Old French Lessons

The Linguistics Research Center
Series Introduction
Brigitte L.M. Bauer and Jonathan Slocum
Like the other Romance languages, French is a daughter-language of Latin. Its

standard variety traces back to one of the dialects of Old French, that is, the dialect
spoken in the Ile de France, which has been for centuries the geographical and
political center of what is France today.
Old French is one of the earliest attested Romance languages and offers a
fascinating field for research in historical linguistics: not only are many of its
changes attested in texts, but its linguistic ancestor, Latin, is richly documented as
well.
1. Emergence of a New Language
When Rome expanded under Caesar and the Roman emperors, Latin became the
dominant language in much of the Roman Empire. In many of the occupied
territories Latin eventually ousted the vernacular languages, but ultimately split
up in what are the Romance languages today. The Romance languages include
Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Occitan, French, Sardinian, Rhaeto-
Romance, Rumanian, and Romance Creoles.
Among these, (Old) French is the result of language contact between several
languages representing different language groups: Celtic (Gaulish), Italic (Latin),
and Germanic (e.g. Frankish, the language of the Franks).
Julius Caesar conquered Gaul between 58 and 51 B.C., but the southern parts of
the country had already been occupied by the Romans since 121 B.C. and therefore
had already been colonized and Romanized. After Caesar's conquest, the Gauls --
speaking a variety of Gaulish dialects -- came in touch with Latin through contact
with colonists, the military, tradesmen, and administrators. Even before the
Roman conquest, Gaul had towns and a well-developed road system; its
Romanization resulted in Latin becoming the predominant language -- a process
that took several centuries.
Without going too much into detail, we mention here two aspects of the process of
Romanization that were very important for the spread of Latin: education, and
administration. State officials were sent to Gaul to take care of various
administrative tasks, among them the tax system. At first these state officials came
from Rome and therefore spoke Latin: Latin became the official language of
administration. Soon however it became possible for the indigenous population to
make a career in Roman administration as well, provided they spoke Latin. Latin
therefore became an important means to achieve socio-economic success. In
addition, because of the Roman school system, young generations of Gauls
acquired a systematic knowledge of Latin. Moreover Latin had its own writing
system, a rich written tradition, and represented a civilization that was politically,
militarily, culturally, admininstratively, and economically the most advanced of its
time. The socio-economic advantages Latin offered to those who knew it, and the
fundamental willingness of the Gauls to accept it, explain why not only the
Romanization but also the Latinization of Gaul was a success.
As noted, Latin gradually ousted Gaulish, which in fact left relatively few traces in
the new language, mainly lexical: approximately seventy or so Gaulish words
survive in French today, among them lieue 'mile', chemin 'road', charrue 'plow',
mouton 'sheep', and others. Most of these words refer to agriculture and everyday
life.
The invasion of the Germanic tribes in the 5th century A.D. marks the end of the
Roman Empire in Western Europe and the beginning of the Frankish rule in the
northern part of Gaul (up to the Loire). Although the Franks were in power, their
language did not oust Gallo-Romance. The Franks did, however, leave a few traces
in French, such as words starting with h-aspir, as in haricot 'bean', which traces
back to a Germanic word. Compare the h-muet in homme 'man'. Homme goes
back to Latin hominem, which lost its initial h sound before the Frankish tribes
occupied Gaul. Another Germanic feature is the existence and predominance of
place names in northern regions France of the type Neuville, Neufchateau,
Francheville, and others. In these formations the adjective precedes the noun, as
they do in Germanic today. These structures are not attested in the south, where
place names are found with the reverse order, noun + adjective: Villeneuve,
Chateauneuf, Villefranche, and others.
The Frankish kings made important contributions to the development of France:

with the conversion of Clovis to the Church of Rome (ca. 496 A.D.), the Church
became important. The countryside was christianized; monasteries were founded,
and soon became centers of activity and education. In the 8th century,
Charlemagne wanted to re-create the Roman Empire, but in a Christian version.
His reign marks a Renaissance: the civilization of Antiquity and its language were
ideals one set out to realize. It is in the early 9th century that two events mark an
important linguistic phenomenon. In 813 it was decided at the Concily of Tours
that sermons would no longer be delivered in Latin, but rather in the vernacular
language. Then in 842 two of Charlemagne's grandsons, Louis le Germanique and

Charles le Chauve, took an oath in French and German, respectively, in front of
their troops in Strassbourg; this proclamation of mutual support resulted in a
written agreement, Les Serments de Strassbourg. These two events reflect the
awareness of the speakers of the day that (1) the Gallo-Romance they spoke was a
language separate and different from Latin, and (2) Gallo-Romance was a
language different from German. The earliest text in French, therefore, is the
Serments de Strassbourg; it marks, in fact, the political disintegration of
centralized power that started at Charlemagne's death.
During the early Middle Ages, contacts among people were rather local in nature
and therefore "vertical": most people lived and died in the region where they were
born, and communicated with others living in the same region independently of
their social background. The seigneur, for example, would communicate with his
farmers and soldiers, and so forth. This phenomenon contributed greatly to the
emergence of dialects.
Only later -- starting in the 12th century -- when pilgrimages, crusades, and
universities came up and towns became more important, did contacts become
"horizontal," cutting through geographical boundaries rather than social classes.
Gradually the king once again became a central power. At that point one sees that
the dialect of the Ile de France, where the kings established a fixed court, became
increasingly important and in fact started the journey that eventually would lead
to its standardisation. The historical background accounts for the fact that Old
French had many local dialects.
2. Dialects
Although this course in Old French is too short to make dialect variation a topic of
special interest, students should know that "Old French" in fact refers to a
collection of dialects. Since some of these dialects share more characteristics than
others, it is possible to divide them in two groups: the dialects spoken in the
northern parts of France, to which one refers as language d'ol and those spoken
in the Southern parts, referred to as langue d'oc. Oc and ol were markers of
affirmation ('yes') in the respective dialect groups.
La language d'ol includes the following dialects: the dialects of Picardie (le
Picard), Normandy (le Normand), Ile de France (le Francien), Lorraine (le
Lorrain), Anjou (l'Angevin), Poitou (le Poitevin), Bourgundy (le Bourguignon),
and Berry (le Berrichon).
La langue d'oc includes the dialects of the following regions: Provence (le
provenc/al), Auvergne (l'auvergnat), Gascony (le gascon), and Languedoc (le

languedocien).
The differences between the dialects are primarily phonological. Lexical

differences are also found, some of which may have grammatical effects. In Old
French, negation is expressed with the negating particle ne, which may be
reinforced by an element of nominal origin. The modern French ne ... pas
negation traces back to this situation. Yet in Old French there were many other
elements used as reinforcer in this context, for example mie 'crumb', point 'dot',
goutte 'drop', and many others. In some regions pas predominated, in others e.g.
mie. Eventually pas supplanted all other varieties and became the unique non-
emphatic negating marker.
3. Grammatical Characteristics of Old French
Linguistically, Old French represents an intermediate stage between Latin and the
modern language. A case in point is the case system: whereas Latin had a full-
fledged case system with six cases, and modern French has none (except on
pronouns), Old French had two cases, a subject and an oblique case.
Similarly, in the history of word order, an important change occurred in the

transition from Latin to French: Latin was a verb-final language (Subject-Object-
Verb, henceforth SOV); in French the verb from the earliest documents precedes
the object (SVO). Old French therefore is an SVO language but its subordinate
clauses are often still verb-final. In addition, word order in Old French allows for
more variation and it is only later that sequences such as Complement + Verb +
Subject disappear. The word order patterns observed in Old French remind us of
those in today's German or Dutch. These languages, as well, are shifting from an
earlier SOV to an SVO system.
As noted, Old French had a system of two cases: a subject case (nominative), and
an object case (oblique). Yet the case distinction in nouns is formally marked in
masculine nouns only. Case is more manifest in pronouns where, for the third
person singular for example, there is a distinction between the direct object le/la
and the indirect object li.
With a few exceptions, all nouns have number marking (singular vs. plural); and
they are either masculine or feminine.
Case, number, and gender are also manifest in adjectival elements, such as
adjectives and participles. The adjective, for example, agrees with the noun in
case, number, and gender.
Another important characteristic of Old French, and an innovation with respect to

Latin, is the use of definite articles. Old French definite articles trace back to Latin
demonstratives, which in the history of Latin became more and more frequent and
gradually lost their demonstrative value. The definite article in Old French
primarily had a defining function. In contrast to modern uses, the definite article
in Old French is not automatic. Like other nominal elements, definite articles are
marked for gender, case, and number.
When the demonstratives lost their demonstrative value, new demonstratives

developed: an element ecce 'behold' was added to the old demonstrative forms,
iste and ille. As a result, Old French had two demonstratives (instead of three in
Latin):
cist < ecce + iste 'this'

cil < ecce + ille 'that'
Most morphological processes are attested in the verb, which is marked for
person, tense, mood, voice, and aspect:
Person: 1st sg. 2nd sg. 3rd sg.

1st pl. 2nd pl. 3rd pl.
Tense: Present
Preterite Imperfect
Future
Mood: Indicative Subjunctive Imperative Conditional
Voice: Active Passive
Aspect: Imperfective Perfective

Some of the forms mentioned in this table are analytic (including an auxiliary and
a main verb), while others are "synthetic." In synthetic forms, one verb form
embodies the lexical element and all grammatical categories; cf.:
Analytic: ai chant 'I have sung'

Synthetic: chantai 'I sang'
An important difference between Old French and later varieties is that the subject
pronoun is not yet compulsory. In fact, it is rather infrequent.
In syntax, word order is predominantly SVO. Other sequences are motivated:

SOV, for example, is typically attested in subordinate clauses; in commands, the
imperative verb comes first.
Subject inversion is very common in Old French: it is triggered when a

complement (direct, indirect, adverbial) is in clause-initial position, creating
sequences such as Complement + Verb + Subject or Complement + Verb + Subject
+ Object.
In line with the predominance of SVO, other elements follow specific patterns as
well: the genitive, for example, typically follows the head noun, with or without
preposition, cf. e.g.
l'ost des Franceis

'the army of the French'
la fille le roi
'the daughter of the king'
Negation in Old French was characterized by one negating element ne, which
precedes the verb. In addition there are many attestations of so-called "double"
negation, as in:
autrement ne m'amerat il mie

'otherwise he will not love me'
In this example, negation includes an element ne and an element mie. In this
construction the part ne + verb has been inherited from Latin. Adding a second
element (mie) was a later development and not yet compulsory in Old French.
Compared to the modern language, nominal forms of the Old French verb played
an important role: infinitive, participles, and gerunds. Yet, compared to Latin,
these elements just play a minor role. In Old French, absolute constructions --
widespread in Latin -- are limited to specific verbs and typically specify the
circumstances in which the action of the main verb is carried out, cf.:
juntes ses mains est alet a sa fin

'his hands joined he went to his death'
The infinitive in Old French may be nominalized, in which case a definite article
generally is added; it may function as subject or complement, for example cf.:
li porters dou rainsel

'the fact of carrying the small branch'
tens est del hebergier

'it is time to encamp'
The use of an infinitive as complement of a finite verb is less strongly developed
than in the modern language. In modern French the infinitive is automatically
used when the subject of the finite verb and the infinitive are identical. In Old
French this is not yet the case. Often a subjunctive, for example, is used instead,
cf.:
Modern French:
je ne sais quoi faire
'I do not know what to do'
Old French:
ne sai que face [very common]
'I do not know what to do' (with subjunctive)
ne sai que faire [very rare]

4. Documents
A rich literature in Old French, along with many other documents, provide a
wealth of texts covering the period from the 9th century until the end of the 13th
century. From the end of the 13th century on, the case system disappears and the
dialect of the Ile de France becomes increasingly important. That is why one no
longer speaks of Old French, but rather of Middle French. Consequently the
language of the 14th and 15th centuries is typically referred to as Middle French.
The texts selected for this course represent the various genres: the Chansons de
geste, relating the exploits of Charlemagne and his nephew Roland; a
hagiography, presenting the life of St. Alexis; a hymn written to praise the virtues
of St. Eulalie; two examples of (early) littrature courtoise, Tristan and Yvain; an
historical account of the Fourth Crusade; two texts representing the littrature
bourgeoise, a fable and part of a play; and finally a translation of the well-known
Latin text about St. Brendan, who set out to discover what may have been North
America.
A striking characteristic of Old French texts is their international, European

character. Some texts are based on foreign or international traditions or are
translations or revisions of foreign texts. Moreover, the veneration of some saints
is an international phenomenon, and the component of Irish culture, for example,
is strong.
5. Abbreviations
In the Grammar points, several abbreviations have been used; these refer to the
following grammatical concepts:
abl. = ablative acc. = accusative adj. = adjective art. = article

comp. = comparative dir. = direct fem. = feminine gen. = genitive
impf. = imperfective indef. = indefinite indir. = indirect inf. = infinitive
masc. = masculine nom. = nominative obj. = object obl. = oblique
part. = participle pers. = person pf. = perfective pl. = plural
pres. = present pret. = preterite sg. = singular subj. = subject

subju. = subjunctive La(t). = Latin OF = Old French
Related Language Courses at UT
Most but not all language courses taught at The University of Texas concern
modern languages; sometimes courses are offered in ancient languages, though
more often at the graduate level. French language courses are taught in the
Department of French & Italian (link opens in a new browser window). Other
online language courses for college credit are offered through the University
Extension (new window).
Italic Resources Elsewhere
Our Web Links page includes pointers to Italic resources elsewhere.
Lesson 1
La Chanson de Roland (The Song of Roland) is a so-called Chanson de Geste, one

of the major genres of French medieval literature in the 12th and 13th centuries. In
the Chansons de Geste the deeds (Latin gesta) of the great heroes of Christian
lineage are described. As the oldest Chanson de Geste, the Chanson de Roland is
generally dated in the early 12th century (ca. 1100-1120) and traces back to an
historical event.
In 778, when Charlemagne crossed the Pyrenees returning from a campaign in

Spain, the rearguard of his army was attacked and massacred by the local
population. Toward the end of the 11th century, leading up to the First Crusade
(1096-1099), this event developed legendary characteristics and the historical
figures were interpreted as Christian heroes whose faith, loyalty, and courage in
the battle against the pagan Saracens is continually praised, as in the Chanson de
Roland.
In this epic two characters stand out: Charlemagne, king of the Franks, and
Roland, his nephew and most prominent adviser and knight, who is the epitome of
Christian heroism and sacrifice and who accepts martyrdom on the battlefield
against the enemies of Christianity. The poem relates the events that lead to the
betrayal and massacre as well as the battle itself; it describes not only the battle, in
great detail, but also the deliberations that precede the decisions made by the
main characters.
Reading and Textual Analysis
The text is divided into laisses, stanzas of varying length. For this lesson two
laisses have been selected, numbers I (lines 1-9) and VIII (lines 96-121), which
present Charlemagne as one of the main characters of the work and show his
military strength.
Carles li reis, nostre emperere magnes

set anz tuz pleins ad estet en Espaigne:
Tresqu'en la mer cunquist la tere altaigne.
Carles -- proper name; nominative singular <Charles> Charles, Charlemagne --

Charles
li -- definite article; nominative singular masculine <li> the -- the
reis -- noun; nominative singular <roi> king -- king
nostre -- possessive; first person plural nominative singular masculine <nostre>

our -- our
emperere -- noun; nominative singular <empereor> emperor -- emperor
magnes -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <magne> great -- great
set -- numeral; <set> seven -- seven
anz -- noun; oblique plural <an> year -- years
tuz -- adjective; oblique plural masculine <tot> all, every, completely -- ...
pleins -- adjective; oblique plural masculine <plein, plain> full -- full
ad -- verb; third person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- has
estet -- verb; perfective participle nominative singular masculine <ester> stand,

remain, be -- been
en -- preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of -- in
Espaigne -- proper name; oblique singular <Espaigne> Spain -- Spain
tresqu'en -- preposition; <tresqu', trusqu'> up to, until + preposition; <en> in,

into, on, on top of -- up to
la -- definite article; oblique singular feminine <li> the -- the
mer -- noun; oblique singular <mer> sea -- sea
cunquist -- verb; third person singular preterite <conquerre, cunquerre> conquer,

capture -- he conquered
tere -- noun; oblique singular <terre> land, country, earth -- land
altaigne -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <altain> high, deep -- high
N'i ad castel ki devant lui remaigne;

Mur ne citet n'i est rems a fraindre
Fors Saraguce, ki est en une muntaigne.
n'i -- negation; <ne, nen> not + particle; <i> there -- there... no
ad -- verb; third person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- is
castel -- noun; oblique singular <chastel, castel> castle -- castle
ki -- relative pronoun; subject <qui> that -- that
devant -- preposition; <devant> before, in front of, in the presence of -- ...
lui -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine <il> he --
him
remaigne -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <remanoir> stay,

remain, resist -- resists
mur -- noun; nominative singular <mur> wall -- wall
ne -- negation; <ne, ni> nor, and not -- or
citet -- noun; nominative singular <cit, citet> city, town -- town
n'i -- negation; <ne, nen> not + particle; <i> there -- no... there
est -- verb; third person singular present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- is
rems -- verb; perfective participle nominative singular masculine <remanoir>

stay, remain, resist -- left
a -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on -- to
fraindre -- verb; infinitive <freindre, fraindre> break -- conquer
fors -- preposition; <fors> except -- except
Saraguce -- proper name; oblique singular <Saraguce> Saragossa -- Saragossa
ki -- relative pronoun; subject <qui> that -- which
est -- verb; third person singular present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- is located
en -- preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of -- on top of
une -- indefinite article; oblique singular feminine <un> a -- a

muntaigne -- noun; oblique singular <montaigne> mountain -- mountain
Li reis Marsilie la tient, ki Deu nen amet,

Mahumet sert e Apollin recleimet:
Nes poet guarder que mals ne l'i ateignet. AOI.
li -- definite article; nominative singular masculine <li> the -- ...
Marsilie -- proper name; nominative singular <Marsilie> Marsilie -- Marsilie
la -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object feminine <il> he -- it
tient -- verb; third person singular present <tenir> hold, keep, seize, consider --
holds
ki -- relative pronoun; subject <qui> who -- he who
Deu -- proper name; oblique singular <Dieu, Deu> God -- God
nen -- negation; <ne, nen> not -- not
amet -- verb; third person singular present <amer> love -- does... love
Mahumet -- proper name; oblique singular <Mahumez, Mahun> Mahomet --

Mahomet
sert -- verb; third person singular present <servir> serve -- serves
e -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- and
Apollin -- proper name; oblique singular <Apollin> Apollo, Satan -- Satan
recleimet -- verb; third person singular present <reclamer> call upon, invoke, beg
-- invokes
nes -- negation; <ne, nen> not -- not
poet -- verb; third person singular present <pooir, poeir, poier> can, be able --
can
guarder -- verb; infinitive <garder> watch over, guard -- prevent
que -- conjunction; <que> that -- that
mals -- noun; nominative singular <mal> evil, disaster, illness -- disaster
ne -- negation; <ne, nen> not -- ...
l'i -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object singular masculine <il>
he + particle; <i> there -- him...there
ateignet -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <ataindre> reach,

regain, catch -- reaches
AOI -- interjection; <AOI> ... -- ... # unknown element, possibly a war cry, typical
of the Chanson de Roland
Li empereres se fait e balz e liez:

Cordres ad prise e les murs peceiez,
Od ses cadables les turs en abatied;
empereres -- noun; nominative singular <empereor> emperor -- emperor
se fait -- verb; third person singular present <se faire> be -- is
e -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- ...
balz -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <balt> happy, full of fervor --

ebullient
e -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- as well as
liez -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <li, liet> happy, joyful -- joyful
Cordres -- proper name; oblique singular <Cordres> Cordres -- Cordres
ad -- verb; third person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- he has
prise -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular feminine <prendre> take, take
hold of, seize -- taken
les -- definite article; oblique plural masculine <li> the -- the
murs -- noun; oblique plural <mur> wall -- walls
peceiez -- verb; perfective participle oblique plural masculine <pecier> smash to

pieces -- smashed to pieces
od -- preposition; <ot, od, of, o> with -- with
ses -- possessive; third person singular oblique plural masculine <son> his -- his
cadables -- noun; oblique plural <cadable> catapult -- catapults
les -- definite article; oblique plural feminine <li> the -- ...
turs -- noun; oblique plural <tor> tower -- towers
en -- pronoun; inanimate <en> of it -- its
abatied -- verb; third person singular preterite <abatre> knock down, destroy --
he destroyed
Mult grant eschech en unt si chevaler

D'or e d'argent e de guarnemenz chers.
mult -- adverb, adjective; <molt, mult, mout> many, much, very -- ...
grant -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <grant> great, large, tall -- ...
eschech -- noun; oblique singular <eschec> booty, loot -- booty
en -- pronoun; inanimate <en> of it -- its
unt -- verb; third person plural present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- are laden with
si -- possessive; third person singular nominative plural masculine <son> his --

his
chevaler -- noun; nominative plural <chevalier> knight -- knights
d'or -- preposition; <de> of, from + noun; oblique singular <or> gold -- gold
d'argent -- preposition; <de> of, from + noun; oblique singular <argent> silver,
money, riches -- silver
de -- preposition; <de> of, from -- ...
guarnemenz -- noun; oblique plural <garnement> decorative object -- objects
chers -- adjective; oblique plural masculine <cher> beloved, expensive --

precious
En la citet nen ad rems paien

Ne seit ocis u devient chrestien.
citet -- noun; nominative singular <cit, citet> city, town -- town
nen -- negation; <ne, nen> not -- no
rems -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <remanoir> stay,

remain, resist -- left
paien -- noun; oblique singular <paien, pagien> pagan, heathen -- pagan
ne -- negation; <ne, nen> not -- not

seit -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <estre, iestre, aistre> be --
has been
ocis -- verb; perfective participle nominative singular masculine <ocire> kill --

killed
u -- conjunction; <o, u> or -- or
devient -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <devenir> become --

become
chrestien -- noun; nominative singular <chrestien> christian -- christian
Li empereres est en un grant verger,

Ensembl'od lui Rollant e Oliver,
Sansun li dux e Anseis li fiers,
Gefreid d'Anjou, le rei gunfanuner,
E si i furent e Gerin e Gerers;
empereres -- noun; nominative singular <empereor> emperor -- emperor
un -- indefinite article; oblique singular masculine <un> a -- a
grant -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <grant> great, large, tall -- large
verger -- noun; oblique singular <vergier> orchard, garden -- orchard
ensembl'od -- preposition; <ensemble od> together with -- together with...

