 55
p Re
The RMS velocity dened as urms u= 2 was used for
obtaining the Reynolds number for the oscillating ow. Fig. 7. Comparison of the oscillatory ow heat transfer correlations from
The hydraulic diameter for the ow gap in the heat exchan- this study with the correlation for the closest straight ow study.
ger formed by the spacing between the ns attached to the
circumferential water-bearing tube was used as the charac-
teristic length for calculating the Nusselt number values. 4 bars 5 bars 6 bars 7 bars
The ow velocity was calculated using the equation [16]: 110
h_corr (W/m K)

P 0 sin2pf x=a 100

u 19
2

qa
90
where x is the distance between the diaphragm of the
acoustic driver at equilibrium and the hot side heat exchan- 80
ger. The Reynolds number was calculated using the
70
equation
300 350 400 450
qurms Dh f (Hz)
Re 20
l Fig. 8. Heat transfer coecient (h) versus frequency (f).
Fig. 5 shows a plot of the heat transfer coecient (h) versus
Reynolds number (Re), (experiment data compared with h range of Reynolds number). By combining the bias and
generated from this new correlation prediction for the same precision limits with experimental data at 95% condence
level, the maximum uncertainty in the measurement of
h_exp h_corr the heat transfer coecient h was determined to be
140 4.4%. As described in Section 4, the bias and precision
120 errors in the determination of the gas temperature as well
h (W/m K)

100 as the other variables that aect the data reduction equa-
2

80 tion for h were taken into consideration. From the gure,

60 it can be seen that the correlation averagely represents
40 the experimental data. Also, the heat transfer coecient in-
20 creases with Reynolds number. This can be explained by
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 the fact that a higher Reynolds number implies that more
Re particles of gas make contact with the heat exchanger per
Fig. 5. Heat transfer coecient h versus Reynolds number (experiment unit time. Fig. 6 shows the measured heat transfer coe-
data compared with the proposed correlation prediction). cients (h_exp) compared with the predicted values (h_corr)
 E.C. Nsofor et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 24352442 2441

Table 2 that in straight ows which impacts the development of the

Properties used for the heat transfer coecient ow.
No. Frequency Mean Thermal Density Prandtl A sample result for the heat transfer coecient (h) ver-
(Hz) pressure penetration (kg/m3) number sus frequency (f) for dierent operating pressures is shown
(Pa) depth (m)
in Fig. 8 illustrating the relationship between the heat
1 300 3.03E+05 2.47E04 0.4871 0.663 transfer coecient, and the operating frequency. The
2 350 3.03E+05 2.29E04 0.4871 0.663
3 400 3.03E+05 2.14E04 0.4871 0.663
results show a sinusoidal relation between the heat transfer
4 450 3.03E+05 2.02E04 0.4871 0.663 coecient and the frequency of oscillation. It was seen that
5 300 4.053E+05 2.14E04 0.6491 0.663 within the limits of this study, the heat transfer coecient
6 350 4.053E+05 1.98E04 0.6491 0.663 has a maximum value for each mean pressure at a particu-
7 400 4.053E+05 1.85E04 0.6491 0.663 lar frequency. This indicates that there is a critical value of
8 450 4.053E+05 1.75E04 0.6491 0.663
9 300 5.066E+05 1.92E04 0.8110 0.663
frequency for a given mean pressure outside of which the
10 350 5.066E+05 1.77E04 0.8110 0.663 heat transfer coecient will not increase. This critical value
11 400 5.066E+05 1.66E04 0.8110 0.663 of f is the resonant frequency. The heat transfer thus drops
12 450 5.066E+05 1.56E04 0.8110 0.663 if the thermoacoustic refrigerator does not operate at the
13 300 6.079E+05 1.75E04 0.9727 0.663 resonance frequency. This implies that higher operating
14 350 6.079E+05 1.62E04 0.9727 0.663
15 400 6.079E+05 1.51E04 0.9727 0.663
pressures at critical frequency are desired for the system.
16 450 6.079E+05 1.43E04 0.9727 0.663 However, it is to be noted that the thermal penetration
17 300 7.093E+05 1.62E04 1.1352 0.663 depth (dk) depends on the thermophysical properties of
18 350 7.093E+05 1.50E04 1.1352 0.663 the working gas and the operating frequency. Increase in
19 400 7.093E+05 1.40E04 1.1352 0.663 the mean pressure or the operating frequency results in
20 450 7.093E+05 1.32E04 1.1352 0.663
21 300 8.10E+05 1.51E04 1.2972 0.663
decreasing the thermal penetration depth and the spacing
22 350 8.10E+05 1.40E04 1.2972 0.663 of the stack. It is dicult to fabricate a stack with very
23 400 8.10E+05 1.31E04 1.2972 0.663 small plate spacing. Therefore, a compromise between the
24 450 8.10E+05 1.23E04 1.2972 0.663 heat transfer coecient at the heat exchanger and stack
fabrication has to be considered in the design, and con-
struction of the thermoacoustic refrigerating system.
using the proposed correlation. It can be seen that the new
correlation could predict the experimental data within 18%.
Fig. 7 shows comparison of the results from this study 6. Conclusion
with the results from the numerical study by Lawal and
Mujumdar [23] for laminar straight ow through a trape- This study is on experimental investigations on the oscil-
zoidal duct as reported by Kakac et al. [24]. This is the clos- latory ow heat transfer at the heat exchanger of the ther-
est geometry in the literature to the heat exchanger used in moacoustic refrigeration system. Some important factors
this study. The correlation from the study by Lawal and that inuence the heat transfer and construction of the sys-
Mujumdar is expressed as tem were identied. An empirical correlation for this heat
 0:4276 transfer was developed. This study conrms some previous
Re Pr Dh studies which show that using straight ow correlations for
Nux 1:0101 21
x the analysis and design of system could result in signicant
errors. The marked dierence is from the fact that com-
By comparing the two studies, it was seen that within the pared to straight ows, the nature of oscillatory ows does
limits of the range of Reynolds number studied, the values not allow uid particles close to the solid surface to make as
from the Nusselt number correlation from this oscillating much contact with the heat exchanger surface as the parti-
ow (Nucorr) are less than the values from the Nusselt num- cles in straight ows. Results also show the relationship
ber correlation (Nutrap) for the straight laminar ow for between the oscillatory heat transfer coecient at the heat
trapezoidal duct ow. The dierence between Nutrap and exchangers, the mean pressure and oscillation frequency.
Nucorr could be due to the fact that the ow through this Higher mean pressures result in greater heat transfer coe-
heat exchanger is closer to ow through a gap. It is also cients if the thermoacoustic refrigerating system operates at
likely that the dierence could be due to the fact that the the corresponding resonant frequency. However, a compro-
wavelike nature of the oscillatory ow does not allow all mise has to be reached to accommodate stack fabrication.
the gas particles close to the surface of the n to make as
much contact with the n as the particles in straight gap
ow. This contact for heat transfer, which is necessary, is Acknowledgements
further reduced as the wavelength increases. The dierence
between Nutrap and Nucorr can also be related to the study The authors are grateful to Hans Bank, Lindsay Connell
by Peacock and Stairmand [14] which reported that the en- and Azrai Ali for valuable contributions in the fabrication
trance length in a laminar reciprocating ow is shorter than of the experimental system, data collection and support.
2442 E.C. Nsofor et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 24352442
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