(are)
him
Rollant -- proper name; nominative singular <Rollant> Roland -- Roland
Oliver -- proper name; nominative singular <Oliver> Oliver -- Oliver
Sansun -- proper name; nominative singular <Sansun> Sansun -- Sansun
dux -- noun; nominative singular <duc> duke -- duke

Anseis -- proper name; nominative singular <Anseis> Anseis -- Anseis
fiers -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <fier> fierce, strong, proud --

proud one
Gefreid -- proper name; nominative singular <Gefreid> Gefreid -- Gefreid
d'Anjou -- preposition; <de> of, from + proper name; oblique singular <Anjou>
Anjou -- of Anjou
le -- definite article; oblique singular masculine <li> the -- the
rei -- noun; oblique singular <roi> king -- king
gunfanuner -- noun; nominative singular <gunfanuner> standard bearer --

standard bearer
e si -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and + particle; <si> so, and moreover -- and also
i -- particle; <i> there -- there
furent -- verb; third person plural preterite <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- were
Gerin -- proper name; nominative singular <Gerin> Gerin -- Gerin
e -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- as well as
Gerers -- proper name; nominative singular <Gerer> Gerer -- Gerer
La u cist furent, des altres i out bien:

De dulce France i ad quinze milliers.
la -- adverb; <la> there -- ...
u -- relative pronoun; <ou, u> where -- where
cist -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural masculine <cest, cist> this --

these
furent -- verb; third person plural preterite <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- were
des -- preposition; <de> of, from + definite article; oblique plural masculine <li>
the -- ...
altres -- indefinite adjective; oblique plural masculine <altre> other -- others
out -- verb; third person singular preterite <avoir, aveir> have, be -- were
bien -- adverb; <bien> well, many, much, really -- many
de -- preposition; <de> of, from -- from
dulce -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <dolz, dous> sweet, gentle -- our
beloved
France -- proper name; oblique singular <France> France -- France
ad -- verb; third person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- are
quinze -- numeral; <quinze> fifteen -- fifteen
milliers -- numeral; oblique plural <millier> thousand -- thousand men
Sur palies blancs siedent cil cevaler,

As tables juent pur els esbaneier
E as eschecs li plus saive e li veill,
E escremissent cil bacheler leger.
sur -- preposition; <seur, soure, sur, sor> on, over, to, above -- on
palies -- noun; oblique plural <paile> precious cloth -- precious clothes
blancs -- adjective; oblique plural masculine <blanc> white -- white
siedent -- verb; third person plural present <seoir> sit, be seated -- are seated
cil -- demonstrative; nominative plural masculine <cil> that -- the
cevaler -- noun; nominative plural <chevalier> knight -- knights
as -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on + definite article; oblique plural
feminine <li> the -- ...
tables -- noun; oblique plural <table> game -- games
juent -- verb; third person plural present <joer> play -- play
pur -- preposition; <por> for -- to
els -- personal pronoun; third person plural direct object masculine <il> they --
themselves
esbaneier -- verb; infinitive <esbanir> amuse -- amuse
as -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on + definite article; oblique plural
feminine <li> the -- ...
eschecs -- noun; oblique plural <eschecs> chess -- chess

li -- definite article; nominative plural masculine <li> the -- the
plus -- adverb; <plus> more -- most
saive -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <saige, saive> clever, educated --

clever men
veill -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <vieil, veil> old -- old men
escremissent -- verb; third person plural present <escremir, escrimer> fence --

are fencing
cil -- demonstrative; nominative plural masculine <cil> that -- the
bacheler -- noun; nominative plural <bacheler, bachelor> young man, young

knight aspirant, page -- pages
leger -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <legier, ligier, loigier> light,

supple, light-hearted -- athletic
Desuz un pin, delez un eglentier,

Un faldestoed i unt, fait tut d'or mer:
La siet li reis ki dulce France tient.
desuz -- preposition; <desos, desous> under -- under
pin -- noun; oblique singular <pin> pine tree -- pine tree
delez -- preposition; <deles, del, deleiz> next to; beside -- next to
eglentier -- noun; oblique singular <aiglent> wild rose -- wild rose
faldestoed -- noun; oblique singular <faldestuel, faldestuef, faldestoed> folding

chair for important person, throne -- throne
i -- particle; <i> there -- ...
unt -- verb; third person plural present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- they have
fait -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <faire> make -- made
tut -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <tot> all, every, completely -- entirely
d'or -- preposition; <de> of, from + noun; oblique singular <or> gold -- of gold
mer -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <mer, mier> pure -- pure
la -- adverb; <la> there -- there
siet -- verb; third person singular present <seoir> sit, be seated -- is seated
ki -- relative pronoun; subject <qui> who -- who
dulce -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <dolz, dous> sweet, gentle -- our
beloved
France -- proper name; oblique singular <France> France -- France
holds
Blanche ad la barbe e tut flurit le chef,

Gent ad le cors e le cuntenant fier:
S'est kil demandet, ne l'estoet enseigner.
blanche -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <blanc> white -- white
la -- definite article; oblique singular feminine <li> the -- a
barbe -- noun; oblique singular <barbe> beard -- beard
tut -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <tot> all, every, completely -- entirely
flurit -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <florir> flower --

greyish white
chef -- noun; oblique singular <chief> head -- head
gent -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <gent> fair, handsome, beautiful --

fair
le -- definite article; oblique singular masculine <li> the -- a
cors -- noun; oblique singular <cors> body -- body

le -- definite article; oblique singular masculine <li> the -- a
cuntenant -- noun; oblique singular <contenant> demeanour, expression,

appearance -- appearance
fier -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <fier> fierce, strong, proud -- strong
s'est -- conjunction; <si> and, and thus + verb third person singular present;
<estre, iestre, aistre> be -- and if... were
kil -- relative pronoun; subject <qui> who + personal pronoun; third person
singular direct object masculine <il> he -- someone... him
demandet -- verb; third person singular present <demander> ask, ask for -- to
ask for
l'estoet -- personal pronoun; third person singular indirect object masculine <il>
he + verb; third person singular imperfective <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- him... it
is necessary
enseigner -- verb; infinitive <enseignier> teach, inform, point out -- point out
E li message descendirent a pied,

Sil saluerent par amur e par bien.
message -- noun; nominative plural <message> messenger -- messengers
descendirent -- verb; third person plural preterite <descendre> descend,

dismount -- came down
a -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on -- ...
pied -- noun; oblique singular <pi> foot -- ...
sil -- conjunction; <si> and, and thus + personal pronoun; third person singular
direct object masculine <il> he -- and... him
saluerent -- verb; third person plural preterite <saluer> salute, greet -- greeted
par -- preposition; <par> through, by, by reason of -- out of
amur -- noun; oblique singular <amor> love -- love

par -- preposition; <par> through, by, by reason of -- out of
bien -- noun; oblique singular <bien, ben> good, good fortune, well-being --
respect
Lesson Text
Carles li reis, nostre emperere magnes

set anz tuz pleins ad estet en Espaigne:
Tresqu'en la mer cunquist la tere altaigne. N'i ad castel ki devant lui remaigne;
Mur ne citet n'i est rems a fraindre
Fors Saraguce, ki est en une muntaigne. Li reis Marsilie la tient, ki Deu nen amet,
Mahumet sert e Apollin recleimet:
Nes poet guarder que mals ne l'i ateignet. AOI. Li empereres se fait e balz e liez:
Cordres ad prise e les murs peceiez,
Od ses cadables les turs en abatied; Mult grant eschech en unt si chevaler
D'or e d'argent e de guarnemenz chers. En la citet nen ad rems paien
Ne seit ocis u devient chrestien. Li empereres est en un grant verger,
Ensembl'od lui Rollant e Oliver,
Sansun li dux e Anseis li fiers,
Gefreid d'Anjou, le rei gunfanuner,
E si i furent e Gerin e Gerers; La u cist furent, des altres i out bien:
De dulce France i ad quinze milliers. Sur palies blancs siedent cil cevaler,
As tables juent pur els esbaneier
E as eschecs li plus saive e li veill,
E escremissent cil bacheler leger. Desuz un pin, delez un eglentier,
Un faldestoed i unt, fait tut d'or mer:
La siet li reis ki dulce France tient. Blanche ad la barbe e tut flurit le chef,
Gent ad le cors e le cuntenant fier:
S'est kil demandet, ne l'estoet enseigner. E li message descendirent a pied,
Sil saluerent par amur e par bien.
Translation
Charles the king, our great emperor,

has been in Spain a full seven years:
he conquered the high land up to the sea.
There is no castle that resists him;
there is no wall or town left to conquer,
except Saragossa, which is located on top of a mountain.
King Marsilie holds it, he who does not love God,

serves Mahomet and invokes Satan;
he cannot prevent that disaster reaches him there.
The emperor is ebullient as well as joyful:

he has taken Cordres and smashed the walls to pieces,
with his catapults he destroyed its towers;
his knights are laden with its booty
gold and silver and precious objects.
In the town no pagan is left
who has not been killed or become Christian.
The emperor is in a large orchard,
together with him are Roland and Oliver,
Sansun the duke and Anseis the proud one,
Gefreid of Anjou, the standard bearer of the king,
and Gerin as well as Gerer were there also;
Where these men were, there were many others:
from our beloved France there are fifteen thousand men.
The knights are seated on white precious cloths
to amuse themselves the most clever men and
the old men play games and chess,
and the pages, athletic, are fencing.
Under a pine tree, next to a wild rose,
they have a throne, entirely made of pure gold:
there the king is seated, who holds our beloved France.
He has a white beard and the head entirely greyish-white,
he has a fair body and a strong appearance:
if someone were to ask for him, it is not necessary to point him out.
And the messengers came down
and greeted him out of love and out of respect.
Grammar
1 Gender
Whereas the transition from Latin to French is characterized by the loss of the
neuter, gender distribution itself is not fundamentally different in Old French:
natural gender prevails for animate nouns, as in li uem vs. la feme ('the man' - 'the
wife'), le filz - la fille ('the son' - 'the daughter), li tors 'the bull', la vache 'the cow',
la jument 'the mare', and so forth. Inanimate nouns are either masculine or
feminine and this so-called grammatical gender is unpredictable, with a few
exceptions. Nouns in -or, for example tend to be feminine (e.g. la dolor 'the pain').
Because of wide-spread agreement patterns, gender marking is found in articles,
demonstratives, possessives, adjectives, and participles.
2 Case: Nominal Declensions, Class I and Class II
Old French differs from all other stages of the language in that is still has
declension of nouns. In the declension system of Old French, number and case are
closely connected. The very large majority of nouns have a singular and a plural
form. A limited number of nouns have a so-called collective singular: the singular
refers to a single referent and to a group of persons or objects, as in fruit 'fruit' and
'fruits', or feuille 'leaf' and 'foliage'.
In Old French only two cases survive of the rich Latin nominal inflection. With Old
Occitan, Old French differs fundamentally in this respect from from most other
early Romance languages, which no longer have case marking on nouns; an
important and well-known exception is Rumanian, where even today two nominal
cases survive, a nominative-accusative and a genitive-dative.
The two cases that are found in Old French are the nominative and the so-called
oblique case. The Old French nominative goes back to the Latin nominative,
whereas the oblique case traces back to the Latin accusative, which assumed many
functions from the other cases when they gradually disappeared in the
development from Latin to Romance. Although Old French still distinguishes
between the nominative and the oblique, these cases are not explicitly marked on
all nouns. The majority of masculine nouns have distinct case forms; for feminine
nouns the distinctions are primarily limited to number. It is possible to distinguish
various classes.
Nominal Declensions, Class I
Sg. Pl.
Nom. fame 'woman' fames
Obl. fame fames
The majority of these nouns are feminine and go back to the Latin first declension
in -a; they therefore end in -e in Old French, by regular phonological
development. The class includes nominalized adjectives and participles as well, cf.
force 'strength' from the Latin neuter plural fortia 'strong things'.
Note that for these nouns there is no formal distinction between cases, because the
nominative is formally identical to the oblique case. The only formal distinction is
between singular and plural.
The majority of Class II nouns are masculine and they have formal marking,
represented by the ending -s, which follows the stem in the nominative singular
and the oblique plural.
Nominal Declensions, Class II
Sg. Pl.
Nom. murs (from La. murus) 'wall' mur (from La. muri)
reis 'king' rei
Obl. mur (from La. murum) murs (from La. muros)
rei reis
Most of these nouns go back to nouns of the second declension in Latin, which
were primarily masculine nouns as well. When the fourth declension disappeared,
these nouns in -us became second declension nouns. This class of nouns further
includes nominalized infinitives (li mangiers 'the meal') and nominalized
participles and adjectives (Latin adj. diurnus 'daily' became Old French li jorz
'day').
3 Case: Hybrid Declensions
While not all feminine nouns end in -e, some masculine nouns do. This is the basis
of what some scholars call "hybrid" declensions. Nouns in these classes have a
declension pattern that does not correspond to what one might expect on the basis
of the gender of the noun.
In practice this means that the case ending -s is used for feminine nouns that do
not end in -e and that it lacks in some masculine nouns that do end in -e:
Nominal Declensions, Class Ia (feminine nouns)
Sg. Pl.
Nom. flors 'flower' flors
Obl. flor flors
Words in this class most often in origin belonged to the third declension in Latin,
such as amor 'love', mer 'sea', color 'color', dolor 'sorrow', loi 'religion', gent
'people', fin 'end', honor 'honor', main 'hand', valor 'worth', and others.
In the next class of nouns, the ending -s may or may not follow the stem.
Nominal Declensions, Class IIa (masculine nouns ending in ustressed -e)
Sg. Pl.
Nom. pere(s) 'father' pere
Obl. pere peres
This declension includes nouns such as frere 'brother', gendre 'son-in-law', mestre
'master', arbre 'tree', ventre 'belly', livre 'book', archevesque 'archbishop', ermite
'hermit', and others.
Hybrid declensions are the result of the on-going breakdown of the case system,
which started in early Latin. The development resulted not only in the loss of cases
(compare the six cases of Latin to the two cases in Old French), but also in the
disappearance of entire declensions (see the five declensions in Latin). Many
nouns therefore moved from one declension to another on the basis of form or
gender. Sometimes form and gender characteristics did not parallel, which led to
declensional inconsistencies. In time the irregularities of declensions Ia and IIa
disappeared, for example when the ending -s of the masculine singular spread, as
in livre:
Nominal Declensions, Spread of -s
Sg. Pl.
Nom. livres 'book' (earlier: livre) livres
Obl. livre livres
4 Case Marking: Definite Articles and Adjectives
Case marking is also found in definite articles and adjectival elements, among
them adjectives and participles.
4.1 Definite article declension
Case Marking, Definite Article
Masculine Sg. Pl.

Nom. li 'the' li
li murs 'the wall' li mur
Obl. le les
le mur les murs
Case Marking, Definite Article
Feminine Sg. Pl.

Nom. la 'the' les
la fame 'the woman' les fames
Obl. la les
la fame les fames
4.2 Adjectival declension
Like articles, adjectival elements agree with the noun in gender, number, and case.
Adjectival inflection shows different patterns according to gender and to the
declension the adjectives belong to.
Latin adjectives were divided into two groups or declensions. One included
adjectives that distinguished a masculine, feminine, and neuter form (La. bonus,
bona, bonum 'good') and the other declension -- the oldest one -- included those
adjectives that distinguish between a masculine/feminine and a neuter form (La.
fortis [masc./fem.] and forte [neuter] 'strong'). In Old French the first type of
adjective follows the pattern of nominal Declension I when the adjective is
feminine, and the pattern of nominal Declension II when the adjective is
masculine. Past participles typically follow these patterns as well.
Adjectival Declension, Class I (feminine)
Sg. Pl.
Nom. bone 'good' bones
dure 'hard' dures
entree 'enter' (Pf. Part.) entrees
Obl. bone bones
dure dures
entree entrees
Adjectival Declension, Class II (masculine)
Sg. Pl.
Nom. bons bon
durs dur
entrez entr
Obl. bon bons
dur durs
entr entrez
Adjectives that follow these patterns include, e.g., sains 'holy', bruns 'brown', clers
'clear', fiers 'proud', legiers 'light, souple', tot 'all'.
Adjectives in -e follow the declension patterns of Class I feminine nouns when

they are feminine and those of the Class II masculine nouns when they are
masculine.
Adjectival Declension, Adjectives in -e (feminine)
Sg. Pl.
Nom. sage 'wise' sages
Obl. sage sages
Adjectival Declension, Adjectives in -e (masculine)
Sg. Pl.
Nom. sages sage
Obl. sage sages
Examples of adjectives of this category include e.g. amable 'amiable', foible
'feeble', riche 'rich'.
Adjectives in -re (e.g. povre 'poor') form a special group. The declension for
feminine adjectives is regular, that of masculine adjectives lacks the -s suffix in the
nominative singular.
Adjectival Declension, Adjectives in -re (feminine)
Sg. Pl.
Nom. povre povres
Obl. povre povres
Adjectival Declension, Adjectives in -re (masculine)
Sg. Pl.
Nom. povre povre
Obl. povre povres
Adjectives that follow this pattern include, among others: autre 'other', maigre
'thin', tendre 'tender'.
The archaic adjectival declension in Latin that originally distinguished animate

(masc. or fem., e.g. fortis 'strong') vs. inanimate (neuter, e.g. forte ) survives in Old
French in a declension pattern that does not include a suffix -e for feminine forms:
Adjectival Declension, Class III (feminine)
Sg. Pl.
Nom. fort (forz) 'strong' forz
Obl. fort forz
Adjectival Declension, Class III (masculine)
Sg. Pl.
Nom. forz fort
Obl. fort forz
Adjectives that are included are: brief 'short', cruel 'cruel', grant 'great', prod 'bold',
vert 'green', fol 'foolish', and others.
5 Case Functions
The nominative primarily is the subject case and is used when addressing people,
as in:
li reis tient la citet 'the king (Nom. Sg.) holds the town';
li empereres se fait balz (CdR 96, this lesson) 'the emperor (Nom. Sg.) is happy';
respunt li reis 'the king (Nom. Sg.) replies';
Deus, fet il 'God (Nom. Sg.), he said'.
The oblique case is used for all other functions, among them:
direct object of transitive verbs, as in
gent ad le cors (CdR 118, this lesson) 'he has a handsome body (Obl. Sg.)';
indirect object, as in
li nums Joiuse l'espee fut dunet (CdR 2508) 'the sword (Indir. Obj.) was given the
name Joyeuse',
se Deu plet 'if it pleases (to) God (Indir. Obj.)';
genitive in combination with another noun, as in
la fille le rei 'the daughter of the king (Obl. Sg.)',
le rei gunfanuner (CdR 106, this lesson) 'the standard bearer of the king (Obl.
Sg.)';
object of prepositions, as in
e dist al rei (CdR 27) 'and he sayd to the king (Obl. Sg.)';
li empereres est en un grant verger (CdR 103, this lesson) 'the king is in a large
orchard (Obl. Sg.)';
adverbial expressions (e.g. space, time, direction), as in
set anz ad estet en Espaigne (CdR 2, this lesson) 'he has spent seven years (Obl.
Pl.) in Spain'.
Lesson 2
When Charlemagne's army reaches France and the troops prepare themselves
mentally to see their loved ones again, the rearguard under the command of
Roland is attacked at Roncevaux. Despite the wise and urgent advice of his friend
Oliver, Roland in his vanity refuses at first to blow the horn for military support.
Only when Roland sees that many of his troops have died does he decide to call for
Charlemagne's help. The physical effort of blowing the horn inflicts a fatal injury,
and as a result Roland dies.
The Chanson describes in detail the last moments of Roland's life and his passing.
When Charlemagne hears the signal, he returns to Spain to find that most of his
men there have been killed, including Oliver and Roland. He prepares his revenge,
which leads to the eventual victory of Christianity: the traitor is brought to justice,
and Sarragossa eventually is taken.

The fragments below describe the most dramatic moments of the Chanson de
Roland: Roland's blowing the horn, his injury, and his death. They also describe
Charlemagne's arrival at the scene of the battle, and his emotions at seeing the
disastrous effects of the attack (lines 1753-1758, 1785-1795, 2355-2365,
2396-2402, and 2412-2416).
The reader will notice that the fragments tend to be repetitive, which may be
explained by the oral tradition that the Chanson de Geste was part of. The
repetitive nature of the text also underscores the strong emotions that the events
trigger in the characters. From a linguistic perspective, the reader will also notice
that in many instances the case markers are not used, or are used incorrectly,
illustrating the gradual disappearance of the case system.
Rollant ad mis l'olifan a sa buche,

Empeint le ben, par grant vertut le sunet.
mis -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <metre, mectre,

mettre> put -- put
l'olifan -- definite article; oblique singular masculine <li> the + noun; oblique
singular <olifant> ivory horn -- the horn
a -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on -- at
sa -- possessive; third person singular oblique singular feminine <son> his -- his
buche -- noun; oblique singular <bouche, buche> mouth -- mouth
empeint -- verb; third person singular present <empeindre> blow, protrude -- he

places
le -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine <il> he -- it
ben -- adverb; <bien> well, many, much, really -- solidly
par -- preposition; <par> through, by, by reason of -- with
grant -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <grant> great, large, tall -- great
vertut -- noun; oblique singular <vertu> might, power, strength -- force
sunet -- verb; third person singular present <suner, soner> sound, utter -- he
blows
Halt sunt li pui e la voiz est mult lunge,

Granz .XXX. liwes l'orent il respundre.
halt -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <alt, aut, halt> high, strong,
important -- high
sunt -- verb; third person plural present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- are
pui -- noun; nominative plural <pui> mountain, hill -- mountains
la -- definite article; nominative singular feminine <li> the -- the
voiz -- noun; nominative singular <vois, voiz> noise, word, voice -- sound
est -- verb; third person singular present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- carries
mult -- adverb, adjective; <molt, mult, mout> many, much, very -- very
lunge -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <lonc, long, loing> long, far -- far
granz -- adjective; oblique plural feminine <grant> great, large, tall -- long
.XXX. -- number; <.XXX.> thirty -- thirty # in Old French, numbers were

preceded and followed by a dot
liwes -- noun; oblique plural <liue, live> mile -- miles away
l'orent -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine <il> he
+ verb; third person plural preterite <oir, odir> hear -- they heard...
il -- personal pronoun; third person singular nominative masculine <il> he -- it
respundre -- verb; infinitive <respondre> answer -- resonate
Karles l'ot e ses cumpaignes tutes.

Co dist li reis: "Bataille funt nostre hume!"
Karles -- proper name; nominative singular <Charles> Charles, Charlemagne --

Charles
l'ot -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine <il> he +
verb; third person singular preterite <oir, odir> hear -- heard it
ses -- possessive; third person singular nominative plural feminine <son> his --
his
cumpaignes -- noun; nominative plural <compaigne> troops -- troops
tutes -- adjective; nominative plural feminine <tot> all, every, completely -- all
co -- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter <co, ceo, ce, ceu> this, that, it --
these words
dist -- verb; third person singular preterite <dire> say, tell -- spoke
bataille -- noun; oblique singular <bataille> battle -- battle
funt -- verb; third person plural present <faire> make -- fight
nostre -- possessive; first person plural nominative plural masculine <nostre> our
-- our
hume -- noun; nominative plural <home, ome> man -- troops
Li quens Rollant ad la buche sanglente.

De sun cervel rumput en est li temples.
li -- definite article; nominative singular masculine <li> the -- ...
quens -- noun; nominative singular <conte> count -- count
la -- definite article; oblique singular feminine <li> the -- his
buche -- noun; oblique singular <bouche, buche> mouth -- mouth
sanglente -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <sanglent> bloody -- full of

blood
de -- preposition; <de> of, from -- of
sun -- possessive; third person singular oblique singular masculine <son> his --
his
cervel -- noun; oblique singular <cervel> brains -- brains
rumput -- verb; perfective participle nominative singular masculine <rompre>

break, burst -- burst open
en -- pronoun; inanimate <en> of it -- ...
est -- verb; third person singular present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- has
temples -- noun; nominative singular <temple> temple, forehead -- temple

L'olifan sunet a dulor e a peine.

Karles l'ot e ses Franceis l'entendent.
sunet -- verb; third person singular present <suner, soner> sound, utter -- he
blows
a -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on -- in
dulor -- noun; oblique singular <dolor> pain, suffering -- suffering
peine -- noun; oblique singular <peine, paine> torment, suffering -- pain
Karles -- proper name; nominative singular <Charles> Charles, Charlemagne --

Charles
l'ot -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine <il> he +
verb; third person singular preterite <oir, odir> hear -- heard him
ses -- possessive; third person singular nominative plural masculine <son> his --
his
Franceis -- proper name; nominative plural <Franceis> free, noble, subject of the
king of France -- subjects
l'entendent -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine

<il> he + verb; third person plural present <entendre> try, pay attention,
understand, hear -- hear him
Co dist li reis: "Cel corn ad lunge aleine!"
co -- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter <co, ceo, ce, ceu> this, that, it --
these words
dist -- verb; third person singular preterite <dire> say, tell -- spoke
cel -- demonstrative; nominative singular masculine <cil> that -- that
corn -- noun; nominative singular <corn, cor> horn -- horn

lunge -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <lonc, long, loing> long, far -- long
aleine -- noun; oblique singular <aleine, alaine> blast, breath -- a breath
Respont dux Neimes: "Baron i fait la peine!

Bataille i ad, par le men escentre.
Cil l'at trat ki vos en roevet feindre.
respont -- verb; third person singular present <respondre> answer -- answers
dux -- noun; nominative singular <duc> duke -- duke
Neimes -- proper name; nominative singular <Neimes> Naimes -- Naimes
baron -- noun; nominative singular <baron> brave warrior, brave knight -- a

brave knight
fait la peine -- verb; third person singular present <faire> make + definite article;
oblique singular feminine <li> the + noun; oblique singular <peine, paine>
torment, suffering -- is in distress
bataille -- noun; oblique singular <bataille> battle -- battle
par le men escentre -- preposition; <par> through, by, by reason of + definite

article; oblique singular masculine <li> the + possessive; first person singular
oblique singular masculine <mon> my + noun; oblique singular <escent>
knowledge -- to my knowledge
cil -- demonstrative; nominative singular masculine <cil> that -- he who
l'at -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine <il> he +
verb; third person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- has... him...
trat -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <trair> betray --

betrayed
vos -- personal pronoun; second person plural direct object <vos> you -- you
roevet -- verb; third person singular present <rover> ask, call upon, order --
orders
feindre -- verb; infinitive <feindre> do nothing, shy away -- to do nothing

Adubez vos, si criez vostre enseigne,

Si sucurez vostre maisnee gente:
Asez oez que Rollant se dementet!"
adubez vos -- verb; second person plural imperative <adober> arm oneself +
personal pronoun; second person plural direct object <vos> you -- arm yourself
si -- conjunction; <si> and, and thus -- and
criez -- verb; second person plural imperative <crier> shout -- shout
vostre -- possessive; second person plural oblique singular feminine <vostre> your
-- your
enseigne -- noun; oblique singular <enseigne> war cry -- war cry
sucurez -- verb; second person plural imperative <secorer> go to the help of -- go

to the help of
-- your
maisnee -- noun; oblique singular <maisniee, maisnie> household, army -- army
gente -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <gent> fair, handsome, beautiful --

fair
asez -- adverb; <asez, asss> many, much, very well -- very well
oez -- verb; second person plural present <oir, odir> hear -- you hear
se dementet -- verb; third person singular present <se dementer> lament -- is

lamenting
Co sent Rollant que la mort le tresprent,

Devers la teste sur le quer li descent.
co -- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter <co, ceo, ce, ceu> this, that, it -- ...
sent -- verb; third person singular present <sentir> smell, feel -- feels
la -- definite article; nominative singular feminine <li> the -- ...

mort -- noun; nominative singular <mort> death -- death
le -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine <il> he --

him
tresprent -- verb; third person singular present <tresprendre> overcome

completely -- overcomes completely
devers -- preposition; <devers, de vers> in the direction of, from the direction of --
from
la -- definite article; oblique singular feminine <li> the -- his
teste -- noun; oblique singular <teste> head -- head
sur -- preposition; <seur, soure, sur, sor> on, over, to, above -- to
le -- definite article; oblique singular masculine <li> the -- his
quer -- noun; oblique singular <cuer, coer, cor> heart -- heart
li -- personal pronoun; third person singular indirect object masculine <il> he --

...
descent -- verb; third person singular present <descendre> descend, dismount --

it descends
Desuz un pin i est alet curant,

Sur l'erbe verte s'i est culchet adenz,
Desuz lui met s'espee e l'olifan,
Turnat sa teste vers la paiene gent:
pin -- noun; oblique singular <pin> pine tree -- pine tree
est -- verb; third person singular present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- he has
alet -- verb; perfective participle nominative singular masculine <aler> go -- gone
curant -- verb; participle present nominative singular masculine <corre> run --

running
sur -- preposition; <seur, soure, sur, sor> on, over, to, above -- on top of
l'erbe -- definite article; oblique singular feminine <li> the + noun; oblique
singular <erbre> grass -- the grass
verte -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <vert> green -- green

s'i est culchet -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object <se> he +
particle; <i> there + verb; third person singular present <estre, iestre, aistre> be +
verb; perfective participle nominative singular masculine <couchier> lie down --
there he has lain down
adenz -- adverb; <adenz> face downwards -- face downwards
him
met -- verb; third person singular present <metre, mectre, mettre> put -- he puts
s'espee -- possessive; third person singular oblique singular feminine <son> his +
noun; oblique singular <espee> sword -- his sword
turnat -- verb; third person singular preterite <torner> turn, return -- he turned
teste -- noun; oblique singular <teste> head -- head
vers -- preposition; <vers> towards -- towards
paiene -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <paien> pagan, heathen -- pagan
gent -- noun; oblique singular <gent> race, people -- people
Pur co l'ad fait que il voelt veirement

Que Carles diet e trestute sa gent,
Li gentilz quens, qu'il fut mort cunquerant.
pur -- preposition; <por> for -- for
co -- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter <co, ceo, ce, ceu> this, that, it -- the
reason
l'ad -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine <il> he +
verb; third person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- he has... this
fait -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <faire> make -- done
il -- personal pronoun; third person singular nominative masculine <il> he -- he

voelt -- verb; third person singular present <voloir> want -- wants
veirement -- adverb; <voirement> really -- really

Charles
diet -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <dire> say, tell -- say
trestute -- reinforcing element; <tres> ... + adjective; nominative singular

feminine <tot> all, every, completely -- entire
sa -- possessive; third person singular nominative singular feminine <son> his --

his
gent -- noun; nominative singular <gent> race, people -- people
gentilz -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <gentil> noble, brave -- brave
quens -- noun; nominative singular <conte> count -- count
qu'il -- conjunction; <que> that + personal pronoun; third person singular

nominative masculine <il> he -- that he
fut -- verb; third person singular preterite <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- has
mort -- verb; perfective participle nominative singular masculine <morir> kill, die
-- died
cunquerant -- verb; present participle nominative singular masculine <conquerre,

cunquerre> conquer, capture -- as a conqueror
Cleimet sa culpe e menut e suvent,

Pur ses pecchez Deu en puroffrid lo guant. AOI
cleimet -- verb; third person singular present <clamer> call, proclaim, confess --
he confesses aloud
culpe -- noun; oblique singular <colpe, corpe, cope> sin, mistake -- sins
menut e suvent -- adverb; <menu, menut> quickly + conjunction; <e, et, ed> and
+ adverb; <sovent> frequently, often -- tapping his chest quickly and
frequently
pecchez -- noun; oblique plural <pechi> sin, mistake -- sins
Deu -- proper name; oblique singular <Dieu, Deu> God -- to God
puroffrid -- verb; third person singular preterite <porofrir> present -- offered
lo -- definite article; oblique singular masculine <li> the -- his
guant -- noun; oblique singular <gant> glove -- glove
AOI -- interjection; <AOI> ... -- ... # unknown element, possibly a war cry, typical
of the Chanson de Roland
Morz est Rollant, Deus en ad l'anme es cels.

Li emperere en Rencesvals parvient.
morz -- verb; perfective participle nominative singular masculine <morir> kill, die
-- died
est -- verb; third person singular present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- has
Deus -- proper name; nominative singular <Dieu, Deu> God -- God
l'anme -- definite article; oblique singular feminine <li> the + noun; oblique
singular <anme, alme, arme, ame> soul, somebody -- his soul
es -- preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of + definite article; oblique plural
masculine <li> the -- in...
cels -- noun; oblique plural <ciel> heaven -- heaven
emperere -- noun; nominative singular <empereor> emperor -- emperor
Rencesvals -- proper name; oblique singular <Rencesvals> Roncevaux --

Roncevaux
parvient -- verb; third person singular present <parvenir> arrive -- arrives

Il nen i ad ne veie ne senter,

Ne voide tere, ne alne ne plein pied,
Que il n'i ait o Franceis o paien.
il -- personal pronoun; third person singular nominative masculine <il> he -- ...
nen -- negation; <ne, nen> not -- ...
ne -- negation; <ne, ni> nor, and not -- no
veie -- noun; oblique singular <veie> road -- road
ne -- negation; <ne, ni> nor, and not -- nor
senter -- noun; oblique singular <sentier> path -- path
voide -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <vuit, vuide> empty -- empty
tere -- noun; oblique singular <terre> land, country, earth -- any piece of
ground
alne -- noun; oblique singular <alne> ell -- any ell
plein -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <plein, plain> full -- full
pied -- noun; oblique singular <pi> foot -- foot
que -- conjunction; <que> that -- where
il -- personal pronoun; third person singular nominative masculine <il> he -- ...
n'i -- negation; <ne, nen> not + particle; <i> there -- there... no
ait -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- is
o -- conjunction; <o, u> or -- ...
Franceis -- proper name; oblique singular <Franceis> free, noble, subject of the
king of France -- Frenchman
o -- conjunction; <o, u> or -- or
paien -- noun; oblique singular <paien, pagien> pagan, heathen -- heathen
Carles escriet: "U estes vos, bels nis?"

...

Charles
escriet -- verb; third person singular present <escrier> cry out, shout -- cries out
u -- interrogative adverb; <ou> where -- where
estes -- verb; second person plural present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- are
vos -- personal pronoun; second person plural nominative <vos> you -- you
bels -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <bel> dear, beloved, handsome --

beloved
nis -- noun; nominative singular <nevot, neveu> grandson, nephew -- my

nephew
"Deus! dist li reis, tant me pois esmaier

Que jo ne fui a l'estur cumencer!"
dist -- verb; third person singular preterite <dire> say, tell -- said
tant -- adverb; <tant> so, so much -- so much
me -- personal pronoun; first person singular direct object <jo, jou, jeu> I --
myself
pois -- verb; first person singular present <pooir, poeir, poier> can, be able -- I
can
esmaier -- verb; infinitive <esmaier> be dismayed -- torment
que -- conjunction; <que> that -- for
jo -- personal pronoun; first person singular nominative <jo, jou, jeu> I -- ...
fui -- verb; first person singular preterite <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- having been
l'estur -- definite article; oblique singular masculine <li> the + noun; oblique
singular <estor, estorm> noise, tumult, battle -- of the battle
cumencer -- verb; infinitive <comencier> begin, start -- the beginning

Tiret sa barbe cum hom ki est iret;

Plurent des oilz si baron chevaler;
Encontre tere se pasment .XX. millers.
tiret -- verb; third person singular present <tirer> pull -- he pulls
barbe -- noun; oblique singular <barbe> beard -- beard
cum -- conjunction; <com, comme> as -- like
hom -- noun; nominative singular <home, ome> man -- a man
iret -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <ir, iri> angry, distressed,

furious -- distressed
plurent -- verb; third person plural present <plorer> cry, shed tears -- shed tears
the -- from their
oilz -- noun; oblique plural <oeuil, oil> eye -- eyes

his
baron -- noun; nominative plural <baron> brave warrior, brave knight -- warrior
chevaler -- noun; nominative plural <chevalier> knight -- knights
encontre -- preposition; <encontre> to, towards, against -- on top of
tere -- noun; oblique singular <terre> land, country, earth -- earth
se pasment -- verb; third person plural present <se pasmer> faint, swoon -- faint
.XX. -- number; <.XX.> twenty -- twenty # in Old French, numbers were

millers -- numeral; nominative plural <millier> thousand -- thousand men
Lesson Text
Rollant ad mis l'olifan a sa buche,

Empeint le ben, par grant vertut le sunet. Halt sunt li pui e la voiz est mult lunge,
Granz .XXX. liwes l'orent il respundre. Karles l'ot e ses cumpaignes tutes.
Co dist li reis: "Bataille funt nostre hume!" Li quens Rollant ad la buche sanglente.
De sun cervel rumput en est li temples. L'olifan sunet a dulor e a peine.
Karles l'ot e ses Franceis l'entendent. Co dist li reis: "Cel corn ad lunge aleine!"
Respont dux Neimes: "Baron i fait la peine!
Bataille i ad, par le men escentre.
Cil l'at trat ki vos en roevet feindre. Adubez vos, si criez vostre enseigne,
Si sucurez vostre maisnee gente:
Asez oez que Rollant se dementet!" Co sent Rollant que la mort le tresprent,
Devers la teste sur le quer li descent. Desuz un pin i est alet curant,
Sur l'erbe verte s'i est culchet adenz,
Desuz lui met s'espee e l'olifan,
Turnat sa teste vers la paiene gent: Pur co l'ad fait que il voelt veirement
Que Carles diet e trestute sa gent,
Li gentilz quens, qu'il fut mort cunquerant. Cleimet sa culpe e menut e suvent,
Pur ses pecchez Deu en puroffrid lo guant. AOI Morz est Rollant, Deus en ad
l'anme es cels.
Li emperere en Rencesvals parvient. Il nen i ad ne veie ne senter,
Ne voide tere, ne alne ne plein pied,
Que il n'i ait o Franceis o paien. Carles escriet: "U estes vos, bels nis?"
... "Deus! dist li reis, tant me pois esmaier
Que jo ne fui a l'estur cumencer!" Tiret sa barbe cum hom ki est iret;
Plurent des oilz si baron chevaler;
Encontre tere se pasment .XX. millers.
Translation
Roland has put the horn at his mouth,

He places it solidly, with great force he blows it.
The mountains are high and the sound carries very far,
Thirty long miles away they heard it resonate.
Charles heard it, and all his troops.
The king spoke these words: "Our troops fight a battle!"
Count Roland has his mouth full of blood.

The temple of his brains has burst open.
He blows the horn in suffering and in pain.
Charles heard him and his subjects hear him.
The king spoke these words: "That horn has a long breath!"
Duke Naimes answers: "A brave knight is in distress!
There is a battle, to my knowledge.
He who has betrayed him, orders you to do nothing.
Arm yourself, and shout your war cry,

And go to the help of your fair army:
You hear very well that Roland is lamenting."
Roland feels that death overcomes him completely,

it descends from his head to his heart.
He has gone, running, under a pine tree,
there he has lain down on top of the green grass, face downwards,
he puts his sword and the horn under him,
he turned his head towards the pagan people:
He has done this for the reason that he really wants
that Charles and his entire people say
that he the brave count has died as a conqueror.
He confesses his sins aloud, tapping his chest quickly and frequently
For his sins he offered his glove to God.
Roland has died, God has his soul in heaven.

The emperor arrives in Roncevaux.
There is no road nor path,
nor any empty piece of ground, nor any ell or full foot,
where there is no Frenchman or heathen.
Charles cries out: "Where are you, my beloved nephew?"
...
"God!" the king said, "I can torment myself so much

for not having been there at the beginning of the battle!"
He pulls his beard like a man who is distressed;
His warrior knights shed tears from their eyes;
twenty thousand men faint on top of the earth.
Grammar
6 Case: Nominal Declension, Class III
In addition to the two declension classes discussed in Lesson 1, there is a third

group of nouns in Old French, which is characterized by a varying number of
syllables in the individual paradigms (the so-called imparisyllabic declension).
This group of nouns traces back to the third declension in Latin (e.g. lex, legis),
which included imparasyllabic nouns as well. Since the nominative singular had a
number of syllables different from the other cases (e.g. La. imperator 'emperor-
Nom.' vs. imperatorem 'emperor-Acc.'), the paradigm is characterized by a shift of
accentuation, which affects the subsequent phonological changes. The following
table presents the Latin forms and their Old French equivalents:
Nominal Declension, Latin vs. Old French
Nom. Sg. Nom. Pl.

Latin: imperator 'emperor' imperatores
Old French: emperedre emperedor
Acc./Obl. Sg. Acc./Obl. Pl.
Latin: imperatorem imperatores
Old French: emperedor emperedors
Nominal Declension, Class III
Sg. Pl.
Nom. emperedre 'emperor' emperedor
chantere 'singer' chanteor
Obl. emperedor emperedors
chanteor chanteors
Nouns included in this class are, for example: cuens, conte 'count', enfes, enfant
'child', nis, nevo 'nephew', sire, seignor 'lord', tratre, trator 'traitor', and others.
These nouns can be divided in four groups; three of them are:
masculine nouns referring to agents (verb stem + a suffix -eor or (i)ere), for
example: chantere, chanteor 'singer', derived from the verb chanter (stem: chant-)
'sing' or buvere, buveor 'drinker' from the verb bevre (stem: buv-) 'drink';
masculine nouns, often of Germanic origin with a suffix -on for cases other than
the nominative. These nouns are primarily nouns of persons or proper names.
Examples include: ber, baron 'baron', lerre, larron 'thief', compaing, compaignon
'companion', Charles, Charlon 'Charles', Guenes, Ganelon 'Ganelon', and others;
feminine nouns that alternate the nominative singular with the other forms in
-ain.
Nominal Declension, Feminine Nouns in -ain
Sg. Pl.
Nom. la none 'the nun' les nonains
Obl. la nonain les nonains
Examples include ante, antain 'aunt', pute, putain 'prostitute', niece, niecain,
'niece', and others that are less frequent.
The fourth group in Class III consists of a variety of nouns, such as hom, home
'man', enfes, enfant 'child', sire, seignor 'lord'. These are all masculine nouns with
the exception of suer, seror 'sister'.
Like the other declensional groups (Lesson 1), the case distinction gradually
disappeared: the masculine nominative singular ending (-s) spread to nouns that
originally did not have it, as sire > sires (which gives the following paradigm: li
sires, le seigneur, li seigneur, les seigneurs). Moreover, one of the two forms, the
nominative or oblique, came to be generalized to the rest of the paradigm; most
commonly it was the oblique form that generalized: e.g. li gars vs. le garcon 'boy'
became li garcons vs. le garcon (plural: li garcon and les garcons). This process
came to completion in the Middle French period, when the oblique form
eventually was the only form left. In the 13th century, a limited number of
(animate) nouns developed double paradigms, each based on the nominative vs.
oblique stem, cf:
Nominal Declension, Development of sire
Sg. Pl.
Nom. li sire li sire
Obl. le sire les sires
Nominal Declension, Development of seigneur
Sg. Pl.
Nom. li seigneurs li seigneur
Obl. le seigneur les seigneurs
7 Verb Conjugation: Present and Past
The verb in Old French expresses person, number, tense, mood, and to some
extent aspect. Verb forms typically do not have an obligatory subject personal
pronoun, so chant means 'I sing'. Cf. also: chante 'he sings' vs. li reis chante 'the
king sings'. A verbal paradigm typically has three forms in the singular (1st, 2nd,
and 3rd person) and three in the plural. The majority of the forms are "synthetic,"
which means that a unique form expresses the entire verbal concept, e.g. fenissons
'end-Present-we'.
Several forms are "analytic," which means that an auxiliary is combined with the
main verb, generally the perfective participle or an infinitive. Compare: chant 'I
sing' vs. ai chant 'I have sung'.
On the basis of the ending of the infinitive, we distinguish four conjugations in Old
French: verbs in -er, -ir, -oir, and in -re. Of these the verbs in -er and most verbs in
-ir are so-called regular verbs. It is accurate to say that as a rule of thumb the verbs
in -er, which are most frequent, trace back to the first conjugation verbs in Latin
(e.g. Latin cantare survives as chanter in Old French).
There are two types of verb in -ir: those that include an infix -iss- in some forms,
and those that do not. The infix traces back to the Latin infix -isc-, an inchoative
marker, which conveys the notion of 'to begin', as in tepesco 'I become warm',
based on tepeo 'I am warm'. Reflecting this etymological origin, many verbs in -ir
are formed on adjectives (OFr. adj. sage 'wise' > v. assagir 'become wise', adj. riche
'rich' > v. enrichir 'become rich'); others are in origin Germanic verbs (e.g. rtir
'roast', choisir 'choose').
Verbs in -oir go back to second conjugation verbs in -ere in Latin (e.g. Latin
manere 'stay' vs. OFr. manoir 'stay'). Verbs in -re trace back to the Latin verbs in
-re.
Verbal Conjugation, Verbs in -er, Present Indicative (chanter)
Present Ending Sg. Ending Pl.

1st pers. - chant 'I sing' -ons chantons
2nd pers. -es chantes -ez chantez
3rd pers. -e chante(t) -ent chantent
In some verbs, the accent is on the verb ending throughout the entire paradigm; in
others, it shifts to the verb stem for certain forms (1st sg., 2nd sg. and 3rd sg. and
pl. present indicative and present subjunctive, and 2nd sg. imperative). This
accounts for an alternation pattern, as in the verb amer:
amer 'love'
Present Sg. Pl.

1st pers. aim 'I love' amons
2nd pers. aimes amez
3rd pers. aime(t) aiment
Verbal Conjugation, Verbs in -ir with infix

1st pers. -is fenis 'I end' -issons fenissons
2nd pers. -is fenis -iss(i)ez feniss(i)ez
3rd pers. -it fenist -issent fenissent
Verbal Conjugation, Verbs in -ir without infix

1st pers. - part 'I leave' -ons partons
2nd pers. -s parz -ez partez
3rd pers. -t part -ent partent
Verbal Conjugation, Verbs in -re

1st pers. - cor 'I run' -ons corons
2nd pers. -s cors -ez corez
3rd pers. -t cort ent corent
The Old French verb has two past tenses, an imperfective (which traces back to the
Latin imperfective in -bam, for example cantabam 'I sang') and a preterite (Fr.
passe/simple), which goes back to the Latin perfective form, e.g. cantavi 'I have
sung'. Latin cantabam survived as chantoie in Old French; Latin cantavi survived
as chantai in Old French.
The imperfective and preterite forms for the various conjugations in Old French
are as follows.
Verbal Conjugation, Imperfective and Preterite, Verbs in -er (chanter)
Imperfective Ending Sg. Ending Pl.

1st pers. -oie chantoie -iiens chantiiens
-ons chantons
2nd pers. -oies chantoies -iiez chantiiez
3rd pers. -oit chantoit -oient chantoient
Preterite Ending Sg. Ending Pl.

1st pers. -ai chantai -ames chantames
2nd pers. -as chantas -astes chantastes
3rd pers. -a chanta -erent chanterent
Verbal Conjugation, Imperfective and Preterite, Verbs in -ir with infix (fenir)

1st pers. -issoie fenissoie -issiiens fenissiiens
-issons fenissons
2nd pers. -issoies fenissoies -issiiez fenissiiez
3rd pers. -issoi(e)t fenissoi(e)t -issoient fenissoient

1st pers. -i feni -imes fenimes
2nd pers. -is fenis -istes fenistes
3rd pers. -i feni -irent fenirent
Verbal Conjugation, Imperfective and Preterite, Verbs in -ir without infix
(partir)

1st pers. -oie partoie -iions partiions
-ons partons
-ens partens
2nd pers. -oies partoies -iiez partiiez
-ez partez
3rd pers. -oit partoit oient partoient

1st pers. -i parti -imes partimes
2nd pers. -is partis -istes partistes
3rd pers. -i parti -irent partirent

Verbal Conjugation, Imperfective and Preterite, Verbs in -re (corre)

1st pers. -oie coroie -iiens coriiens
-ons corons
2nd pers. -oies coroies -iiez coriiez
3rd pers. -oit coroit oient coroient

1st pers. -ui corui -umes corumes
2nd pers. -us corus -ustes corustes
3rd pers. -u coru -urent corurent
8 Avoir and Estre
The verbs avoir and estre in Old French have two functions: they function as full
lexical elements and as auxiliairies. Avoir is, first of all, a verb of possession; in
addition it is used in a common impersonal construction (see Grammar Point 10),
and it is an important tense auxiliary (see Grammar Point 9). Estre is a lexical verb
conveying existence, a copula, and an auxiliary. The conjugations of both verbs are
as follows:
Verbal Conjugation, avoir
Present Sg. Pl.

1st pers. ai 'I have' avons
2nd pers. as avez
3rd pers. a ont
Imperfective Sg. Pl.

1st pers. avoie 'I had' avons, aviiens
2nd pers. avoies avez, aviiez
3rd pers. avoit avoient
Preterite Sg. Pl.

1st pers. oi 'I had' emes, omes
2nd pers. es, os estes, ostes
3rd pers. ot, out orent, ourent
Participles
Present participle aiant
Perfective participle es
Verbal Conjugation, estre
Present Sg. Pl.

1st pers. sui 'I am' somes, esmes
2nd pers. es, ies, is estes
3rd pers. est sont
Imperfective (Type I) Sg. Pl.

1st pers. iere, ere 'I was' eriiens, erons
2nd pers. ieres, eres eriiez, erez
3rd pers. iert, ert ierent, erent
iere, ere
Imperfective (Type II) Sg. Pl.

1st pers. estoie 'I was' estiiens, estons
2nd pers. estoies estiiez, estez
3rd pers. estoitt estoient
Preterite Sg. Pl.

1st pers. fui 'I was' fumes
2nd pers. fus fustes
3rd pers. fu furent
Participles
Present participle estant
Perfective participle est
9 Compound Tenses
While Latin only had one auxiliary, esse, which combined with the perfective
particle (e.g., laudauts est 'he is in the state resulting from the praising'), French
from its earliest stage had two, estre and avoir, as the following examples show:
Auxiliary estre:
alez est en un verger (CdR 11)
'he went into an orchard'
murs ne citt n'est rems a fraindre (CdR 5, Lesson 1)
'there is no wall or town left to conquer'
Auxiliary avoir:
li reis m'ad tramis ses messages (CdR 181)
'the king has sent me his messages'

set anz ad estet en Espaigne (CdR 2, Lesson 1)
'he has spent seven years in Spain'
In Old French the auxiliaries combine with the perfective participle to form four
so-called analytic verb forms or compound tenses: present perfect, past perfect (or
pluperfect), future perfect, and conditional perfect. For example:
Present Perfect: ai chant 'I have sung'

Past Perfect: avoie chant 'I had sung'
Future Perfect: avrai chant 'I will have sung'
Conditional Perfect: avroie chant 'I would have sung'
In Old French, estre is not only a tense auxiliary but a passive auxiliary as well, as
the following examples show:
estre, tense auxiliary:
'he went into an orchard'
estre, passive auxiliary:
la trasun ne poet estre celee (CdR 1458)
'the treason cannot be kept secret'
In general transitive verbs combine with avoir in compound tenses, while

intransitive verbs combine with estre, as in the following examples:
Transitive verb + avoir
li reis m'ad tramis ses messages (CdR 181)
'the king has sent me his messages'
Intransitive verb + estre
'he has gone into an orchard'
Some verbs combine with avoir or estre according to whether their use is
transitive or intransitive, cf.:
morir, intransitive use ('die'):
morz est Rollant (CdR 2397, this lesson)
'Roland has died'
paien sunt morz a millers (CdR 1439)

'the pagans have died by thousands'
morir, transitive use ('kill'):
qui tei a mort France douce a honnie (CdR 2953)
'(he) who has killed you has dishonored (our) beloved France'
Reflexive verbs as a rule combine with estre in compound tenses as well, cf:
s'i est cuchet (CdR 2358, this lesson)
'he lay down'
But there are many instances with avoir, as in:
il s'a vestu
'he has put his clothes on'
With other verbs as well, there is some variation or confusion in the use of
auxliaries, cf.:
mur ne citet n'i est rems a fraindre (CdR 5, Lesson 1)
'there is no wall or town left to conquer'
en la citet nen ad rems paien (CdR 101, Lesson 1)
'in the town no pagan is left'
10 Impersonal Verbs
Impersonal verbs are verbs that ypically occur in the third person singular, with or
without a pronominal element, as in:
anuite 'it is getting dark'
il anuite 'it is getting dark'
Strictly speaking, il in this context is a pronominal element that occupies the place
of a pronominal subject, but has no semantic value (it is empty). Most instances of
impersonal verbs in Old French do not have this element.
Impersonal verbs are found in all early Indo-European languages and, while many
early Indo-European languages had numerous impersonal verbs, their number in
most languages decreased with time.
There are three types of impersonal verbs in Indo-European:
1. impersonal verbs expressing meteorological conditions and events;
2. impersonal verbs expressing emotions, feelings, and physical experience;

3. impersonal verbs expressing modality, such as necessity.
These three types are attested in Old French; category 3 verbs increase with time.
10.1 Meteorological conditions and events
(il) anuite 'it is getting dark'
(il) avesprit 'it is getting dark'
(il) ajorne 'the day breaks'
(il) neige 'it is snowing'
(il) plove 'it is raining'
10.2 Emotions, feelings, and physical experience
(il) abelist 'it pleases'
(il) membre 'remember'
(il) remembre 'remember'
10.3 Modality, such as necessity
(il) affiert 'it is fitting'
(il) loist 'it is possible'
(il) estuet 'it is necessary'
(il) semble 'it seems'
(il) fault 'it is necessary'
(il) covient 'it is necessary'
(il) chaut 'it matters, it is important'
In addition to these impersonal verbs, there are also several impersonal

expressions in Old French, cf:
estre tart a 'to be eager'
estre avis a 'to be of the opinion'
avoir mestier a 'to be of use to, need'
The person who is undergoing the emotional or physical experience or to whom

the modality refers is referred to in the oblique case or a pronominal direct or
indirect object:
molt est la reine tart 'the queen is very eager'
m'est avis 'it seems to me'
morir le covient 'he had to die'
ni li chalt (CdR 227) 'it does no matter to him'
The verb avoir has been glossed in this on-line course as meaning 'have, be'. Avoir,
first of all, is a verb of possession 'have', but in impersonal constructions its
meaning becomes 'be', cf.:
num ad Rollant 'he has the name Roland; he is called Roland'
grifuns i ad 'there are griffins'
The object or person that is present takes the form of an oblique case, as in the
preceding example. The constructions are found in Old French with or without il
and with or without i, cf:
ad + oblique case 'there is' --
meillor vassal n'aveit en la curt nul (CdR 231) 'there was no better knight at the
court'
i + ad + oblique case 'there is' --
bataille i ad (CdR 1791, this lesson) 'there is a battle'
grifuns i ad (CdR 2544) 'there are griffins'
n'i ad cheval (CdR 2522) 'there is no horse'
n'i ad castel (CdR 3, Lesson 1) 'there is no castle'
il + i + ad + oblique case 'there is' --
il nen i ad ne veie ne senter (CdR 2399, this lesson) 'there is no road nor path'
que il n'i ait o Franceis o paien (CdR 2401, this lesson) 'where there is no
Frenchman nor pagan"
The use of il in these constructions is rather rare in early times, but spreads in the
Middle French period; eventually the expression became fixed, including il as well
as i. It survives in Modern French as il y a 'there is'.
Lesson 3
Saints played an important role in everyday life in the Middle Ages. A saint is a
person who is officially recognized by the Church of Rome as having lived a
remarkably holy life. Because of their exceptional Christian virtues, saints are
assumed to be in heaven, where they are able to intercede for sinners, those who
live a less-than-holy life.
With the calendar of saints indicating the days of the individual saints, the Church
had introduced their systematic celebration, highlighting their virtuous lives as
Christians. Because of their interceding function, saints often were patrons of
certain groups, roles that generally trace back to events in their lives. St. Nicolas,
for example, was patron saint of sailors because -- according to legends -- he had
saved sailors at one point in his life; St. Luke, who originally was believed to be a
painter and a physician, was the patron saint of painters and of physicians.
Moreover people generally were named after a saint, for whom they tended to
develop special devotion.
Outside and inside churches and houses were many statues of saints, each with its
own symbols (e.g. St. John the Evangelist with the poisoned cup to which he was
condemned). There was a strong hagiographic tradition as well: an important
number of medieval documents describe saints' lives, often written by
contemporaries or based on stories told by them.
Saints were, so to speak, omnipresent in daily life in the Middle Ages.
The text for this lesson has been taken from La Vie de Saint Alexis, which dates
from the mid-11th century and relates the life of Saint Alexis, a young Roman
whose life was devoted to God. The legend of St. Alexis is rather international: it is
attested in Syria, Greece, and Western Europe. The document discussed here
presumably is based on a lengthy written tradition.
The Old French text is a poem of 625 verses, which in all probability was chanted
during the liturgy of the saint's day, July 17.
Son of an important and rich Roman senator, Alexis decides on the eve of his
wedding to leave Rome and live with the poor. Having distributed his possessions
among the poor, he lives for seventeen years in Edessa, spending his days as a
beggar. When the locals come to consider him a saint, he leaves the town on a ship
and eventually ends up in Ostia, a port close to Rome. In the streets of Rome he
encounters his father, who fails to recognize him. Alexis asks to be taken into the
household. His father accepts, and Alexis stays there for another seventeen years
without being recognized by his family, living as a pauper under the staircase.
Refusing to reveal his identity, he sees how his parents and his wife grieve his loss.
He patiently undergoes the physical torments he imposes upon himself and the
pestering by his father's men. After seventeen years he feels that he is about to die
and he calls for his servant: he will write a letter explaining the situation and
revealing his indentity. Shortly after his death, the letter is discovered and Alexis is
recognized as a saintly figure.
The fragments below describe how Alexis, after seventeen years, returns to Rome
and asks his father to take him into his house. They also describe how his parents
and his wife fail to recognize him, and spend their time grieving their lost son and
husband.
A un des porz ki plus est pres de Rome,

Iloec arivet la nef a cel saint home.
un -- indefinite article; oblique singular masculine <un> a -- one
the -- of the
porz -- noun; oblique plural <port> harbour, port -- ports
ki -- relative pronoun; subject <qui> that -- that
plus est pres de -- adverb; <plus> more + verb; third person singular present
<estre, iestre, aistre> be + preposition; <pres de> close to -- is closest to
Rome -- proper name; oblique singular <Rome> Rome -- Rome
iloec -- adverb; <iluec, ilec, iluoc> there -- there
arivet -- verb; third person singular present <ariver> arrive -- arrives
nef -- noun; nominative singular <nef> ship -- ship
a -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on -- of
cel -- demonstrative; oblique singular masculine <cil> that -- that
saint -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <saint> holy -- holy
home -- noun; oblique singular <home, ome> man -- man
Quant vit sun regne, durement s'en redutet

De ses parenz, qued il nel recunuissent
E de l'honur del secle ne l'encumbrent.
quant -- conjunction; <quant> when -- when
vit -- verb; third person singular preterite <veoir> see -- he saw

his
regne -- noun; oblique singular <regne> kingdom, country -- country
durement -- adverb; <durement> greatly, sorely, very -- very
s'en redutet -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object <se> he +
pronoun; inanimate <en> of it + verb; third person singular present <redoter> be
afraid, fear -- he is worried
de -- preposition; <de> of, from -- about
parenz -- noun; oblique plural <parent> father, parent -- parents
qued -- conjunction; <que> that -- that
il -- personal pronoun; third person plural nominative masculine <il> they -- they
nel -- negation; <ne, nen> not + personal pronoun; third person singular direct
object masculine <il> he -- him...
recunuissent -- verb; third person plural subjunctive present <reconoistre>

recognize -- recognize
l'honur -- definite article; oblique singular masculine <li> the + noun; oblique
singular <onor, enor, anor> honor, respect, esteem, fief -- honors
del -- preposition; <de> of, from + definite article; oblique singular masculine <li>
the -- of the
secle -- noun; oblique singular <siecle, secle, seule> earthly life, world -- world
l'encumbrent -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine

<il> he + verb; third person plural subjunctive present <encombrer> overload --
overload him with
Eist de la nef e vint andreit a Rome;
eist -- verb; third person singular present <issir> go out, come out -- he leaves

nef -- noun; oblique singular <nef> ship -- ship
vint -- verb; third person singular preterite <venir> come, go -- went
andreit -- adverb; <endreit> precisely, right, immediately -- directly
Rome -- proper name; oblique singular <Rome> Rome -- Rome
Vait par les rues dunt il ja bien fut cointe,

Altra pur altre, mais sun pedre i ancuntret,
vait -- verb; third person singular present <aler> go -- he goes
par -- preposition; <par> through, by, by reason of -- through
les -- definite article; oblique plural feminine <li> the -- the
rues -- noun; oblique plural <rue> street, village -- streets
dunt -- relative pronoun; <dont, dunt> of whom, of which, whose -- with which
ja -- adverb; <ja, jai> now, already, at once -- already
bien -- adverb; <bien> well, many, much, really -- very
fut -- verb; third person singular preterite <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- was
cointe -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <cointe> refined, clever,

elegant -- familiar
altra pur altre -- indefinite adjective; oblique singular feminine <altre> other +
preposition; <por> for + indefinite adjective; oblique singular feminine <altre>
other -- one after the other
mais -- conjunction; <mais> more, further, rather -- eventually
his
pedre -- noun; oblique singular <pere> father -- father
ancuntret -- verb; third person singular present <encontrer> meet -- he runs

into
Ansembl'ot lui grant masse de ses humes;

Sil reconut, par sun dreit num le numet.
ansembl'ot -- preposition; <ensemble od> together with -- together with... (is)
him
grant -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <grant> great, large, tall -- large
masse -- noun; nominative singular <masse> mass -- group
humes -- noun; oblique plural <home, ome> man -- men
sil -- conjunction; <si> and, and thus + personal pronoun; third person singular
direct object masculine <il> he -- and... him
reconut -- verb; third person singular preterite <reconoistre> recognize -- he

recognized
par -- preposition; <par> through, by, by reason of -- by
his
dreit -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <droit> direct, right, proper --

proper
num -- noun; oblique singular <nom, non> name, title -- name

him
numet -- verb; third person singular present <nomer> name, call -- he calls
"Eufemen, bel sire, riches hom,

Quar me herberges pur Deu an ta maison;
Eufemen -- proper name; nominative singular <Eufemen> Eufemien --

Eufemien
bel -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <bel> dear, beloved, handsome --

dear
sire -- noun; nominative singular <seignor> lord -- lord
riches -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <riche> powerful, strong,

generous -- powerful
hom -- noun; nominative singular <home, ome> man -- man
quar -- conjunction; <quar, car> for, because -- ...

me -- personal pronoun; first person singular direct object <jo, jou, jeu> I -- me
herberges -- verb; second person singular subjunctive present <herbergier> lodge,

shelter, receive as guest -- may you lodge
pur -- preposition; <por> for -- for the sake of
an -- preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of -- in
ta -- possessive; second person singular oblique singular feminine <ton> your --

your
maison -- noun; oblique singular <maison> house -- house
Suz tun degrt me fai un grabatum

Empur tun filz dunt tu as tel dolur;
suz -- preposition; <sos, soz> under -- under
tun -- possessive; second person singular oblique singular masculine <ton> your
-- your
degrt -- noun; oblique singular <degr> staircase -- staircase
me -- personal pronoun; first person singular indirect object <jo, jou, jeu> I -- me
fai -- verb; second person singular imperative <faire> make -- make
grabatum -- noun; oblique singular <grabatum> simple bed -- simple bed
empur -- preposition; <enpur, anpur> for the sake of -- for the sake of
tun -- possessive; second person singular oblique singular masculine <ton> your
-- your
filz -- noun; oblique singular <fil> son -- son
dunt -- relative pronoun; <dont, dunt> of whom, of which, whose -- about

whom
tu -- personal pronoun; second person singular nominative <tu> you -- you
as -- verb; second person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- have
tel -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <tel> such -- such
dolur -- noun; oblique singular <dolor> pain, suffering -- grief
Tut soi amferm, sim pais pur sue amor".

tut -- adverb; <tot> entirely -- utterly
soi -- verb; first person singular present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- I am
amferm -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <enferm> ill, crippled, weak,

unhealthy -- weak
sim -- conjunction; <si> and, and thus + personal pronoun; first person singular
direct object <jo, jou, jeu> I -- and thus... me
pais -- verb; second person singular imperative <paistre, pestre> feed -- feed
sue -- possessive; third person singular oblique singular feminine <son> his -- his
amor -- noun; oblique singular <amor> love -- love
Quant ot li pedre le clamor de sun filz,

Plurent si oil, ne s'en puet astenir:
ot -- verb; third person singular present <oir, odir> hear -- hears
pedre -- noun; nominative singular <pere> father -- father
clamor -- noun; oblique singular <clameor> appeal -- appeal
his
filz -- noun; oblique singular <fil> son -- son
plurent -- verb; third person plural present <plorer> cry, shed tears -- shed tears

his
oil -- noun; nominative plural <oeuil, oil> eye -- eyes
s'en -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object <se> he + pronoun;
inanimate <en> of it -- himself...
puet -- verb; third person singular present <pooir, poeir, poier> can, be able -- he
can
astenir -- verb; infinitive <astenir> keep from -- contain
"Por amor Deu e pur mun cher ami,

Tut te durai, boens hom, quanque m'as quis,
Lit ed ostel e pain e carn e vin".
por -- preposition; <por> for -- for
amor -- noun; oblique singular <amor> love -- the love
Deu -- proper name; oblique singular <Dieu, Deu> God -- of God
mun -- possessive; first person singular oblique singular masculine <mon> my --

my
cher -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <cher> beloved, expensive --

beloved
ami -- noun; object singular <ami> friend -- friend
tut -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <tot> all, every, completely -- all
te -- personal pronoun; second person singular indirect object <tu> you -- you
durai -- verb; first person singular future <doner> give -- I will give
boens -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <bon> good -- good
hom -- noun; nominative singular <home, ome> man -- man
quanque -- pronoun; <quanque> all that -- ...
m'as -- personal pronoun; first person singular indirect object <jo, jou, jeu> I +
verb; second person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- you have... me
quis -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <quere, querre> look
for, want, ask -- asked for
lit -- noun; oblique singular <lit> bed -- a bed
ed -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- and
ostel -- noun; oblique singular <ostel> house, dwelling -- lodging
pain -- noun; oblique singular <pain> bread -- bread

carn -- noun; oblique singular <charn, char> flesh, meat -- meat
vin -- noun; oblique singular <vin> wine -- wine
Sovent le virent e le pedre e le medra,

E la pulcele quet il out espusede:
Par nule guise unces ne l'aviserent;
sovent -- adverb; <sovent> frequently, often -- often

him
virent -- verb; third person plural preterite <veoir> see -- they saw
le -- definite article; nominative singular masculine <li> the -- his # case form is
rather exceptional in this instance
pedre -- noun; nominative singular <pere> father -- father
le -- definite article; nominative singular feminine <li> the -- his # case form and
gender distribution are rather exceptional in this instance
medra -- noun; nominative singular <mere> mother -- mother
pulcele -- noun; nominative singular <pucele> girl, servant, maiden -- girl
quet -- relative pronoun; oblique <qui> who -- whom
out -- verb; third person singular preterite <avoir, aveir> have, be -- had
espusede -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular feminine <esposer> marry

-- married
par nule guise unces -- preposition; <par> through, by, by reason of + adjective;
oblique singular feminine <nul> no, not any + noun; oblique singular <guise>
way, manner + adverb; <onques> once, ever -- never in any way
l'aviserent -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine <il>
he + verb; third person plural preterite <aviser> look at, see, recognize, appreciate
-- they recognized him
N'il ne lur dist, ne il nel demanderent,

Quels hom esteit ne de quel terre il eret.
n'il -- negation; <ne, ni> nor, and not + personal pronoun; third person singular
nominative masculine <il> he -- he...
lur -- personal pronoun; third person plural indirect object <il> they -- them
dist -- verb; third person singular preterite <dire> say, tell -- did... tell
ne -- negation; <ne, ni> nor, and not -- and...
nel -- negation; <ne, nen> not + personal pronoun; third person singular direct
object masculine <il> he -- not...
demanderent -- verb; third person plural preterite <demander> ask, ask for --
did... ask
quels -- interrogative; nominative singular masculine <quel> what -- who
hom -- noun; nominative singular <home, ome> man -- ...
esteit -- verb; third person singular imperfective <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- he

was
quel -- interrogative; oblique singular feminine <quel> what -- what
terre -- noun; oblique singular <terre> land, country, earth -- country
eret -- verb; third person singular imperfective <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- came
Soventes feiz lur veit grant duel mener

E de lur oilz mult tendrement plurer,
E tut pur lui, unces nent pur eil.
soventes -- adjective; oblique plural feminine <sovent> many -- many
feiz -- noun; oblique plural <feiz, veiz> time -- times
lur -- personal pronoun; third person plural indirect object <il> they -- them
veit -- verb; third person singular present <veoir> see -- he sees
grant -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <grant> great, large, tall -- great
duel -- noun; oblique singular <dol, duel> suffering, grief -- grief
mener -- verb; infinitive <mener> take, lead, show -- display
lur -- possessive; third person plural oblique plural masculine <lor, leur> their --
their
oilz -- noun; oblique plural <oeuil, oil> eye -- eyes
mult -- adverb, adjective; <molt, mult, mout> many, much, very -- great
tendrement -- adverb; <tendrement> tenderly -- with tenderness
plurer -- verb; infinitive <plorer> cry, shed tears -- shed tears
tut -- adverb; <tot> entirely -- entirely
him
unces nent -- adverb; <onques> once, ever + adverb; <nent> not at all -- never
eil -- personal pronoun; third person plural direct object <il> they -- themselves
Danz Alexis le met el consirrer;

Ne l'en est rien, si'st a Deu aturnt.
danz -- noun; nominative singular <dam, dan> sir, lord -- sir
Alexis -- proper name; nominative singular <Alexis> Alexis -- Alexis
met -- verb; third person singular present <metre, mectre, mettre> put -- takes
el -- preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of + definite article; oblique singular
masculine <li> the -- in...
consirrer -- verb; infinitive <conserrer, consirrer> deprive, resign -- resignation
ne l'en est rien -- negation; <ne, ni> nor, and not + personal pronoun; third
person singular indirect object masculine <il> he + pronoun; inanimate <en> of it

+ verb; third person singular present <estre, iestre, aistre> be + indefinite
pronoun; <rien> anything -- it does not matter
si'st -- adverb; <si> thus, that way, that much + verb; third person singular
present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- that much... he is
aturnt -- verb; perfective participle nominative singular masculine <atorner>

turn, prepare -- turned
Soz le degrt ou il gist sur sa nate,

Iluec paist l'um del relef de sa tabla.
soz -- preposition; <sos, soz> under -- under
degrt -- noun; oblique singular <degr> staircase -- staircase
ou -- relative pronoun; <ou, u> where -- where
gist -- verb; third person singular present <gesir> lie -- lies
sur -- preposition; <seur, soure, sur, sor> on, over, to, above -- on
nate -- noun; oblique singular <nate> matting -- matting
iluec -- adverb; <iluec, ilec, iluoc> there -- there
paist -- verb; third person singular present <paistre, pestre> feed -- feed
l'um -- definite article; nominative singular masculine <li> the + personal

pronoun; nominative singular <om, on> one -- they
del -- preposition; <de> of, from + definite article; oblique singular masculine <li>
the -- of the
relef -- noun; oblique singular <relef> remains, scraps -- remains
sa -- possessive; third person singular oblique singular feminine <son> his -- the
tabla -- noun; oblique singular <table> table -- table
A grant poverte deduit sun grant parage;

Co ne volt il que sa mere le sacet:

Plus aimet Deu que trestut sun linage.
poverte -- noun; oblique singular <povert> poverty, misery -- poverty
deduit -- verb; third person singular present <deduire> lead, live -- he lives
his
grant -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <grant> great, large, tall -- high
parage -- noun; oblique singular <parage> family, origin, rank -- social rank
co -- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter <co, ceo, ce, ceu> this, that, it -- ...
volt -- verb; third person singular present <voloir> want -- does want
que -- conjunction; <que> that -- ...
sa -- possessive; third person singular nominative singular feminine <son> his --

his
mere -- noun; nominative singular <mere> mother -- mother
le -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine <il> he -- ...
sacet -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <savoir> know -- to know
plus -- adverb; <plus> more -- more
aimet -- verb; third person singular present <amer> love -- he loves
que -- conjunction; <que> than -- than
trestut -- reinforcing element; <tres> ... + adjective; oblique singular masculine

<tot> all, every, completely -- entire
his
linage -- noun; oblique singular <lignage> lineage, family -- lineage
Trent'e quatre anz ad si sun cors pent:

Deus sun servise li volt guereduner:

Mult li angreget la sue anfermett.
trent'e quatre -- numeral; <trente et quatre> thirty four -- thirty four
anz -- noun; oblique plural <an> year -- during... years
si -- adverb; <si> thus, that way, that much -- that way
his
cors -- noun; oblique singular <cors> body -- body
pent -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <pener> torture,

suffer -- tortured
his
servise -- noun; oblique singular <servise> devotion, favor, task -- devotion

...
volt -- verb; third person singular present <voloir> want -- wants
guereduner -- verb; infinitive <guerredoner> reward -- to reward
mult -- adverb, adjective; <molt, mult, mout> many, much, very -- much

for him
angreget -- verb; third person singular present <angregier> grow worse, become
more painful -- becomes more painful
sue -- possessive; third person singular nominative singular feminine <son> his --
his
anfermett -- noun; nominative singular <enfermet> physical or moral weakness,

illness -- physical weakness
Or set il bien qued il s'en deit aler:

Cel son servant ad a sei apelt.
or -- adverb; <or> now -- now

set -- verb; third person singular present <savoir> know -- knows
bien -- adverb; <bien> well, many, much, really -- well
s'en deit aler -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object <se> he +
pronoun; inanimate <en> of it + verb; third person singular present <devoir>
have to + verb; infinitive <aler> go -- has to die
cel -- demonstrative; oblique singular masculine <cil> that -- ...
son -- possessive; third person singular oblique singular masculine <son> his --
his
servant -- noun; oblique singular <servant> servant -- servant
sei -- pronoun personal; third person singular direct object <se> he -- him
apelt -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <apeler> accuse,

summon, call -- called to see
Lesson Text
A un des porz ki plus est pres de Rome,

Iloec arivet la nef a cel saint home. Quant vit sun regne, durement s'en redutet
De ses parenz, qued il nel recunuissent
E de l'honur del secle ne l'encumbrent. Eist de la nef e vint andreit a Rome; Vait
par les rues dunt il ja bien fut cointe,
Altra pur altre, mais sun pedre i ancuntret, Ansembl'ot lui grant masse de ses
humes;
Sil reconut, par sun dreit num le numet. "Eufemen, bel sire, riches hom,
Quar me herberges pur Deu an ta maison; Suz tun degrt me fai un grabatum
Empur tun filz dunt tu as tel dolur; Tut soi amferm, sim pais pur sue amor". Quant
ot li pedre le clamor de sun filz,
Plurent si oil, ne s'en puet astenir: "Por amor Deu e pur mun cher ami,
Tut te durai, boens hom, quanque m'as quis,
Lit ed ostel e pain e carn e vin". Sovent le virent e le pedre e le medra,
E la pulcele quet il out espusede:

Par nule guise unces ne l'aviserent; N'il ne lur dist, ne il nel demanderent,
Quels hom esteit ne de quel terre il eret. Soventes feiz lur veit grant duel mener
E de lur oilz mult tendrement plurer,
E tut pur lui, unces nent pur eil. Danz Alexis le met el consirrer;
Ne l'en est rien, si'st a Deu aturnt. Soz le degrt ou il gist sur sa nate,
Iluec paist l'um del relef de sa tabla. A grant poverte deduit sun grant parage;
Co ne volt il que sa mere le sacet:
Plus aimet Deu que trestut sun linage. Trent'e quatre anz ad si sun cors pent:
Deus sun servise li volt guereduner:
Mult li angreget la sue anfermett. Or set il bien qued il s'en deit aler:
Cel son servant ad a sei apelt.
Translation
In one of the ports that is closest to Rome,

There the ship of that holy man arrives.
When he saw his country, he is very worried
About his parents, that they recognize him
And overload him with the honors of the world.
He leaves the ship and went directly to Rome;

He goes through the streets with which he was already very familiar,
One after the other, eventually he there runs into his father,
Together with him is a large group of his men;
And he recognized him, he calls him by his proper name.
"Eufemien, dear Lord, powerful man,

may you lodge me in your house for the sake of God;
Make me a simple bed under your staircase
For the sake of your son, about whom you have such grief;
I am utterly weak and thus feed me for his love".
When the father hears the appeal of his son,

His eyes shed tears, he cannot contain himself:
"For the love of God and for my beloved friend,
I will give you, good man, all you have asked me for,
A bed and lodging and bread and meat and wine."
They saw him often, his father and his mother,

And the girl whom he had married:
They never recognized him in any way;
He did not tell them, and they did not ask,
Who he was nor what country he came from.
Many times he sees them display great grief

And shed tears from their eyes with great tenderness,
Entirely for him, never for themselves.
Sir Alexis takes it in resignation;
It does not matter, that much he is turned to God.
Under the staircase where he lies on his matting,

There they feed him of the remains of the table.
In great poverty he lives his high social rank;
He does not want his mother to know:
He loves God more than his entire lineage.
He has tortured his body that way during thirty-four years:

God wants to reward his devotion:
His physical weakness becomes much more painful for him.
He now knows well that he has to die:
He has called his servant to see him.
Grammar
11 Past Tenses: Uses
In the previous lesson it was said that Old French had an imperfect tense (Fr.
imparfait, e.g. chantoie 'I was singing'), a preterite (Fr. passe/ simple or passe/
de/fini, e.g. chantai 'I sang'), and a compound past tense, the perfective present
(e.g. ai chant 'I have sung').
The actual uses of these forms will be discussed in the following paragraphs. It is,
however, necessary to include in this discussion the present as well, because that
tense is often used as a so-called historical present.
The student may have noticed in the fragments analyzed so far that the present
and the three past tenses may alternate in any given sentence, as for example:
(a) the present and the preterite:
Karles l'ot e ses Franceis l'entendent (CdR 1788, Lesson 2)

'Charles heard (Pret.) him and his subjects hear (Pres.) him'
(b) the compound tense and the preterite:
Carles li reis, ...,

Set anz tuz pleins ad estet en Espaigne:
Tresqu'en la mer cunquist la tere altaigne (CdR 1-3, Lesson 1)
'Charles the king, ...,
has been in Spain a full seven years:

he conquered (Pret.) the high land up to the sea'
The use of tenses was less strict in early medieval texts than it became from the
13th century onward. Yet even in the early period tense use was not chaotic; there
were definite tendencies:
(a) imperfect:
refers to past action and state;
refers to actions that are durative or repeted;
refers to habits;
refers to actions that typically are not completed;
in later texts the imperfect may also be used to refer to permanent qualities of
persons or objects (see also [b]);
the imperfect in Old French is less frequent than in later times and is often
replaced by the preterite.
Examples:
il nel demanderent
Quels hom esteit ne de quel terre il eret (Al. 239-240, this lesson)
'they did (Pret.) not ask him,
Who he was (Impf.) nor what country he was (Impf.) from'
(b) preterite:
refers to (completed) actions in the past that have no link with the present;
is typically found in reference to a sequence of events;
refers to permanent characteristics of persons or objects (later to be replaced by

the imperfect in this use; cf. [a]);
may replace the imperfect.
Examples:
Blancandrins vint devant Marsiliun (CdR 414)

'Blancandrin came (Pret.) to see Marsile'
vairs out les oilz et molt fier lu visage (CdR 283)

'he had (Pret.) grey-blue eyes and a proud face'
li quens Rollant fut noble guerrer (CdR 2066)

'Count Roland was (Pret.) a noble warrior'
(c) compound tense:
refers to action in state of completion;
refers to actions that took place in the past, but have an impact on the present;
refers to action of the past, just like the preterite.
Examples:
Carles li reis, ... ,

Set anz tuz pleins ad estet en Espaigne (CdR 1, Lesson 1)
'Charles the king, ...,
has been in Spain a full seven years'
[and now he is on his way back to France]
(d) historical present:
refers to actions that took place in the past as if they are taking place at the
moment of narration, enhancing the dramatic effects or liveliness of style;
emotional moments in the text often are in the historical present.
Examples:
In a story set in the past, one finds:
E Deu apelent andui parfitement (Al. 22)

'And they both beseeched (Pres.) God perfectly'
Changes in tense use often mark a dramatic moment in the text; cf:
Quant vit sun regne, durement s'en redutet ... (Al. 198, this lesson)
'When he saw (Pret.) his country, he was (Pres.) very worried'
Puis converserent ansemble longament:

N'ourent amfant, peiset lur en forment, (Al. 21-22)
'Then they lived (Pret.) together for a long time,
they had (Pret.) no children, which was (Pres.) a great grief to them'
12 Definite Article: Forms
The definite article in Old French has the following paradigm:
Definite Article
Masc. Sg. Masc. Pl. Fem. Sg. Fem. Pl.

Nom. li li la les
Obl. le, lo les la les
The vowel of singular forms often disappears in front of another vowel (elision);
cf.:
l'ami 'the friend' (Obl. Sg. Masc.)

l'amie 'the friend'(Nom./Obl. Sg. Fem.)

As a rule there is no elision in the nominative singular masculine and in the plural:
li amis 'the friend' (Nom. Sg. Masc.)

li ami 'the friends' (Nom. Pl. Masc.)
In sequences that include a preposition, a definite article, and a noun starting with
a consonant, the definite article le and les may combine with the preposition
(enclisis); cf:
a + le > al, au
a + les > as, aus, aux
de + le > del, dou, du

de + les > des
en + le > el, eu, ou, u

en + les > es
13 Definite Article: Uses
Latin did not have definite articles, but in the shift from Latin to the Romance
languages definite articles developed out of Latin demonstratives. For French --
with the exception of a few dialects -- the definite article traces back to the Latin
demonstrative ille 'that'.
Whereas the use of definite articles in modern French has become

almostautomatic, its use in medieval French is motivated. Because of
inconsistencies, linguists so far have not been able to pinpoint the precise "rules,"
but there are definite tendencies.
The definite article in Old French is used when the element in question is known
either because it has already been mentioned, or because it is generally known; cf.:
Rollant ad mis l'olifan a sa buche (CdR 1753, Lesson 2)

'Roland has put the horn to his mouth'
In this example reference is made to the horn about which there has been much
discussion already. Similarly,
Li empereres se fait ... balz (CdR 96, Lesson 1)

'the emperor is ebullient'
The emperor is Charlemagne, who from the beginning of the document is the
main character.
In the following example reference is made to la feste seint Martin, which is

generally known in the Middle Ages:
Vos le sivrez a la feste seint Michel (CdR 37)

'you will follow him on the holiday of St. Michael'
A noun may also refer to a unique phenomenon, e.g. the world:
Bons fut le secles ... (Al. 1)

'Good was the world ...'
On the whole there is no definite article when the noun has generic value, as in:
Fers e acers i deit aveir valor (CdR 1362)

'it is iron and steel that have value'
There is no definite article when the noun is an abstract noun; cf.:
el num la virgine ki portat salvett (Al. 89)

'in the name of the Virgin, who brought salvation'
cum fort pect m'apresset! (Al. 59)

'how much sin is tempting me!'
There is no article when the noun refers to a country; cf.:
de dulce France i ad quinze milliers (CdR 109, Lesson 1)

'from our beloved France there are fifteen thousand men'
Before the 13th century there generally is no article when the noun refers to
peoples or groups of people; cf.:
Franceis i unt ferut de coeur e de vigur;

Paien sunt morz a millers (CdR 1438-1439)
'the French have been striking there with zeal and strength;
the pagans have died by thousands'
There are a number of expressions including a verb and a direct object in which
the noun does not combine with an article, such as:
merci crier 'beg for mercy'

messe esculter 'go to mass' (lit.: to mass listen)
guerre commencer 'start war'
merci aveir 'have mercy'
There is no definite article in adverbial expressions introduced by a preposition;
cf.:
a grant poverte deduit sun grant parage (Al. 248, this lesson)
'in great povery he lives his high social rank'
In an ennumeration a noun may be ommited, leaving the definite article behind;
cf.:
al tens No ed al tens Abraham ed al David (Al. 6-7)

'in the time of Noah and in the time of Abraham and in that of David'
The definite article combines often with titles and proper names; cf.:
Li reis Marsilie (CdR 10, Lesson 1)

'King Marsilie'
Li quens Rollant (CdR 1785, Lesson 2)

'Count Roland'
Definite articles may combine with possessives; cf.:
par le men escentre (CdR 1791, Lesson 2)

'to my knowledge'
la tue amurs (CdR 3107)

'your love'
la sue anfermett (Al. 278, this lesson)

'his physical weakness'
14 The Subjunctive: Forms
Old French is characterized by the productive use of the present and past
subjunctive. The formation of the two subjunctives is based on two different
stems. The present subjunctive is based on the present stem, which also is found
in the first person plural indicative; cf.:
Formation of the Present Subjunctive
Inf. Pres. Part. 1st Pl. Pres. Pres. Subju.

chanter chantant chantons chant
fenir fenissant fenissons fenisse
partir partant partons parte
The imperfect subjunctive is based on the perfective stem, found in the past
(perfective) participle and the preterite as well; cf.:
Formation of the Imperfective Subjunctive
Inf. Past Part. Pret. Impf. Subju.

chanter chant chantai chantasse
fenir feni fenis fenisse
partir parti parti partisse
From a historical perspective, Old French chantasse traces directly to Latin
cantavissem (cantav-issem), and like the preterite is based on the perfective stem
of the verb: chantai for example traces back to Latin cantavi (cantav-i). The Old
French past (or perfective) participle has the same stem as well, because it is based
on the Latin perfective stem. This is especially clear in Latin verbs like relinquere
'leave', which have -n- in its present stem, but not in the perfective stem; cf.
relinquo 'I leave' vs. reliqui 'I have left', relinquens 'leave-Pres. Part.' vs. relictus
'leave-Pf. Part.'.
The present and imperfect forms of the subjunctive for the various conjugations
are as follows.
14.1 Present subjunctive
Present Subjunctive, Verbs in -er (chanter, e.g. chant 'that I may sing') --

1st pers.- chant -ons chantons
-iens chantiens
2nd pers. -s chanz -iez chantez
3rd pers. -t chant -ent chantent
Present Subjunctive, Verbs in -ir with infix (fenir, e.g. fenisse 'that I may end') --

1st pers. -isse fenisse -issons fenissons
-issiens fenissiens
2nd pers. -isses fenisses -iss(i)ez feniss(i)ez
3rd pers. -isse fenisse -issent fenissent
Present Subjunctive, Verbs in -ir without infix (partir, e.g. parte 'that I may
leave') --

1st pers. -e parte -ons partons
-iens partiens
2nd pers. -es partes -ez partez
3rd pers. -e parte -ent partent
Present Subjunctive, Verbs in -re (corre, e.g. corre 'that I may run') --

1st pers. -e corre -ons corons
2nd pers. -es cores -ez corez
3rd pers. -e core -ent corent
14.2 Imperfective subjunctive
Imperfective Subjunctive, Verbs in -er (chanter, e.g. chantasse 'that I sang') --

1st pers. -asse chantasse -issons chantissons
-issiens chantissiens
2nd pers. -asses chantasses -issoiz chantissoiz
-iss(i)ez chantiss(i)ez
3rd pers. -ast chantast -assent chantassent
Imperfective Subjunctive, Verbs in -ir with infix (fenir, e.g. fenisse 'that I ended')
--

1st pers. -isse fenisse -issons fenissons
-issiens fenissiens
2nd pers. -isses fenisses -issoiz fenissoiz
-iss(i)ez feniss(i)ez
3rd pers. -ist fenist -issent fenissent
Imperfective Subjunctive, Verbs in -ir without infix (partir, e.g. partisse 'that I
left') --

1st pers. -isse partisse -issons partissons
-issiens partissiens
2nd pers. -isses partisses -iss(i)ez partiss(i)ez
3rd pers. -ist partist -issent partissent
Imperfective Subjunctive, Verbs in -re (corre, e.g. corusse 'that I ran') --

1st pers. -usse corusse -ussons corussons
2nd pers. -usses corusses -ussoiz corussoiz
-uss(i)ez coruss(i)ez
3rd pers. -ust corust -ussent corussent
15 The Subjunctive: Uses
The subjunctive is a mood that expresses the speaker's attitude towards the action
conveyed by the verb: fear, anger, wish, and so forth. The indicative, by contrast,
refers to a plain fact. Compare the following two examples:
Li reis me done cunseil

'the king gives me advice'
In this example the speaker makes a simple observation of something that is
happening. In the next example the speaker expresses his wish that the event
expressed by the verb will take place; cf:
Que Deus pares me duinst

'(that) God give me access to Heaven'
In Modern French, the use of the subjunctive in main clauses is limited to one or
two fixed expressions (e.g. vive la France 'long live France') and to constructions
introduced by the particle que 'that', expressing wishes or orders; cf., for example,
que personne ne sorte 'nobody should go out'.
In Old French, the use of the subjunctive was more widespread. First, the present
as well as imperfect subjunctive were both very much alive. Second, the
subjunctive was freely used in subordinate as well as main clauses and its
occurrence was semantically motivated.
In main clauses the subjunctive typically expresses wishes and orders, and may or
may not be combined with the particle que, si, or car:
filz, la tue aname el ciel seit absoluthe! (Al. 410)

'son, may your soul be free in heaven!'
si m'at Deus
'God help me'
de vos ait Deus mercit! (CdR 1855)

'may God have pity upon you'
Deus li otreit seinte benecun! (CdR 2245)

'may God give him his blessing'
paien, mal aies tu!

'heathen, be damned (lit.: have [Subju.] misery)!'
quar me herberges ... an ta maison (Al. 217, this lesson)

'may you lodge me in your house'
The second person subjunctive could also function as an imperative marked for its
politeness (see Grammar Point 16, Lesson 4).
In subordinate clauses, the subjunctive occurs:
after verbs expressing a wish; cf.:
il voelt veirement que Carles diet (CdR 2362-2363)

'he really wants that Charles said ...'
priet Deu que pares li duinst (CdR 2241)

'he prays to God that He give him access to heaven'
after verbs expressing the notion of 'thinking', e.g. penser 'think', m'est avis 'it
seems to me', cuider 'think', croire 'believe'; cf.:
ne sai le lieu ... u t'alge querre (Al. 133-134)

'I do not know the place where to look (Subju.) for you'
after verbs expressing an order:
je vos defend que n'i adeist nuls hom (CdR 2437)

'I order you that no one get (Subju.) close'
after verbs expressing doubt, possibility, or necessity; cf.:
se mei lest, si t'osse guardt (Al. 490)

'if it had been allowed, I would have protected you'
after verbs expressing fear; cf.:
durement s'en redutet..., qued il nel recunuissent (Al. 198-199, this lesson)
'he is very worried that they [might] recognize (Subju.) him'
in indirect interrogative constructions, especially after a negation:
ne set qu'il face

'he does not know what to do (Subju.)'
after negated or hypothetical clauses; cf.:
n'i ad castel ki devant lui remaigne (CdR 4, Lesson 1)

'there is no castle that resists (Subju.) him'
nuls n'en i at ki n'alget malendus (Al. 554)

'there is nobody who leaves (Subju.) in bad shape'
in adverbial clauses expressing time and referring to future events; cf.:
n'en descendrat ...

enceis qu'en seient .VII.C. espees traites (CdR 810-811)
'he will not come down
before seven hundred swords have been (Subju.) unsheathed'
Lesson 4
As noted in the Introduction to Lesson 3, Old French literature includes several

works that praise the lives or martyrdom of saints. Although most saints were
historical figures, a few were instead the product of popular imagination. One of
the latter figures was, in all likelihood, Saint Eulalia, whose martyrdom shows
striking similarities with that of St. Agnes, a young Roman martyr.
According to popular belief, St. Eulalia of Mrida (a.k.a. St. Eulalia of Barcelona)
was a saint and martyr who died in 304 at the age of twelve under Maximian, ruler
under Emperor Diocletian. In 304, Christianity was not yet the official religion of
the Roman Empire.
In 878, bones were identified in Barcelona as those of St. Eulalia, which triggered
the saint's cult there and in France as well. In Spain, St. Eulalia was one of the
most popular saints. In art she typically is represented with the martyr's palm, and
often a dove flies out of her mouth. Our text selection will show why she is
represented in that way.
The text of this lesson, La Cantilne de Sainte Eulalie, is one of the earliest Old
French documents. Like the previous document, it has a liturgical background and
was in fact a hymn written to praise the Christian virtues of the saint in question.
The hymn praises the saint's stamina: her Christian faith and her love of God
remain unshaken in the face of material temptations, threats of torture, and
ultimately physical suffering. Having survived the flames, she eventually is
decapitated and her soul goes straight to heaven. The narrator then invites readers
and listeners to pray that St. Eulalia will intercede on their behalf.
For various scholarly reasons it has been assumed that the text dates from 882
and was written in the north of France. There is no consensus among scholars
whether this text is a poem or, rather, poetic prose. Earlier Latin texts may have
been a source of inspiration for this document. The reader will notice a relatively
high incidence of Latin words in this hymn, which counts only 29 lines (e.g.
anima, clementia, post, or Christus). The use of cases is more consistent than we
have noticed in the texts discussed so far.
The text also has a number of archaisms in word order patterns, cf. the sequence
genitive + noun as in li Deo inimi, the sequence direct object + verb as in qu'elle
Deo raneiet, or the sequence direct object + infinitive as in volt lo seule lazsier (see
also Grammar Point 17). The syntactic structures are more complex than they have
been so far: there are several rather complex subordinate constructions involving
a subjunctive form of the verb, e.g. elle no'nt eskoltet les ... conselliers qu'elle Deo
raneiet or il li enortet, dont lei nonque chielt, qued elle fuiet lo nom..., ell'ent
aduret lo ... element.
The nothern origin of the text is illustrated by a certain number of features, for
example retention of [k] before [a] as in cose 'thing', but chief 'head' with a
palatalized initial consonant.
Buona pulcella fut Eulalia,

Bel auret corps, bellezour anima.
buona -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <bon> good -- good
pulcella -- noun; nominative singular <pucele> girl, servant, maiden -- a girl
fut -- verb; third person singular preterite <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- was
Eulalia -- proper name; nominative singular <Eulalia> Eulalia -- Eulalia
bel -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <bel> dear, beloved, handsome --

beautiful
auret -- verb; third person singular pluperfect <avoir, aveir> have, be -- she had
# very unusual form which traces back to Latin habuerat 3rd sg. pluperfect 'she
had had'; had preterite value in Old French
corps -- noun; oblique singular <cors> body -- a body
bellezour -- adjective; comparative oblique singular feminine <bel> dear, beloved,

handsome -- more beautiful
anima -- noun; oblique singular <anima> soul -- a soul # Latin word anima,
animae
Voldrent la veintre li Deo inimi,

Voldrent la faire diaule servir.
voldrent -- verb; third person plural pluperfect <voloir> want -- wanted # very
unusual form which traces back to Latin voluerant 3rd pl. pluperfect 'they had
wanted'; had preterite value in Old French
la -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object feminine <il> he -- her
veintre -- verb; infinitive <veintre> vanquish, conquer, overcome -- overcome
Deo -- proper name; oblique singular <Dieu, Deu> God -- of God
inimi -- noun; nominative plural <enemi> enemy, devil -- enemies
voldrent -- verb; third person plural pluperfect <voloir> want -- they wanted #
very unusual form which traces back to Latin voluerant 3rd pl. pluperfect 'they
had wanted'; had preterite value in Old French
faire -- verb; infinitive <faire> make -- to make
diaule -- noun; oblique singular <deable, diavle> devil -- the devil
servir -- verb; infinitive <servir> serve -- serve
Elle no'nt eskoltet les mals conselliers

Qu'elle Deo raneiet chi maent sus en ciel.
elle -- personal pronoun; third person singular nominative feminine <il> he -- she
no'nt -- negation; <non> not + adverb; <ent, end> subsequently -- not...
eskoltet -- verb; third person singular present <escolter> listen to, pay attention to
-- does listen to

mals -- adjective; oblique plural masculine <mal> bad, mean, wretched -- mean
conselliers -- noun; oblique plural <conseillier, conseilleor> counsellor, advisor --

men who advise
qu'elle -- conjunction; <que> that + personal pronoun; third person singular

nominative feminine <il> he -- that she
Deo -- proper name; oblique singular <Dieu, Deu> God -- God
raneiet -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <renoier, renier> abjure,
deny -- abjure
chi -- relative pronoun; subject <qui> who -- who
maent -- verb; third person singular present <maindre> stay, remain -- lives
sus en -- adverb; <sus, suz> up, above + preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of --
right up in
ciel -- noun; oblique singular <ciel> heaven -- heaven
Ne por or ned argent ne paramenz,

Por manatce regiel ne preiement,
Niule cose non la pouret omque pleier,
La polle sempre non amast lo Deo menestier.
ne -- negation; <ne, ni> nor, and not -- not
or -- noun; oblique singular <or> gold -- gold
ned -- negation; <ne, ni> nor, and not -- nor
argent -- noun; oblique singular <argent> silver, money, riches -- money
paramenz -- noun; oblique plural <parament> finery, precious object -- precious

objects
por -- preposition; <por> for -- because of
manatce -- noun; oblique singular <menace, manace> menace -- menaces
regiel -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <regal> royal, of the king -- royal
ne -- negation; <ne, ni> nor, and not -- not... or
preiement -- noun; oblique singular <priement> prayer -- begging
niule -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <nul> no, not any -- one
cose -- noun; nominative singular <chose, cose> thing, affair, creature -- thing
non -- negation; <non> not -- not
pouret -- verb; third person singular pluperfect <pooir, poeir, poier> can, be able
-- could # very unusual form which traces back to Latin potuerat 3rd sg.
pluperfect 'had been able'; had preterite value in Old French
omque -- adverb; <onques> once, ever -- ever
pleier -- verb; infinitive <ploier> bend, yield -- to make yield from
polle -- noun; nominative singular <polle> girl -- ...
sempre -- adverb; <sempres, sempre> always, immediately -- continuously
non -- negation; <non> not -- ...
amast -- verb; third person singular subjunctive imperfective <amer> love --

loving
lo -- definite article; oblique singular masculine <li> the -- ...
Deo -- proper name; oblique singular <Dieu, Deu> God -- God's
menestier -- noun; oblique singular <menestier> service, profession -- service
E por o fut presentede Maximiien,

Chi rex eret a cels dis soure pagiens.
o -- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter <o, ou, euc> this -- this reason
fut -- verb; third person singular preterite <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- she was
presentede -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular feminine <presenter>

present, offer, bring before the judge -- brought before
Maximiien -- proper name; oblique singular <Maximiien> Maximian --

Maximian
chi -- relative pronoun; subject <qui> who -- who
rex -- noun; nominative singular <regem> king -- king # Latin word rex, regis
eret -- verb; third person singular imperfective <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- was
cels -- demonstrative; oblique plural masculine <cil> that -- those
dis -- noun; oblique plural <di> day -- days
soure -- preposition; <seur, soure, sur, sor> on, over, to, above -- over
pagiens -- noun; oblique plural <paien, pagien> pagan, heathen -- the pagans
Il li enortet, dont lei nonque chielt,

Qued elle fuiet lo nom christiien
Ell'ent aduret lo suon element.
li -- personal pronoun; third person singular indirect object feminine <il> he --

her
enortet -- verb; third person singular present <enorter> exhort, urge, seduce --
urges
dont -- relative pronoun; <dont, dunt> of whom, of which, whose -- but
lei -- personal pronoun; third person singular indirect object feminine <il> he --
she
nonque -- adverb; <nonque> never -- never
chielt -- impersonal verb; third person singular present <chaloir> concern, matter
-- is interested
fuiet -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <fuir, fuier> flee from,
abandon -- abandon
lo -- definite article; oblique singular masculine <li> the -- the
nom -- noun; oblique singular <nom, non> name, title -- name
christiien -- adjective; oblique singular <chrestien> christian -- of christian
ell'ent -- personal pronoun; third person singular nominative feminine <il> he +

adverb; <ent, end> subsequently -- and... subsequently
aduret -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <adurer> worship --

worship

suon -- possessive; third person singular oblique masculine <son> his -- his
element -- noun; oblique singular <element> force, energy, god -- god
Melz sostendreiet les empedementz

Qu'elle perdesse sa virginitt.
Por os furet morte a grand honestt.
melz -- comparative adverb; <miels, mels> better, rather -- rather
sostendreiet -- verb; third person singular conditional <sostenir> sustain, support

-- she would undergo
les -- definite article; oblique plural masculine <li> the -- ...
empedementz -- noun; oblique plural <empedement> persecution --

persecution
qu'elle -- conjunction; <que> than + personal pronoun; third person singular

nominative feminine <il> he -- than...
perdesse -- verb; third person singular subjunctive imperfective <perdre> lose,

perish -- lose
sa -- possessive; third person singular oblique singular feminine <son> his -- her
virginitt -- noun; oblique singular <virginitt> spiritual purity, christian purity --

spiritual purity
os -- demonstrative; oblique plural neuter <o, ou, euc> this -- these reasons
furet -- verb; third person singular pluperfect <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- ... # very
unusual form which traces back to Latin fuerat 3rd sg. pluperfect 'she had been';
had preterite value in Old French
morte -- verb; perfective participle nominative singular feminine <morir> kill, die
-- she died
grand -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <grant> great, large, tall -- great
honestt -- noun; oblique singular <honestt> honor -- honor
Enz enl fou la getterent, com arde tost.

Elle colpes non auret, por o nos coist.
A czo nos voldret concreidre li rex pagiens;
Ad une spede li roveret tolir lo chief.
enz -- adverb, reinforcing element; <ens, enz> ... -- ... # reinforces the preposition
en
enl -- preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of + definite article; oblique singular
masculine <li> the -- into the
fou -- noun; oblique singular <feu, fou> fire, family -- fire
getterent -- verb; third person plural preterite <geter, giter> throw, reject, utter --
they threw
com -- conjunction; <com, cum> in order that -- so that
arde -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <ardoir, ardre> burn --
she would burn
tost -- adverb; <tost> soon, immediately, quickly -- quickly
colpes -- noun; oblique plural <colpe, corpe, cope> sin, mistake -- sins
non -- negation; <non> not -- no
auret -- verb; third person singular pluperfect <avoir, aveir> have, be -- had #
very unsual form which traces back to Latin habuerat 3rd sg. pluperfect 'she had
had'; had preterite value in Old French
o -- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter <o, ou, euc> this -- this reason
nos coist -- negation; <non> not + personal pronoun; third person singular direct
object <se> he + verb; third person singular preterite <cuire> cook, burn -- she
did not burn
czo -- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter <co, ceo, ce, ceu> this, that, it -- this
nos -- negation; <non> not + personal pronoun; third person singular direct
object <se> he -- not
voldret -- verb; third person singular pluperfect <voloir> want -- did...want #

very unusual form which traces back to Latin voluerat 3rd sg. pluperfect 'he had
wanted'; had preterite value in Old French
concreidre -- verb; infinitive <concreidre> give in -- to give in

rex -- noun; nominative singular <regem> king -- king # Latin word rex, regis
pagiens -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <paien> pagan, heathen --

pagan
ad -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on -- with
spede -- noun; oblique singular <espee> sword -- sword
li -- personal pronoun; third person singular indirect object feminine <il> he -- ...
roveret -- verb; third person singular pluperfect <rover> ask, call upon, order --
he ordered # very unusual form which traces back to Latin rogaverat 3rd sg.
pluperfect 'he had ordered'; had preterite value in Old French
tolir -- verb; infinitive <tolir> take off, cut off -- to (be) cut off
lo -- definite article; oblique singular masculine <li> the -- her
chief -- noun; oblique singular <chief> head -- head
La domnizelle celle kose non contredist:

Volt lo seule lazsier, si ruovet Krist.
In figure de colomb volat a ciel.
domnizelle -- noun; nominative singular <damoiselle> girl of noble birth -- girl
celle -- demonstrative; oblique singular feminine <cil> that -- that
kose -- noun; oblique singular <chose, cose> thing, affair, creature -- idea
non -- negation; <non> not -- not
contredist -- verb; third person singular preterite <contredire> oppose, resist --

did oppose
volt -- verb; third person singular present <voloir> want -- she wants
seule -- noun; oblique singular <siecle, secle, seule> earthly life, world -- earthly
life
lazsier -- verb; infinitive <laissier> leave, let, abandon -- to abandon
ruovet -- verb; third person singular present <rover> ask, call upon, order -- she
calls upon
Krist -- proper name; oblique singular <Christ> Christ -- Christ
in -- preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of -- in
figure -- noun; oblique singular <figure> form, person, character -- the form
colomb -- noun; oblique singular <colon, colomb> pigeon, dove -- a dove
volat -- verb; third person singular preterite <voler> fly -- she flew
ciel -- noun; oblique singular <ciel> heaven -- heaven
Tuit oram que por nos degnet preier

Qued auuisset de nos Christus mercit
Post la mort et a lui nos laist venir
Par souue clementia
tuit -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <tot> all, every, completely -- all
oram -- verb; first person plural imperative <orer> pray -- let us pray
nos -- personal pronoun; first person plural direct object <nos> we -- us
degnet -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <daignier> deign -- she
will deign
preier -- verb; infinitive <prier, preier> pray, beg, beseech -- to pray
auuisset -- verb; third person singular subjunctive imperfective <avoir, aveir>

have, be -- may have
de -- preposition; <de> of, from -- on
Christus -- proper name; nominative singular <Christus> Christ -- Christ # Latin

word Christus, Christi
mercit -- noun; oblique singular <merci> grace, mercy, pity -- mercy
post -- preposition; <post> after -- after # Latin word post
la -- definite article; oblique singular feminine <li> the -- ...

mort -- noun; oblique singular <mort> death -- death
et -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- and
Him
laist -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <laissier> leave, let,
abandon -- may allow
venir -- verb; infinitive <venir> come, go -- to come
souue -- possessive; third person singular oblique singular feminine <son> his --
His
clementia -- noun; oblique singular <clementiam> grace -- grace # Latin word

clementia, clementiae
Lesson Text
Buona pulcella fut Eulalia,

Bel auret corps, bellezour anima. Voldrent la veintre li Deo inimi,
Voldrent la faire diaule servir. Elle no'nt eskoltet les mals conselliers
Qu'elle Deo raneiet chi maent sus en ciel. Ne por or ned argent ne paramenz,
Por manatce regiel ne preiement,
Niule cose non la pouret omque pleier,
La polle sempre non amast lo Deo menestier. E por o fut presentede Maximiien,
Chi rex eret a cels dis soure pagiens. Il li enortet, dont lei nonque chielt,
Qued elle fuiet lo nom christiien
Ell'ent aduret lo suon element. Melz sostendreiet les empedementz
Qu'elle perdesse sa virginitt.
Por os furet morte a grand honestt. Enz enl fou la getterent, com arde tost.
Elle colpes non auret, por o nos coist.
A czo nos voldret concreidre li rex pagiens;
Ad une spede li roveret tolir lo chief. La domnizelle celle kose non contredist:
Volt lo seule lazsier, si ruovet Krist.
In figure de colomb volat a ciel. Tuit oram que por nos degnet preier
Qued auuisset de nos Christus mercit
Post la mort et a lui nos laist venir

Par souue clementia
Translation
Eulalia was a good girl,

She had a beautiful body and an even more beautiful soul.
The enemies of God wanted to overcome her,
They wanted to make her serve the devil.
She does not listen to the mean men who advise
That she abjure God, who lives right up in heaven.
Not for gold, nor money, nor precious objects,
Not because of royal menaces or begging,
Not one thing could ever make her yield
From continuously loving God's service.
And for this reason she was brought before Maximian,
Who in those days was king over the pagans.
He urges her, but she is never interested,
That she abandon the name of christian
And subsequently worship his god.
She would rather undergo persecution
Than lose her spiritual purity.
For these reasons she died in great honor.
They threw her into the fire so that she would burn quickly.
She had no sins, for this reason she did not burn.
The pagan king did not want to give in to this;
He ordered her head to be cut off with a sword.
The girl did not oppose that idea:
She wants to abandon earthly life, and she calls upon Christ.
In the form of a dove she flew to heaven.
Let us all pray that she will deign to pray for us
That Christ may have mercy on us
And may allow us to come to Him after death
Through His grace.
Grammar
16 Imperative
The imperative is a mood that, in direct address, expresses an order, a request, or

a suggestion. The imperative may be negated:
ne vus esmaiez! (CdR 27) 'do not worry'

vs. tais, Oliver (CdR 1026) 'be silent, Oliver'
Verbs in Old French have two imperative forms, the second person singular and
the second person plural, which are used when one addresses the person or
persons with whom one is talking; cf.:
Imperative, 2nd Sg. and 2nd Pl.
Imperative 2nd Sg. 2nd Pl.

Verbs in -er chante chantez
Verbs in -ir, with infix fenis fenissiez
fenissez
Verbs in -ir, without infix part partez
Verbs in -re cor corez
estre soies soiiez

soiez
avoir aie(s) aiiez
aiez
In addition, there is a first person plural imperative, which rather is an
adhortative, e.g. chantons 'let us sing'. Its forms are as follows:
Imperative, 1st Pl.
Imperative 1st Pl.

Verbs in -er chantons
Verbs in -ir with infix fenissons
Verbs in -ir without infix partons
Verbs in -re corons
estre soiiens, soions

avoir aiiens, aions
Verbs with varying stress patterns (e.g. aimer, aim 'I love' [stress on the stem] vs.
amons 'we love' [stress on the ending], see Lesson 2), have similar stress patterns
for the imperative forms; the singular forms have no ending, the plural forms are
identical to those of the present indicative:
Imperative, Verbs with varying stress patterns
Imperative 2nd Sg. 1st Pl. 2nd Pl.

aimer 'love' aim amons amez
tenir 'hold' tien tenons tenez
dire 'say' di dimes dites
faire 'make' fai faimes faites
croire 'believe' croi creons creez
boire 'drink' beif bevons bevez
boif buvons buvez

The imperative often combines with the particle car, which functions as a
reinforcing element:
Rollant, l'olifant car sunez (CdR 1059) 'Roland, blow the horn'
Car chevalchiez, barun! 'Ride, knights!'
In polite expressions the second person subjunctive could have imperative value
as well, in main clauses with or without particle, e.g. car, which here again
functions as a reinforcing element; cf.:
quar me herberges ... (Al. 217, Lesson 3) 'may you lodge me' > 'lodge me'
Finally, infinitives could function as imperatives as well, especially in negation;
they then have the value of a second person singular imperative; cf.:
Sire cumpainz, amis, nel dire ja! (CdR 1113)

'Sir companion, friend, never say that!
In affirmative uses, the infinitive is preceded by de, the definite article, and or in
clause-initial position. Often the imperative then refers to the first person plural
and has adhortative value; cf.:
or del mangier 'well let's eat'

or du ferir 'let's strike!'
17 Word Order
When discussing word order patterns including subjects and direct objects,
linguists typically refer to the order of nominal elements; in the ordering of
pronominal elements non-syntactic factors (e.g. prosodic factors) play an
important role.
The well-established case system in Latin allowed for word order variation.
Consequently, for pragmatic reasons or reasons of emphasis, for example, word
order in Latin could vary, which however did not mean than Latin word order was
indiscriminately "free". There were clearcut tendencies, such as:
the direct object in unmarked sequence preceded the finite verb; cf.:
Caesar Gallorum animos verbis confirmavit

Caesar-Nom. Gauls-Gen. minds-Acc. words-Abl. comfort-Pf.-3Pl.
'Caesar comforted the minds of the Gauls with his words'
the genitive as a rule preceded the head noun in unmarked order; cf.:
Caesaris adventus
Caesar-Gen. approach
'Caesar's approach'
in comparative constructions the ablative of comparison tended to precede the
adjective proper; cf.:
luce clarior
light-Abl. bright-Comp.
'brighter than light'
the subject as topic of the sentence occurred in clause-initial position. As a result
the unmarked word order of nominal elements in Latin was Subject + Direct
Object + Verb; cf.:
Ariovistus legatos ad eum mittit

Ariovistus-Subj. messengers-Dir. Obj. to him send-Pres.
'Ariovistus sends messengers to him'
In the course of history these Latin ordering patterns, which had been inherited
from Proto-Indo-European, were reversed. In Old French, therefore, the direct
object follows the finite verb, the genitive follows the noun, and the referent
follows the adjective.
verb + direct object:
esguardat la pulcela (Al. 56) 'he looked at the girl'

cunquist la tere altaigne (CdR 2, Lesson 1) 'he conquered the high land'
Similarly, with a predicate:
Li empereres se fait e balz e liez (CdR 96, Lesson 1)

'the emperor is ebullient as well as joyful'
noun + genitive:
la cambre sum pedre (Al. 74) 'the room of his father'

adjective + referent:
mains riches de mon pere (Palefroi 407) 'less rich than my father'
plus de .IIII. milliers 'more than four thousand'
chevalier ... plus vieil de lui (Palefroi 658-60) 'a knight older than he'
In general terms it is accurate to say that word order in Old French was well on its
way to developing the patterns that are typical of the modern language, but there
was more variety and many structures still featured archaic characteristics.
The archaic order object + verb, for example, survived for a long time in
subordinate clauses, especially in relative clauses; cf.:
Marsilie ..., ki Deu nen aimet 'Marsilie ..., who does not love God,'
Mahumet sert e Apollin recleimet (CdR 7-8, Lesson 1) 'serves Mahomet and
invokes Satan'
Similarly the next example with a prepositional phrase:
n'i ad castel ki devant lui remaigne (CdR 3)

'there is no castle that resists him'
In other constructions as well one may find archaisms, as in those including an

infinitive preceded by its direct object:
voldrent la faire diaule servir (Eul. 4, this lesson)

'they want her to serve the devil'
Other sequences are attested as well, but in given contexts. When the subordinate
clause is introduced by a relative pronoun in direct object function, the sequence
becomes, Complement + Subject + Verb, as in:
la dame ... que li chevaliers tant aima

'the lady whom the knight loved that much'
Verb + Subject + Complement typically is attested in interrogative sentences.
A typical construction in Old French is what generally is referred to as subject

inversion: when the clause is introduced by a complement, the subject follows the
finite verb. Similarly, when the clause is introduced by an adverb or an adverbial
construction, the subject commonly follows the finite verb:
Sur palies blancs siedent cil cevaler (CdR 110, Lesson 1)

'On white precious clothes the knights are seated'
co sent Rollant que ... (CdR 2355)
'Roland feels that ...'
Similarly, in interjections we frequently find subject inversion:
Deus! dist li reis, tant me pois esmaier (CdR 2412, Lesson 2)

'God, the king said, I can torment myself'
18 Demonstratives
Whereas Latin had a demonstrative system based on three elements, French from
its earliest times had a system based on two demonstratives; cf.:
Demonstratives, Latin vs. Old French
Latin Old French

this [close to me] hic cist 'this'
that [close to you] iste
that [close to him/her] ille cil ' that'
Old French therefore made a distinction between 'this' and 'that'. The forms cist
and cil trace back to Latin iste and ille respectively, to which a reinforcing
demonstrative element ecce has been added: ecce + istum > cist and ecce + illum >
cil.
The inflected forms of the demonstratives in Old French are as follows:
Declension of Demonstratives, cist 'this'

cist 'this' Masculine Feminine

Nom. Sg. (i)cist (i)ceste
Obl. Sg. (i)cest (i)ceste
(i)cet
Obl. Sg. (stressed) (i)cestui (i)cest(e)i
Nom. Pl. (i)cist (i)cestes, (i)cez, (i)ces

Obl. Pl. (i)cez (i)cestes, (i)cez, (i)ces
(i)ces
Declension of Demonstratives, cil ' that'
cil 'that' Masculine Feminine

Nom. Sg. (i)cil (i)cele
Obl. Sg. (i)cel (i)cele
Obl. Sg. (stressed) (i)celui (i)cel(e)i
Nom. Pl. (i)cil (i)celes

Obl. Pl. (i)cels (i)celes, (i)ces
(i)ceus
The prefix i- is a reinforcing element.
To some extent the original demonstrative distinctions are still present in the early
uses in Old French: cist 'here' referred to elements within the range (in time and
space) of the speaker and the person spoken to; cil 'that' referred to elements close
to a third person.
Cist and cil originally were used both as adjectival and pronominal elements; cf.
adjectival uses:
en cest pas 'in this country'

en ceste ville 'in this town'
en celle ville 'in that town'
Pronominal use:
la u cist furent (CdR 108, Lesson 1)

'there were these were'
In time, a preference developed by which cist came to be used as an adjectival
element, and cil as a pronominal element. Some of the individual forms of the
paradigms underwent this change rapidly, others survived much longer. Adjectival
cels and celes, for example, relatively soon gave way to cez and ces in that
function.
Demonstratives in Old French have deictic function--pointing out elements that

are near or further away--and sometimes defining function. In these instances
they are similar to definite articles; cf.:
sur palies blancs siedent cil cevaler (CdR 110, Lesson 1)

'on white precious clothes the knights are seated'
In order to reinforce the deictic value of demonstratives, speakers started to use
the adverbial particles -ci and -la. The particle was attached to the demonstrative
or its noun. Instances are attested from the 12th century onward.
The demonstrative paradigms in Old French also included "neuter" forms. These
forms were not part of the gender system as such, which was based on the
distinction masculine vs. feminine; they refer to elements that are best translated
in English as 'it', being elements of indefinite gender; cf.:
Neuter cist cil

Nom. sg. (i)cest (i)cel
Obl. Sg. (i)cest (i)cel
Nom. Pl. - -
Obl. Pl. - -
There also existed an isolated neuter form that traces back to Latin ecce + hoc: ce,
with a stressed form co. Ce, and especially co, is frequently used in Old French in
clause-initial position in combination with verbs such as dire 'say', croire 'believe',
sentir 'feel', voir 'see'; the construction is followed by a subordinate clause or by
direct speech; cf.:
Co dist li reis: "Cel corn ad lunge aleine!" (CdR 1789, Lesson 2)

'The king spoke these words: "That horn has a long breath!"'
Co sent Rollant que la mort le trespent (CdR 2355, Lesson 2)

'Roland feels that death overcomes him completely'
In addition to compound forms, a non-compound form survived as well in Old
French: Latin hoc > Old French o, ou, euc. The form could be used as subject as
well as object, often referring to the preceding clause or sentence; cf.:
E por o fut presentede Maximiien (Eul. 11, this lesson)

'and for this she was brought before Maximian'
It became obsolete by the end of the 12th century, surviving in a few fixed
epression and phrases only.
19 Negation
The most important negating element in Old French is the particle ne, nen. It
precedes the (finite) verb, following the inherited pattern from Latin; cf.:
ne s'en puet astenir (Al. 222, Lesson 3)

'he cannot contain himself'
co ne volt il que sa mere le sacet (Al. 249, Lesson 3)

'he does not want his mother to know'
The negating element often is reinforced by another element that itself generally
has no negating value in origin, cf.:
nouns (originally) referring to small elements or elements of little value, such as

pas 'step', point 'point', goutte 'drop', mie 'crumb', rien '(some)thing', chose 'thing',
and many others. Whereas ne tends to precede the finite verb, the nominal
element follows; cf.:
Rollant, ki ne l'otriet mie (CdR 194)

'Roland, who does not appreciate it'
On the whole this type of negation is slightly stronger than negated clauses with
just the element ne. This emphatic value eroded with time and some of the
elements grammaticalized and came to be combined with ne to form the most
common negating device in later French; cf. il ne mange pas 'he does not eat'.
adjectives or pronominal elements, such as aucun 'some, someone', or nul 'no

one, not any'; cf.:
niule cose non la pouret omque pleier (Eul. 9, this lesson)

'not one thing could ever make her yield'
adverbs such as mais 'more, ever', onques 'ever', ja 'ever', gueres 'much' and
others; cf.:
ne ... onques 'never, not at all'

ne ... gueres 'not much, not much longer'
ne ... ja 'never'
ne ... mais 'no longer, never again'
unches mais hom tel ne vit ajustee (CdR 1461)

'never before man saw such a battle'
20 Indefinite Article: Forms and Uses
In addition to definite articles, Romance languages from the earlist times have
indefinte articles as well. The paradigm of un (from Latin unus 'one-Nom.' / unum
'one-Acc.) is as follows:
Declension of Indefinite Article
Indef. art. Masculine Feminine

Nom. Sg. uns une
Obl. Sg. un une
Nom. Pl. un unes

Obl. Pl. uns unes
The uses of plural un typically have collective value, referring to pairs or to
elements that inherently are collective; cf.:
Pairs:
uns ganz 'a pair of gloves' (Be/r., Tristan 2006)

Tristan unes forces aveit 'Tristan had scissors'
Collective:
The occurrence of indefinite articles is rather limited in Old French, as several

examples in the texts analyzed so far have shown:
Ansembl'ot lui grant masse de ses humes (Al. 214, Lesson 3) 'together with him
was a large group of men'
bataille i ad (CdR 1791, Lesson 2) 'there is a battle'
But:
ad une spede li roveret tolir lo chief (Al. 22, this lesson)

'he ordered her head to be cut off with a sword'
Lesson 5
From the middle of the 12th century, novels emerged in medieval French
literature that put women and love in the limelight. These texts were in a way the
forerunners of those that represent l' amour courtois, 'courtly love'. While the
hero in the Chanson de Geste primarily was a brave Christian warrior, he now is
gallant as well and he fights for his dame rather than for God or his king. In early
times the action in these novels was set in antiquity or in the Celtic world (e.g.
Cornwall, Ireland, Wales, Armorica). These Celtic novels have strong mysterious
and magical characteristics, present passion as fatal, and often focus on the world
of King Arthur. The tradition comes to full bloom in the novels of Chrtien de
Troyes (Lesson 6). Less refined were the novels of Tristan, which relate the
dramatic story -- set in Britanny -- of Tristan and Iseut. The story presumably had
its roots in early Celtic legends and made it to France because of contacts with the
English.
Tristan was a knight at the court of Marc, king of Cornwall, who also was his uncle
and had raised him. Tristan was the son of King Marc's sister and therefore held
an important position from an Indo-European anthropological perspective. King
Marc was one of the vassals of King Arthur.
Before the actual coup de foudre between Tristan and Iseut takes place, Tristan is
sent out on various difficult missions, which he carries out with great success. At
some point the king asks him to go to Ireland and bring Iseut, his (Marc's) bride,
to his court. On board the ship on their way back to Cornwall, Tristan and Iseut by
mistake drink a love potion that the king and Iseut were supposed to drink on the
evening of their wedding. As a result Tristan and Iseut are caught in a passionate
and overwhelming love that they cannot fight.
There are several texts that relate the story of Tristan and Iseut. Among the best
known are the text by Broul, and a more refined version by Thomas. The texts of
both Broul and Thomas are fragmentary, but Broul's stories relate the early
stages. Thanks to translations in other languages (German, Old Norse, English),
we are able to reconstruct the entire story.
The text selected for this lesson is a passage from Broul's Tristan and is dated
around 1170 (# 142-175). After the marriage between Marc and Iseut, the affair
between Tristan and Iseut continues despite treason, primitive life in a forest,
reconciliation with king Marc, Tristan's marriage to another woman, and illness.
Eventually Tristan, deceived by his wife, commits suicide, and Iseut dies on top of
his body.
In this text Tristan and Iseut are secretly meeting in an orchard; but the king, who
has been notified and suspects an illicit relation, is listening in. Tristan and Iseut
are aware of his presence but do not show it. Tristan has just asked Iseut to
intercede with the king on his behalf.
The text presents an example of spoken medieval French. It includes relatively

many personal pronouns and hypothetical se contructions followed by
conditionals.
Par foi, sire, grant tort avez,

Que de tel chose a moi parlez
Que de vos le mete a raison
Et de s'ire face pardon.
par foi -- preposition; <par> through, by, by reason of + noun; oblique singular
<foi, fei> faith, honor -- sincerely
tort -- noun; oblique singular <tort> mistake -- a mistake

avez -- verb; second person plural present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- you make
que -- conjunction; <que> that -- to
chose -- noun; oblique singular <chose, cose> thing, affair, creature -- matter
moi -- personal pronoun; first person singular direct object <jo, jou, jeu> I -- me
parlez -- verb; second person plural present <parler> speak, talk -- talk

him
mete a raison -- verb; first person singular subjunctive present <metre, mectre,
mettre> put + preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on + noun; oblique
singular <raison> reason, speech, word -- talk to
s'ire -- possessive; third person singular oblique singular feminine <son> his +
noun; oblique singular <ire> anger, distress -- his distress
face -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <faire> make -- he forgets
pardon -- noun; oblique singular <pardon> grace, permission -- ...
Je ne vuel pas encor morir,

Ne moi du tot en tot perir!
Il vos mescroit de moi forment,
Et j'en tendroie parlement?
je -- personal pronoun; first person singular nominative <jo, jou, jeu> I -- I
vuel -- verb; first person singular present <voloir> want -- do... want
pas -- negation; <pas> not -- ...
encor -- adverb; <encore, encor, uncore> still, yet -- yet

morir -- verb; infinitive <morir> kill, die -- die
ne -- negation; <ne, nen> not -- nor
moi -- personal pronoun; first person singular direct object <jo, jou, jeu> I -- ...
du tot en tot -- preposition; <de> of, from + definite article; oblique singular
masculine <li> the + noun; oblique singular <tot> whole + preposition; <en> in,
into, on, on top of + noun; oblique singular <tot> whole -- completely
perir -- verb; infinitive <perir> perish, destroy -- perish
mescroit -- verb; third person singular present <mescroire> refuse to believe,

suspect -- suspects
de -- preposition; <de> of, from -- on... behalf
moi -- personal pronoun; first person singular direct object <jo, jou, jeu> I -- my
forment -- adverb; <forment> greatly, very, very much -- strongly
j'en -- personal pronoun; first person singular nominative <jo, jou, jeu> I +
pronoun; inanimate <en> of it -- I... about it
tendroie -- verb; first person singular conditional <tenir> hold, keep, seize,
consider -- would have
parlement -- noun; oblique singular <parlement> conversation, word, meeting --

a conversation
Donc seroie je trop hardie.

Par foi, Tristan, n'en ferai mie,
Ne vos nu me devez requerre.
donc -- adverb; <donc> then, therefore -- therefore
seroie -- verb; first person singular conditional <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- would
be
je -- personal pronoun; first person singular nominative <jo, jou, jeu> I -- it
trop -- adverb; <trop> too much, extremely, excessively -- too
hardie -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <hardi> bold, brave -- bold
Tristan -- proper name; nominative singular <Tristan> Tristan -- Tristan
n'en -- negation; <ne, nen> not + pronoun; inanimate <en> of it -- not... it
ferai -- verb; first person singular future <faire> make -- I will do
mie -- negation; <mie> not -- ...
nu -- negation; <ne, nen> not + personal pronoun; third person singular direct
object <il> he -- ... it
me -- personal pronoun; first person singular direct object <jo, jou, jeu> I -- from
me
devez -- verb; second person plural imperative <devoir> have to -- should
requerre -- verb; infinitive <requerre> ask, beseech -- ask
Tote sui sole en ceste terre.

Il vos a fait chambres veer
Por moi: s'il or m'en ot parler,
Bien me porroit tenir por fole.
tote -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <tot> all, every, completely --

completely
sui -- verb; first person singular present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- I am
sole -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <sol> alone -- alone
ceste -- demonstrative; oblique singular feminine <cest, cist> this -- this
vos -- personal pronoun; second person plural indirect object <vos> you -- for
you
a -- verb; third person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- has
fait -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <faire> make -- made
chambres -- noun; oblique plural <chambre> chamber, territory, royal apartment

-- his private apartments
veer -- verb; infinitive <veer> refuse, forbid -- forbidden teritory

s'il -- conjunction; <se> if + personal pronoun; third person singular nominative

masculine <il> he -- if he
m'en -- personal pronoun; first person singular direct object <jo, jou, jeu> I +
pronoun; inanimate <en> of it -- me... about it
ot -- verb; third person singular present <oir, odir> hear -- he hears
parler -- verb; infinitive <parler> speak, talk -- talk
bien -- adverb; <bien> well, many, much, really -- very well
porroit -- verb; third person singular conditional <pooir, poeir, poier> can, be able
-- he could
tenir -- verb; infinitive <tenir> hold, keep, seize, consider -- consider
por -- preposition; <por> for -- ...
fole -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <fol> crazy -- crazy
Par foi, ja n'en dirai parole;

Et si vos dirai une rien,
Si vuel que vos le sacis bien:
S il vos pardounot, beau sire,
Par Deu son mautalent et s'ire,
J'en seroie joiose et lie.
ja n'en -- adverb; <ja> ever + negation; <ne, nen> not + pronoun; inanimate <en>
of it -- not... about it
dirai -- verb; first person singular future <dire> say, tell -- I will say
parole -- noun; oblique singular <parole> word, speech -- a word
et si -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and + conjunction; <si> yet -- but
vos -- personal pronoun; second person plural indirect object <vos> you -- you
dirai -- verb; first person singular future <dire> say, tell -- I will tell
une -- indefinite article; oblique singular feminine <un> a -- one

rien -- noun; oblique singular <rien, ren> thing, creature, person -- thing
vuel -- verb; first person singular present <voloir> want -- I want
que -- conjunction; <que> that -- ...

this
sacis -- verb; second person plural subjunctive present <savoir> know -- to

know
bien -- adverb; <bien> well, many, much, really -- very well
s -- conjunction; <se> if -- if
pardounot -- verb; third person singular preterite <pardoner> forgive, pardon --

forgave
beau -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <bel> dear, beloved, handsome

-- dear
his
mautalent -- noun; oblique singular <maltalent> anger -- anger
s'ire -- possessive; third person singular oblique singular feminine <son> his +
noun; oblique singular <ire> anger, distress -- his distress
j'en -- personal pronoun; first person singular nominative <jo, jou, jeu> I +
pronoun; inanimate <en> of it -- I... about it
seroie -- verb; first person singular conditional <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- would
be
joiose -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <joieus> full of joy -- full of joy
lie -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <li, liet> happy, joyful -- happy
S'or savoit ceste chevauchie,

Cel sai je bien que ja resort,
Tristan, n'avreie contre mort.
s'or -- conjunction; <si> if + adverb; <or> now -- if... now
savoit -- verb; third person singular imperfective <savoir> know -- he knew

about
chevauchie -- noun; oblique singular <chevauchie> expedition, ride -- meeting
cel -- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter <cil> that -- ...
sai -- verb; first person singular present <savoir> know -- know
ja -- adverb; <ja> ever -- never
resort -- noun; oblique singular <resort> restriction, remedy, defense -- any

remedy
Tristan -- proper name; nominative singular <Tristan> Tristan -- Tristan
n'avreie -- negation; <ne, nen> not + verb; first person singular conditional
<avoir, aveir> have, be -- I would have
contre -- preposition; <contre> against, compared with -- against
mort -- noun; oblique singular <mort> death -- death
Vois m'en imais ne prendrai some.

Grant poor ai qu aucun home
Ne vos ait ci ve venir.
vois m'en -- verb; first person singular present <aler> go + personal pronoun; first
person singular direct object <jo, jou, jeu> I + pronoun; inanimate <en> of it -- I
am leaving
imais -- conjunction; <mais, mes> but -- but
ne -- negation; <ne, nen> not -- no

prendrai -- verb; first person singular future <prendre> take, take hold of, seize --
I will get
some -- noun; oblique singular <som, some> sleep -- sleep
poor -- noun; oblique singular <paor, peor> fear -- fear
ai -- verb; first person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- I have
qu -- conjunction; <que> that -- that
aucun -- indefinite adjective; nominative singular masculine <aucun> some --

some
home -- noun; nominative singular <home, ome> man -- man
ait -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <avoir, aveir> have, be --
has
ci -- adverb; <ci> here -- here
ve -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <veoir> see -- seen
venir -- verb; infinitive <venir> come, go -- coming
S'un mot en puet li rois or

Que nos fuson ca asembl,
Il me feroit ardoir en r.
Ne seret pas mervelle grant.
s'un -- conjunction; <se> if + indefinite article; oblique singular masculine <un> a

-- if... one
mot -- noun; oblique singular <mot> word -- word
puet -- verb; third person singular present <pooir, poeir, poier> can, be able --
can
rois -- noun; nominative singular <roi> king -- king
or -- verb; infinitive <oir, odir> hear -- hear

nos -- personal pronoun; first person plural nominative <nos> we -- we
fuson -- verb; first person plural subjunctive imperfective <estre, iestre, aistre> be
-- have
ca -- adverb; <ca, cai> here, hither -- here
asembl -- verb; perfective participle nominative plural masculine <assembler,

assanler> call together, assemble, meet -- met
feroit -- verb; third person singular conditional <faire> make -- would make
ardoir -- verb; infinitive <ardoir, ardre> burn -- burn
en -- preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of -- at
r -- noun; oblique singular <r, rei, rez> stake -- the stake
ne -- negation; <ne, nen> not -- no
seret -- verb; third person singular conditional <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- it

would be
mervelle -- noun; nominative singular <merveille> what is surprising, wonder --

surprise
grant -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <grant> great, large, tall -- great
Mis cors trenble, poor ai grant.

De la poor qui or me prent,
Vois m'en, trop sui ci longuement."
mis -- possessive; first person singular nominative singular masculine <mon> my

-- my
cors -- noun; nominative singular <cors> body -- body
trenble -- verb; third person singular present <trembler> tremble -- is trembling
ai -- verb; first person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- I have

qui -- relative pronoun; subject <qui> that -- which
prent -- verb; third person singular present <prendre> take, take hold of, seize --
takes hold of
vois m'en -- verb; first person singular present <aler> go + personal pronoun; first
person singular direct object <jo, jou, jeu> I + pronoun; inanimate <en> of it -- I
am going away
sui -- verb; first person singular present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- I have been
longuement -- adverb; <longement> long, for a long time -- long
Lesson Text
Par foi, sire, grant tort avez,

Que de tel chose a moi parlez
Que de vos le mete a raison
Et de s'ire face pardon. Je ne vuel pas encor morir,
Ne moi du tot en tot perir!
Il vos mescroit de moi forment,
Et j'en tendroie parlement? Donc seroie je trop hardie.
Par foi, Tristan, n'en ferai mie,
Ne vos nu me devez requerre. Tote sui sole en ceste terre.
Il vos a fait chambres veer
Por moi: s'il or m'en ot parler,
Bien me porroit tenir por fole. Par foi, ja n'en dirai parole;
Et si vos dirai une rien,
Si vuel que vos le sacis bien:
S il vos pardounot, beau sire,
Par Deu son mautalent et s'ire,
J'en seroie joiose et lie. S'or savoit ceste chevauchie,
Cel sai je bien que ja resort,
Tristan, n'avreie contre mort. Vois m'en imais ne prendrai some.
Grant poor ai qu aucun home

Ne vos ait ci ve venir. S'un mot en puet li rois or
Que nos fuson ca asembl,
Il me feroit ardoir en r.
Ne seret pas mervelle grant. Mis cors trenble, poor ai grant.
De la poor qui or me prent,
Vois m'en, trop sui ci longuement."
Translation
Sincerely, lord, you make a great mistake,

To talk to me about such matter
That I talk to him about you
And that he forgets his distress.
I do not want yet to die,
Nor perish completely!
He suspects you strongly on my behalf,
And I would have a conversation about it?
Therefore it would be too bold
Sincerely, Tristan, I will not do it,
You should not ask it from me.
I am completely alone in this country.
He has made his private apartment forbidden territory for you
Because of me: if he now hears me talk about it,
He could very well consider me crazy.
Sincerely, I will not to say a word about it;
But I will tell you one thing,
And I want you to know this very well:
If he forgave you, dear lord,
Through God his anger and his distress,
I would be full of joy about it, and happy.
If he now knew about this meeting,
I know well, Tristan, that I would never
have any remedy against death.
I am leaving but I will get no sleep.
I have great fear that some man
Has seen you coming here.
If the king can hear one word
That we have met here,
He would make me burn at the stake.
It would be no great surprise.

My body is trembling, I have great fear.
From the fear, which takes hold of me now,
I am going away, I have been here too long.
Grammar
21 Possession
Possession in Old French noun phrases is expressed primarily by the oblique case,
with or without a preposition:
Without preposition:
li Deo inimi (Eul. 3, Lesson 4) 'the enemies of God'

le rei gunfanuner (CdR 106, Lesson 1) 'the standard
bearer of the king'
al tens No (Al. 6) 'in the time of
Noah'
el ventre la baleine (Elie. 3607) 'in the stomach of the
whale'
With preposition:
la nef a cel saint home (Al. 197, Lesson 3)

'the ship of that holy man'
filie d'un noble Franc (Al. 40)

'(the) daughter of a Frankish nobleman'
fille ad un conpta de Rome (Al. 42)

'the daughter of a count in Rome'
The distribution of these constructions depends on semantic and syntactic criteria.
From a semantic perspective, the construction with de combines with all types of
nouns, animate and non-animate. The preposition a / ad only combines with
nouns that are animate, whereas the construction without preposition only occurs
in combination with nouns that refer to humans or animals that behave like
humans (cf. the whale above). The possessor most commonly is referred to by a
noun that moreover, as a rule, has no or only a few complements; generally the
noun is singular, cf.:
la fille le rei 'the king's daughter'

les armes vos peres 'the arms of your fathers'
li filz son hoste 'the son of his host'
la feste seint Michel 'the holiday of St. Michael'
The various syntactic relations underlying the noun - (preposition) - noun
sequences (e.g. subjective vs. objective genitive 'the love of father' vs. 'the love for
father') may affect the choice of the construction, but discussion of the details
would go too far in the context of this course.
The sequence of elements is most commonly 'element in possession' + 'possessor',

cf.:
la feste seint Michel

'the holiday of St. Michael'
la nef a cel saint home (Al. 197, Lesson 3)
'the ship of that holy man'
la filie d'un noble Franc (Al. 40)
'the daughter of a Frankish nobleman'
Yet the reverse order is attested, especially in formulaic expressions (e.g. la Dieu
merci), in expressions including autrui (e.g. l'autrui joie 'the joy of another
person') and in early texts (e.g. li Deo inimi Eul. 3). With time the sequence
'element in possession' + 'possessor' only spread, with the exception of a few
lexicalized items. Among the prepositional expressions there are very few
instances in which the possessor comes first.
22 The Future: Forms and Uses
In Lesson 2 it was explained that one of the important changes in the development
of the verb system from Latin to Old French was the emergence of 'have' as an
auxiliary. The compound past tenses of Old French illustrate this development.
Less obvious is the use of the auxiliary 'have' in the forms of the future. These
forms trace back to analytic Vulgar and Late Latin formations including an
infinitive and a finite form of the verb habeo 'have', cf.:
Latin Old French

cantare habeo 'sing-Inf. have-1st Sg.' > chanterai
With time the analytic Latin forms have become synthetic.
The Old French endings trace back to present tense forms (future) as well as
imperfect tense forms (past future and conditional). The paradigms are as follows:
Future, Conjugation
Future Past Future

1st Sg. chanterai chanteroie
2nd Sg. chanteras chanteroies
3rd Sg. chantera chanteroit
1st Pl. chanterons chanterons

chanterons
2nd Pl. chanterez chanterez

3rd Pl. chanteront chanteroient
The future forms refer to actions that take place in the future. The forms in -roie
typically refer to actions that may take place in the future -- likely or unlikely --
and therefore they often occur in hypothetical sentences introduced by se 'if'.
de soe part vos voldreie preier (Cour. de Louis 516)

'on his behalf I would like to ask you'
s il vos pardounot ... j'en seroie joiose

'if he forgave you ... I would be full of joy' (Be/r., Trist. 160; 162, this lesson)
23 Common Irregular Verbs: voloir, pooir, aler
Irregular Verb voloir
voloir Present Preterite Subjunctive

Pres.
1st Sg. vue(i)l vo(i)l vue(i)lle
vol vos
2nd Sg. v(u)eus volis vue(i)lles
viaus vousis
3rd Sg. v(u)eut vo(l)t vue(i)lle
viaut vout
1st Pl. volons volimes voilliens

2nd Pl. volez volistes voiliez
vuelliez
3rd Pl. vuelent voldrent vueillent
Imperfect voloie
Future voudrai - vourrai
Conditional voudroie - vourroie
Impf. vosisse - volisse
subjunctive
Pf. Participle volu
Pres. Participle volant - voillant -
vueillant
Irregular Verb pooir
pooir Present Preterite Subjunctive Pres.

1st Sg. puis poi puisse
2nd Sg. poez pos puisses

puez pes
3rd Sg. puet poutt puisse

peut pot puist
1st Pl. poons pomes puissiens

pemes puissons
2nd Pl. poez postes puissiez
pestes
3rd Pl. poeent po(u)rent puissent
pueent
Imperfect pooie
Future porrai
Conditional porroie
Impf. subjunctive posse - posse - pesse
Pf. Participle po - pe
Pres. Participle poant - puissant
Irregular Verb aler
aler Present Preterite Subjunctive Pres.

1st Sg. vois alai voise
aille, alge
2nd Sg. vais voises
vas ailles, alges
3rd Sg. va(it) voise, voist
vet aille, aut, alge
1st Pl. allons voisonss, voisiens

aillens, algiens
a(il)lons
2nd Pl. allez voisiez
ailliez, algiez
3rd Pl. vont voisent
aillent, algent
Imperfect aloie
Future irai
Conditional iroie
Pf. Participle al
Pres. Participle alant
Imperative va(s) - alez - alons
24 Adjectives: Comparative and Superlative
Adjectives in Old French are marked for case, gender, and number. In addition the
adjectival paradigm has analytic comparative forms, although a few adjectives still
have synthetic formations.
The most widespread formation is analytic and includes an adverb followed by the
adjective proper, cf.:
Comparative, Analytic formation
Type of comparative Particle Adjective

comparative of superiority plus 'more' + adjective
comparative of inferiority moins 'less' + adjective
comparative of equality si 'as' + adjective
aussi 'as' + adjective
tant 'as' + adjective
other adverbs
Among these forms, the comparative of superiority is by far the most common
form.
Yet a few synthetic comparatives from Latin survive in Old French; these are very
common, cf.:
Comparative, Synthetic formations
Adjective Comparative Comparative

grant 'big, large' graindre (Nom.) / graignor (Obl.)
'bigger, larger'
grant maire (Nom.) / maior (Obl.)
'bigger, larger'
petit 'small' mendre (Nom.) / menor (Obl.)
bon 'good' mieudre (Nom.) / meillor (Obl.)
mal 'bad' pire (Nom.) / peior (Obl.)
'worse'
The following series of adjectives have a synthetic comparative form only in the
oblique case; these forms typically occur in the early texts:
Comparative, Synthetic formations
Adjective Comp. Obl.

fort 'strong' forcor 'stronger'
alt 'high' alcor 'higher'
bel 'beautiful' belasor (9th c.) 'more beautiful'
belior (12th c.)
sordois 'worse, dirty' sordoior 'worse, inferior'
gent 'noble' gencor 'more noble'
The declension of the comparative forms follows that of the third class of nouns,
cf.:
Synthetic Comparative, Declension (masculine)
Masculine Singular Plural

Nom. graindre graignor
Obl. graignor graignors
Synthetic Comparative, Declension (feminine)
Feminine Singular Plural

Nom. graindre graignors
Obl. graignor graignors
Superlatives generally are not marked, and the interpretation therefore depends
on the context, cf.:
un des porz ki plus est pres de Rome (Al. 197, Lesson 3)

'one of the ports that is closest to Rome'
Very rarely one may find a superlative that is formally marked: a definite article
then combines with the comparative adjective proper (synthetic or analytic).
These formations spread in later times, cf.:
de toutes autres la gencor (Ben.)

'of all others the most noble'
Yet if there is no analytic formation of superlatives, there are a number of
synthetic formations that convey so-called absolute superlative value:
Several synthetic Latin superlatives have survived in Old French, cf.: pesme 'very
bad' (< La. pessimum), merme 'very small'(< minimum), malisme 'very bad',
proismes 'very close'(< La. proximum), and others.
There are learned formations in -isme, cf.:
Superlatives in -isme
Adjective Superlative
fort fortisme 'very strong'
alt altisme 'very high'
grant grandisme 'very big'
saint saintisme 'very holy'
Finally, there is a range of adverbs that convey superlative value in combination
with adjectives 'very, most', cf.: molt, tres, mais, tant, mut par and others, e.g.:
il est mult irascut (CdR 777) 'he is very angry'

mult grant venjance (CdR 1459) 'a very rude revenge'
25 Adjectives: Comparison
Whereas Latin had two types of comparison, Old French only has an analytic
construction. In Latin the comparison was either a case construction or a so-called
particle construction.
In the case construction the ablative marks the element that is being compared,
cf.:
luce clarior
'light-Abl. brighter' > 'brighter than light'
In the particle construction the particle -- quam -- has that function:
lingua quam manu promptior

tongue than hand ready-Comp.' >
'prompter in words than in action'
With the loss of synthetic froms in Latin -- case, comparative, verb forms -- the
comparison in Old French has become analytic and includes either a particle or a
preposition.
The particle construction (of which the Latin quam construction was a forerunner)
is the most widespread type of comparison, cf.:
plus est isnels que esprever (CdR 1535)

'he is quicker than a sparrow hawk'
Constructions with a preposition--which trace back to the original case
construction in Latin-- typically include a pronominal element or a number, cf.:
meillor vassal n'out en la curt de lui (CdR 776)

'there was no better knight in the court than he'
plus de .IIII. milliers

'more than four thousand'
The prepositional construction is also attested with a nominal referent when it
functions simply as a subject, cf.:
maines riches de mon pere (Palefroi 407)

'less rich than my father'
Comparison constructions often include a negation, cf.:
plus est isnels que n'est oisel ki volet (CdR 1616)

'he is quicker than a bird that flies'
With time the particle construction spread and came to be used exclusively in
comparisons, with the exception of numbers (e.g. modern French il y a plus de
vingt tudiants 'there are more than twenty students'). (See Italian for a much
more common use of the prepositional construction today).
Lesson 6

With the pilgrimages and the crusades, life in Western Europe opened up to new
horizons and different lifestyles. As a result the social elite gradually became more
secular and developed a keen interest in refined literature, with new ideals and a
rich imagination. This development led -- towards the end of the 12th century -- to
la littrature courtoise, a literature in which knights with high prestige, following
l'idal courtois, are in constant pursuit of glory and love for their lady. Love in
these works is no longer an all-devouring passion, as in the Tristan novels, but
rather a pure and noble feeling, which imposes certain rules comparable to those
of a feudal society.
Love in these works is based on:
1. Loyalty and faithfulness;
2. Mutual admiration: of beauty and wisdom in the lady; of military qualities in the
knight. Both need to be polite, elegant, and well-educated (reading, writing,
music). They therefore typically represent the higher levels of society;
3. Veneration of the lady. A source of inspiration, the lady represents a distant love
which is almost inaccessible to the knight. The knight carries an object with him
that reminds him of her (e.g. glove, curl of hair) and the lady is allowed to ask for
rather extreme services, which will prove the knight's love and devotion;
4. Compensation. When the knight has proven his qualities and his willingness to
follow up on her capricious requests, the lady may accept his love, which in fact
will take the form of a friendship rather than a passionate love affair.
These ideals are expressed in poetry as well as prose. One of the best known
novelists of this period is Chrtien de Troyes, who between 1165 and 1190 wrote
several novels that continue the setting of the Celtic novels but combine it with the
new ideals: refined love stories involving magic and the world of King Arthur. King
Arthur -- reminding the French of Charlemagne -- was popular in France because
of his role as the leader of Celtic resistance under the Anglo-Saxons. The novels
were based on and related the legends of King Arthur, Lancelot, and the Cycle of
the Grail.
The text selected for this lesson has been taken from Chrtien de Troyes' novel
Yvain ou le chevalier au lion (2560-2580; 2600-2615). Yvain is a knight who
discovers a magical fountain in a forest and is attacked by the nobleman who
guards it. Having killed his opponent, Yvain hides in the dead man's castle and
falls in love with his widow, whom he subsequently marries. Then King Arthur
passes by and Yvain decides to escort him on great adventures. He asks his lady to
allow him to follow the king in his pursuit of glory. He is granted permission to go
away for a year, but he has to be back exactly one year later. When Yvain returns
too late, his lady refuses to receive him and Yvain has to carry out a series of new
tasks to win back her love.
In the text selected here, Yvain asks his lady to allow him to follow King Arthur
and his lady replies, specifying her conditions.
"Ma tres chiere dame,

vos qui estes mes cuers et m'ame,
mes biens, ma joie, et ma santez,
une chose m'acreantez
por vostre enor e por la moie."
ma -- possessive; first person singular nominative singular feminine <mon> my --

my
tres -- adverb; <tres> much, very -- very
chiere -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <cher> beloved, expensive --

dear
dame -- noun; nominative singular <dame> lady, dame -- lady
qui -- relative pronoun; subject <qui> who -- who
mes -- possessive; first person singular nominative singular masculine <mon> my

-- my
cuers -- noun; nominative singular <cuer, coer, cor> heart -- heart
m'ame -- possessive; first person singular nominative singular feminine <mon>

my + noun; nominative singular <anme, alme, arme, ame> soul, somebody -- my
soul

-- my
biens -- noun; nominative singular <bien, ben> good, good fortune, well-being --
good fortune

my
joie -- noun; nominative singular <joi, joie> joy -- joy

my
santez -- noun; nominative singular <sant> health, well-being -- well-being
une -- indefinite article; oblique singular feminine <un> a -- one
chose -- noun; oblique singular <chose, cose> thing, affair, creature -- thing
m'acreantez -- personal pronoun; first person singular indirect object <jo, jou,
jeu> I + verb; second person plural imperative <acreanter> promise, allow, agree
-- grant me
-- your
enor -- noun; oblique singular <onor, enor, anor> honor, respect, esteem, fief --
honor
moie -- possessive; first person singular oblique singular feminine <mon> my --

mine
La dame tantost li otroie,

qu'el ne set qu'il vialt demander
et dit: "Biax sire, comander
me poez ce qui boen vos iert."
tantost -- adverb; <tantost> immediately -- immediately

to him
otroie -- verb; third person singular present <otroier, otrier> grant, agree --
grants (it)
qu'el -- conjunction; <que> that + personal pronoun; third person singular

nominative feminine <il> he -- although she
set -- verb; third person singular present <savoir> know -- does... know

nominative masculine <il> he -- what he
vialt -- verb; third person singular present <voloir> want -- wants
demander -- verb; infinitive <demander> ask, ask for -- to ask
dit -- verb; third person singular present <dire> say, tell -- she says
biax -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <bel> dear, beloved, handsome --

beloved
comander -- verb; infinitive <comander> give, recommend, order -- ask
me -- personal pronoun; first person singular indirect object <jo, jou, jeu> I -- me
poez -- verb; second person plural present <pooir, poeir, poier> can, be able --
you can
ce qui -- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter <co, ceo, ce, ceu> this, that, it +
relative pronoun; subject <qui> that -- what
boen -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <bon> good -- ...
iert -- verb; third person singular future <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- like
Congi maintenant li requiert

mes sire Yvains, de convoier
le roi, et d'aler tornoier,
que l'an ne l'apialt recreant.
congi -- noun; oblique singular <congi> permission to leave, permission, leave

-- permission to leave
maintenant -- adverb; <maintenant> immediately, soon -- immediately
li -- personal pronoun; third person singular indirect object feminine <il> he --

her
requiert -- verb; third person singular present <requerre> ask, beseech -- asks
for

-- ...
Yvains -- proper name; nominative singular <Yvain> Yvain -- Yvain
de -- particle; <de> to -- to
convoier -- verb; infinitive <convoier> escort -- escort
roi -- noun; oblique singular <roi> king -- king
d'aler -- particle; <de> to + verb; infinitive <aler> go -- to go
tornoier -- verb; infinitive <tornoier> whirl around, tourney -- fight in

tornaments
que -- conjunction; <que> that -- so that
l'an -- definite article; nominative singular masculine <li> the + personal

pronoun; third person singular nominative <om, on> one -- one
l'apialt -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine <il> he
+ verb; third person singular present <apeler> accuse, summon, call -- does...
call him
recreant -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <recreant> exhausted, cowardly

-- a coward
Et ele dit: "je vos creant

le congi jusqu'a un termine.
ele -- personal pronoun; third person singular nominative feminine <il> he -- she
dit -- verb; third person singular present <dire> say, tell -- says
creant -- verb; first person singular present <creanter, granter> grant, agree --
grant
le -- definite article; oblique singular masculine <li> the -- ...


jusqu'a -- preposition; <jusqu'a> as far as, up to -- for
termine -- noun; oblique singular <termine> period of time -- period of time
Mes l'amors devanra hane,

que j'ai en vos, toz an soiez
sers, se vos trespassez
le terme que je vos dirai;
sachiez que ja n'en mantirai:
se vos mantez, je dirai voir.
mes -- conjunction; <mais, mes> but -- but
l'amors -- definite article; nominative singular masculine <li> the + noun;

nominative singular <amor> love -- the love
devanra -- verb; third person singular future <devenir> become -- will become
hane -- noun; nominative singular <haine> hatred -- hatred
que -- relative pronoun; object <qui> that -- that
j'ai -- personal pronoun; first person singular nominative <jo, jou, jeu> I + verb;
first person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- I have
en -- preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of -- for
toz -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <tot> all, every, completely -- ...
an -- pronoun; inanimate <en> of it -- of that
soiez -- verb; second person plural imperative <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- be
sers -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <seur> sure -- sure
se -- conjunction; <se> if -- if
trespassez -- verb; second person plural imperfective <trespasser> pass, cross, go

by -- exceed
terme -- noun; oblique singular <terme> term, period, period of time -- period of
time
vos -- personal pronoun; second person plural indirect object <vos> you -- to you
dirai -- verb; first person singular future <dire> say, tell -- will mention
sachiez -- verb; second person plural imperative <savoir> know -- know
ja n'en mantirai -- adverb; <ja> ever + negation; <ne, nen> not + pronoun;
inanimate <en> of it + verb; first person singular future <mentir> lie, betray,
deny, fail -- I will keep my word
mantez -- verb; second person plural present <mentir> lie, betray, deny, fail -- fail
dirai -- verb; first person singular future <dire> say, tell -- will tell
voir -- adverb; <voir> truly, indeed -- the truth
Se vos volez m'amor avoir

et de rien nule m'avez chiere,
pansez de tost venir arriere
a tot le moins jusqu'a un an
huit jorz aprs la Saint Johan
c'ui an cest jor sont les huitaves.
volez -- verb; second person plural present <voloir> want -- want
m'amor -- possessive; first person singular oblique singular feminine <mon> my +

noun; oblique singular <amor> love -- my love
avoir -- verb; infinitive <avoir, aveir> have, be -- to have
de rien nule -- preposition; <de> of, from + noun; oblique singular <rien, ren>
thing, creature, person + adjective; oblique singular feminine <nul> no, not any --
in any way
m'avez chiere -- personal pronoun; first person singular direct object <jo, jou, jeu>
I + verb; second person plural present <avoir, aveir> have, be + adjective; oblique
singular feminine <cher> beloved, expensive -- you cherish me
pansez -- verb; second person plural imperative <penser> think, pay attention --
make sure
de -- particle; <de> to -- to
tost -- adverb; <tost> soon, immediately, quickly -- in time
venir -- verb; infinitive <venir> come, go -- come
arriere -- adverb; <arriere, arrere, arire> back -- back
a tot le moins -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on + adverb; <tot>
entirely + definite article; oblique singular masculine <li> the + adverb; <meins,
mains, moins> less, fewer -- at the very least
jusqu'a -- preposition; <jusqu'a> as far as, up to -- within
un -- indefinite article; oblique singular masculine <un> a -- one
an -- noun; oblique singular <an> year -- year
huit -- numeral; <huit> eight -- eight
jorz -- noun; oblique plural <jorn, jor> day -- days
aprs -- preposition; <apres> after, afterwards -- after
la Saint Johan -- definite article; oblique singular feminine <li> the + adjective;
oblique singular masculine <saint> holy + proper name; oblique singular
<Johan> John -- the feast of St. John
c'ui an cest jor -- demonstrative; neuter <co, ceo, ce, ceu> this, that, it + adverb;
<ui, ue, oi> today + preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of + demonstrative;
oblique singular masculine <cest, cist> this + noun; oblique singular <jorn, jor>
day -- of which this very day
sont -- verb; third person plural present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- we celebrate
les -- definite article; nominative plural masculine <li> the -- the
huitaves -- noun; nominative plural <huitaves> octave -- octave # period of eight

days following an important Christian holiday
De m'amor soiez maz et haves,

se vos n'iestes jusqu'a ce jor
ceanz avoec moi au retor."
de -- preposition; <de> of, from -- instead of

m'amor -- possessive; first person singular oblique singular feminine <mon> my +

noun; oblique singular <amor> love -- my love
soiez -- verb; second person plural imperative <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- you will
have
maz -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <mat> feeble, exhausted, sad --

sadness
haves -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <have> dark, sick, somber --

gloom
n'iestes -- negation; <ne, nen> not + verb; second person plural present <estre,
iestre, aistre> be -- are not
jusqu'a -- preposition; <jusqu'a> as far as, up to -- on
ce -- demonstrative; oblique singular masculine <cil> that -- that
jor -- noun; oblique singular <jorn, jor> day -- day
ceanz -- adverb; <ceanz, seans> in here -- here
avoec -- preposition; <avuec, avec, avoc> with -- with
au retor -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on + definite article; oblique
singular masculine <li> the + noun; oblique singular <retor, retorn> return --
back
... Mes or metroiz an vostre doi

cest mien anel, que je vos prest;
metroiz -- verb; second person plural conditional <metre, mectre, mettre> put --
you should put
an -- preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of -- on
vostre -- possessive; second person plural oblique singular masculine <vostre>

your -- your
doi -- noun; oblique singular <doi, dei> finger -- finger

cest -- demonstrative; oblique singular masculine <cest, cist> this -- this
mien -- possessive; first person singular oblique singular masculine <mon> my --

of mine
anel -- noun; oblique singular <anel> ring -- ring
prest -- verb; first person singular present <prester> lend -- lend
et de la pierre quex ele est

vos voel dire tot en apert:
prison ne tient ne sanc ne pert
nus amanz verais et leax,
ne avenir ne li puet max;
pierre -- noun; oblique singular <piere, pierre> stone, prison -- stone
quex -- relative pronoun; nominative singular feminine <quel> which -- that
ele -- personal pronoun; third person singular nominative feminine <il> he -- it
est -- verb; third person singular present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- carries
voel -- verb; first person singular present <voloir> want -- I want
dire -- verb; infinitive <dire> say, tell -- to tell
tot -- adverb; <tot> entirely -- most
en apert -- preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of + adjective; oblique singular
masculine <apert> open, visible, manifest -- openly
prison -- noun; oblique singular <prison> captivity, prison -- captivity
ne -- negation; <ne, ni> nor, and not -- ...
undergoes

sanc -- noun; oblique singular <sanc> blood -- blood
pert -- verb; third person singular present <perdre> lose, perish -- loses
nus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <nul> no, not any -- no
amanz -- noun; nominative singular <amant> lover -- lover
verais -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <verai> real, true -- true
leax -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <leal, loial> loyal, legitimate --

loyal
ne -- negation; <ne, ni> nor, and not -- and no
avenir -- verb; infinitive <avenir> arrive, happen -- happen

to him
can
max -- noun; nominative singular <mal> evil, disaster, illness -- evil
mes qui le porte, et chier le tient

de s'amie li resovient,
et si devient plus durs que fers;
cil vos iert escuz et haubers
et voir einz mes a chevalier
ne le vos prester ne baillier,
mes por amors le vos doing gi."
qui -- relative pronoun; subject <qui> who -- he who
porte -- verb; third person singular present <porter> carry, bring, wear -- wears
chier le tient -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <cher> beloved, expensive +

personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine <il> he + verb;
third person singular present <tenir> hold, keep, seize, consider -- cherishes it
s'amie -- possessive; third person singular oblique singular feminine <son> his +
noun; object singular <amie> friend -- his friend

...
resovient -- verb; third person singular present <resovenir> remember --

remembers
si -- conjunction; <si> and, and thus -- thus
devient -- verb; third person singular present <devenir> become -- he becomes
plus -- adverb; <plus> more -- ...
durs -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <dur> hard, unrefined, cruel --

stronger
fers -- noun; nominative singular <fer> iron, weapon -- iron
cil -- demonstrative; nominative singular masculine <cil> that -- this
vos -- personal pronoun; second person plural indirect object <vos> you -- your
iert -- verb; third person singular future <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- will be
escuz -- noun; nominative singular <escu> shield -- shield
haubers -- noun; nominative singular <halberc, osberc> hauberk -- hauberk
voir -- adverb; <voir> truly, indeed -- truly
einz mes -- adverb; <ainc, ainz, ains> earlier, rather + conjunction; <mais> more,
further, rather -- never before
chevalier -- noun; oblique singular <chevalier> knight -- to a knight
vos -- verb; first person singular preterite <voloir> want -- I wanted

prester -- verb; infinitive <prester> lend -- lend
baillier -- verb; infinitive <baillier> own, receive, give -- give
amors -- noun; oblique plural <amor> love -- my feelings of love
doing -- verb; first person singular present <doner> give -- give
gi -- personal pronoun; first person singular nominative <jo, jou, jeu> I -- I
Or a mes sire Yvains congi:

molt out plor au congi prendre.

-- ...
Yvains -- proper name; nominative singular <Yvain> Yvain -- Yvain

molt -- adverb, adjective; <molt, mult, mout> many, much, very -- many
out -- verb; third person singular preterite <avoir, aveir> have, be -- he...
plor -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <plorer> cry, shed
tears -- shed tears
au -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on + definite article; oblique
singular masculine <li> the -- when

-- his leave
prendre -- verb; infinitive <prendre> take, take hold of, seize -- taking
Lesson Text
"Ma tres chiere dame,

vos qui estes mes cuers et m'ame,
mes biens, ma joie, et ma santez,
une chose m'acreantez
por vostre enor e por la moie." La dame tantost li otroie,
qu'el ne set qu'il vialt demander
et dit: "Biax sire, comander
me poez ce qui boen vos iert." Congi maintenant li requiert
mes sire Yvains, de convoier
le roi, et d'aler tornoier,
que l'an ne l'apialt recreant. Et ele dit: "je vos creant
le congi jusqu'a un termine. Mes l'amors devanra hane,
que j'ai en vos, toz an soiez
sers, se vos trespassez
le terme que je vos dirai;
sachiez que ja n'en mantirai:
se vos mantez, je dirai voir. Se vos volez m'amor avoir
et de rien nule m'avez chiere,
huit jorz aprs la Saint Johan
c'ui an cest jor sont les huitaves. De m'amor soiez maz et haves,
se vos n'iestes jusqu'a ce jor
ceanz avoec moi au retor." ... Mes or metroiz an vostre doi
cest mien anel, que je vos prest; et de la pierre quex ele est
vos voel dire tot en apert:
prison ne tient ne sanc ne pert
nus amanz verais et leax,
ne avenir ne li puet max; mes qui le porte, et chier le tient
de s'amie li resovient,
et si devient plus durs que fers;
cil vos iert escuz et haubers
et voir einz mes a chevalier
ne le vos prester ne baillier,
mes por amors le vos doing gi." Or a mes sire Yvains congi:
molt out plor au congi prendre.
Translation
My very dear lady

You who are my heart and my soul
My good fortune, my joy and my well-being
Grant me one thing
For your honor and for mine.
The lady immediately grants it to him
Although she does not know what he wants to ask
And she says: "Beloved lord, you can
Ask me what you like."
Lord Yvain asks her immediately for permission
to leave to escort the king
And to go fight in tornaments
So that one does not call him a coward.
And she says: "I grant you
Permission to leave for a period of time.
But the love I have for you
will become hatred, be sure of that,
If you exceed the period of time
That I will mention to you;
Know that I will keep my word:
If you fail, I will tell the truth.
If you want to have my love
And you cherish me in any way,
Make sure to come back in time
At the very least within one year
Eight days after the feast of St. John
Of which we celebrate the octave this very day."
Instead of my love you will have sadness and gloom,
If you are not on that day
Back here with me."
But now you should put on your finger
This ring of mine, that I lend to you;
And about the stone that it carries
I want to tell you most openly:
No true and loyal lover
Undergoes captivity, or loses blood,
And no evil can happen to him;
But he who wears it, and cherishes it
Remembers his friend,
And thus he becomes stronger than iron;
This will be your shield and hauberk

And truly never before I wanted
To lend it or give it to a knight,
But because of my feelings of love I give it to you.
Now Lord Yvain has permission to leave:
He shed many tears when taking his leave.
Grammar
26 Adverbs of Manner
Most adverbs in Latin were either fossilized case forms or morphologically

marked. Magis 'more', plus 'more' and nimis 'too much', for example, were
fossilized accusative neuters. Among adverbs of manner the most productive
formation was based on a process of derivation whereby a suffix -e or -(i)ter was
added to an adjectival base: -e was used for adjectives of Declension I/II and
-(i)ter for adjectives of Declension III, cf.:
Latin Adverb Formation, Adverbs of manner
Adjective Adverb
stult-us 'stupid' stult-e 'stupidly'
grand-is 'great' grand-iter 'greatly'
In the later periods of Latin and in its popular varieties the -(i)ter derivation
spread at the expense of -e, cf.:
avidus 'eager' (avide) > aviditer

benignus 'benign' (benigne) > benigniter
Moreover two new strategies developed, prepositional phrases and adjective +
noun combinations:
prepositional phrases
in commune 'generally'
in totum 'entirely'
adjective + noun combinations
libero ore 'with a frank mouth, frankly'

citato pede 'with a speedy foot, quickly'
ardenti corde 'with a burning heart, ardently, intensely'
studioso animo 'with an eager mind, impatiently'
tristi mente 'with a sad mind, sadly'
Among these varieties the mente combinations survived in the Romance
languages, with the exception of Rumanian.
In Old French we find several devices to form adverbs of manner:
26.1. Several adjectives are used as adverbs without any specific morphological
marker:
bel 'beautiful, beautifully'

chier 'dear, expensive, dearly'
cler 'clear, clearly'
droit 'right, rightly'
haut 'high, loudly'
petit 'small, slightly'
tot 'all, completely'
voir 'real, sincere, really'
escriet e haltement e cler (CdR 1974)

'he shouted loudly and clearly'
When adjectives are used as adverbs, they can still show agreement with the noun:
this pattern is typical of tot, cf.:
tote sui sole en ceste terre (Br., Trist. 153, Lesson 5)

I am completely alone in this country'
A l'apostolie revint tuz esmeriz (Al. 352)

'he turned toward the pope completely shaken'
26.2. A suffix -tre(s), which traces back to the -(i)ter suffix of Vulgar and Late
Latin is added to a base. In Old French the suffix combines with adjectives as well
as nouns, cf.:
nuitantre 'during the night, at night' < nuit 'night'

26.3. A device that survived as an almost "pan-Romance" phenomenon is the
adverbial formation in -ment mentioned earlier. It traces back to the formations
mentioned above:
Adjective + mente 'with a ... mind, in ... spirit'

Since mente originally was a feminine noun, the adjective in the French formation
takes the feminine form as well:
Adjective > Adverb

veir 'real' veirement 'really'(CdR 2361)
dur 'hard' durement 'bitterly' (CdR 1814)
gent 'noble' gentement 'bravely'(CdR 2099)
lung 'long' lungement 'for a long time' (CdR 1858)
isnel 'quick' isnelement 'quickly' (CdR 2085)
ki durement ne plurt (CdR 1814)

'who does not cry bitterly'
si lungement ... m'avez servit (CdR 1858)

'you have served me such a long time'
vengent el camp cumunement (CdR 1838)

'they arrive at the battlefield together'
Some adjectives have both the -ment formation and may be used as an adverb
without morphological change:
Adjective Adverb Adverb in -ment

halt halt haltement 'loudly'
veir veir veirement
In Old French the formation may also include nouns and adverbs as its base:
altresi adv. 'same' > altresiment 'same'

vassal n. 'vassal' > vassalment 'bravely'
Franceis sunt bon, si ferunt vassalment (CdR 1080)

'the French are brave, they will fight bravely'
The derivation on the basis of Class I/II adjectives is not problematic because the
formation of the feminine is provided in the paradigm (e.g. dur masc. > dure fem.
> durement adv.). Class III adjectives do not include a feminine form in -e but
instead all adjectives end in a consonant (cf. Grammar Point 4): e.g. fort 'strong'.
Derivation with these adjectives as base therefore results in a number of phonetic
assimilations, cf.:
consonant assimilation
fort + -ment > forment

grief + -ment > griment
-l- vocalization
cruel + -ment > cruaument

loss of -l-
gentil + ment > gentiment

26.4. A suffix -s may be added to adverbs, prepositions, and nouns to form a new
adverb:
merveille > merveilles

'remarkable thing' 'marvelously, extremely'
This process is possibly based on analogy with the high number of Latin adverbs
in -s that survived in Old French and were very widespread: e.g. mais 'more' < La.
magis, plus 'more' < La. plus, fors 'except' < La. foris. The process accounts for the
etymology of several formations as well:
unques / unces < La. umque + -s 'ever'

sempres < La. semper + -s 'always'
sens, sans < La. sine + -s 'without'
26.5. Adverbial formations based on prepositional phrases survive in Old French,
cf.:
par grant irur (CdR 1842) 'with great anger'

par / a compas 'regularly'
par maistrie 'excellently'
The formation is especially productive when including the preposition a + a plural
noun in -on, cf.:
a tastons 'gropingly'
a genouillons 'on one's knees'
27 Personal Pronouns: Forms
Since pronouns are elements that are used instead of a noun they agree in
number, case, and gender with the noun they replace. The paradigms of personal
pronouns in Old French distinguish person (1-3), number (singular/plural),
gender (for the third person), and case (nominative, direct object, indirect object).
Moreover there is an important distinction between so-called stressed and
unstressed non-nominative forms. The paradigms are as follows:
Personal Pronouns
1st Sg. 2nd Sg. 3rd Sg. 3rd Sg.

Masc. Fem.
Nom. jo, jou tu il el(e)
je(u)
Dir. Obj. me te le la
Dir. Obj. (str.) moi toi lui li / li
Indir. Obj. me te li li
Indir. Obj. (str.) moi toi lui li / li
1st Pl. 2nd Pl. 3rd Pl. 3rd Pl.

Masc. Fem.
Nom. nos vos il eles
Dir. Obj. nos vos les les
Dir. Obj. (str.) nos vos eus eles
Indir. Obj. nos vos lor lor
leur leur
Indir. Obj. (str.) - - - -
Elision and enclisis
Like the definite article (see Grammar Point 14), personal pronouns may undergo
processes of elision and enclisis:
Elision:
unstressed elements easily undergo elision, especially le and la:
l'orent (CdR 1756) 'they heard it'

pur co l'ad fait (CdR 2361)
'for this reason he has done this'
je, which is inherently stressed, does not undergo elision;
strong forms, such as moi and toi, followed by en or i may undergo elision.
Enclisis:
The unstressed forms of the paradigm may be attached to other elements in the
clause, especially je, ne, se, si, que, en:
Personal Pronouns, Patterns of enclisis
je + le > jel, gel

je + les > ges
ne + le > nel, nu, nul
ne + les > nes
que + le > qel
qui + le > quil
qui + les > quis
se + le > sel
se + les > ses
si + le > sil, sel
s'est kil demandet (CdR 119, Lesson 1)

'if there is someone who asks for him'
e li message descendirent a pied

sil saluerent ... (CdR 121, Lesson 1)
'and the messagers came down'
'and they greeted him ...'
28 Personal Pronouns: Uses
28.1. In Old French tu was a second person singular pronoun, whereas vos was a
true plural, used only to address more than one person. Soon a polite use of vos
developed as well when it came to be used--inconsistenly at first--to address a
person of higher social rank. Among nobles, for example, vos became part of basic
politeness. Yet, God typically continued to be referred to in direct address as tu.
28.2. Subject pronouns are late in Indo-European. The finite verb expressed
person and number, and early uses of subject pronouns were marked, having
emphatic function. In Old French as well, subject pronouns are not obligatory.
Accordingly the finite verb in Old French as a rule may occur without explicit
subject, be it nominal or pronominal:
Rollant ad mis l'olifan a sa buche

Empeint le ben, par grant vertut le sunet
(CdR 1753-1754, Lesson 2)
'Roland has put the horn at his mouth'
'(he) places it solidly and (he) blows with great force'
L'olifan sunet a dulor e a peine (CdR 1787, Lesson 2)

'(He) blows the horn in suffering'
The explicit subject can be absent even when there is a change of subject, cf.:
que de vos mete a raison

et de s'ire face pardon (Br., Trist. 165-166, Lesson 5)
'that I talk to him about you'
'and that he forgets his distress!'
The absence of subject pronouns traditionally has been accounted for by the
rather explicit verb ending. The texts analyzed so far show that in some the use of
pronominal subjects is more frequent than elsewhere. The Chanson de Rolland
has relatively few subject pronouns, and when they occur their use is emphatic.
The text of Lesson 5, a passionate dialogue in which persons take position, has
relatively many instances. The use of subject pronouns in Old French therefore
often marks a certain emphasis, cf. the following example, where the use of the
subject pronouns is contrastive:
pur mei n'iras tu mie! (CdR 296)

'you will not go in my place !'
Qui i purruns enveier ... ?

Jo i puis aler mult ben! (CdR 252; 254)
'whom could we send there?'
'I could go there easily !'
The following example illustrates emphatic use of the subject pronoun in
combination with left dislocation:
li quens Rollant, il est mult irascut (CdR 777)

'count Roland, he is very angry'
As a result the subject pronoun is inherently stressed and therefore can occur at
various locations in the clause, not only in proximity to the verb: cf.:
il et ses freres ... 'he and his brothers ...'

je et mi chevalier ... 'I and my knights ...'
Instead of subject pronouns Old French may use nouns such as cors 'body', cf.:
mis cors trenble (Trist. 173, Lesson 5)

'my body is trembling' > 'I am trembling'
Cors can also be used as a reinforcing element especially when it combines with a
personal pronoun, cf.:
Jo cunduirai mun cors en Rencesvals (CdR 892)

'I myself will go to Roncedvaux'
vs.
En Rencesvals irai mun cors juer ! (CdR 901)
'I will go to Roncevaux'
With time the use of subject pronouns increased. One of the important differences
between Old and Middle French is the dramatic increase in use of subject
pronouns. It is important to point out that subject pronouns in Old French are
said to be "deleted" when in postposition to the verb: there are many more
instances of preverbal than postverbal pronominal subjects. It may be, however,
that the spread of subject pronouns as pointed out manifested itself preverbally
first, and postverbally only later.
The use of subject pronouns with impersonal verbs is late. If subject pronouns are
commonly used with finite verbs in Middle French, there is no regular use of
pronominal subjects with impersonal verbs before 16th century French. E.g:
anuite 'it gets dark'

bataille i ad (CdR 1971, Lesson 2) 'there is a battle'
m'est avis 'it seems to me'
tei cuvenist helme ... a porter (Al. 411) 'you need to wear a helmet'
Early instances of impersonal "subject" pronouns are attested, cf.:
Il nus i cuvent guarde (CdR 192)

'we need to be careful'
28.3. Unstressed pronominal forms are verb bound: they are in proximity to the
verb, either preceding or following it. Stressed forms are characterized by a much
less strict use. They typically occur at the beginning of the clause, function as
objects of prepositions, combine with infinitives, and are used with emphasis:
With an infinitive:
as tables juent pur els esbaneier (CdR 111, Lesson 1)

'they play games to amuse themselves'
With a preposition:
desuz lui met s'espee (CdR 2359, Lesson 2)

'under him he places his sword'
a lui nos laist venir (Eul. 28, Lesson 4)

'may he allow to come to him'
28.4. Third person direct object pronouns may be omitted in Old French when co-
occurring with an indirect object in the same clause, cf.:
il la volt prendra: cil ne li volt querpir (Al. 351)

'he wants to take it: Alexis does not want to give (it) to him'
It can also be omitted when the direct object is governed by different verbs; in
these instances it will be omitted with the second verb.
29 Possessives: Forms
There are two series of possessives in Old French: stressed, and unstressed. The
unstressed possessives are used only as adjectival elements; the stressed forms
may be used both as pronominal and adjectival elements. As adjectival elements,
possessives agree with the head noun in case, number, and gender. As pronominal
elements they agree with the noun they replace.
Possessives, Masculine unstressed forms
1st Sg. 2nd Sg. 3rd Sg.

Nom. Sg. mes tes ses
Obl. Sg. mon ton son
Nom. Pl. mi ti si
Obl. Pl. mes tes ses
1st Pl. 2nd Pl. 3rd Pl.

Nom. Sg. nostre vostre lor (leur)
Obl. Sg. nostre vostre lor (leur)
Nom. Pl. nostre vostre lor (leur)

Obl. Pl. noz voz lor (leur)
Possessives, Feminine unstressed forms

Nom. Sg. ma ta sa
Obl. Sg. ma ta sa
Nom. Pl. mes tes ses

Obl. Pl. mes tes ses

Nom. Sg. nostre vostre lor (leur)
Obl. Sg. nostre vostre lor (leur)
Nom. Pl. noz voz lor (leur)

Obl. Pl. noz voz lor (leur)
The feminine forms ma, ta, and sa regularly undergo elision when preceding a
vowel-initial noun, cf.:
s'ire (Br., Trist. 145, Lesson 5) 'his distress'

s'amie (Yv. 2610, this lesson) 'his friend'
The stressed possessives trace back to La. meum, tuum, and suum. While meum
gave mien, the Old French tuen and suen from the 13th century became tien and
sien, in analogy with mien.
Possessives, Masculine stressed forms

Nom. Sg. miens tuens suens
Obl. Sg. mien tuen suen
Nom. Pl. mien tuen suen

Obl. Pl. miens tuens suens

Nom. Sg. nostres vostres lor
Obl. Sg. nostre vostre lor
Nom. Pl. nostre vostre lor

Obl. Pl. nostres vostres lor
Possessives, Feminine stressed forms

Nom. Sg. meie to(u)e so(u)e
moie teue seue
Obl. Sg. meie to(u)e so(u)e
moie teue seue
Nom. Pl. meies to(u)es so(u)es

Obl. Pl. meies to(u)es so(u)es

Nom. Sg. nostre vostre lor
Obl. Sg. nostre vostre lor
Nom. Pl. nostres vostres lor

Obl. Pl. nostres vostres lor
With the replacement of tu- and su- by ti- and si- respectively, in analogy with
mien (13th century), the declensional pattern of mien spread as well:
Declension of mien, tien, and sien, Masculine

Nom. Sg. miens tiens siens
Obl. Sg. mien tien sien
Nom. Pl. mien tien sien

Obl. Pl. miens tiens siens
Declension of mien, tien, and sien, Feminine

Nom. Sg. mienne tienne sienne
Obl. Sg. mienne tienne sienne
Nom. Pl. miennes tiennes siennes

Obl. Pl. miennes tiennes siennes
30 Possessives: Uses
Unstressed possessives are used only as adjectival elements. The stressed form,
when used as an adjective, as a rule combines with a definite article, a
demonstrative, or an indefinite article as well, cf.:
la meie mort (CdR 2198) 'my death'

la sue mort (CdR 2232) 'his death'
par le men escintre (CdR 1791) 'to my knowledge'
i metrai un mien filz (CdR 149) 'I will put a son of mine there'
cest mien anel (Yv. 2603, this lesson) 'this ring of mine'
The stressed possessive, when used as a pronoun, generally combines with a
definite article, cf.:
Sainz Alexis la sue ... alascet (Al. 372)

'St. Alexis let his (hand) go'
ne n'ai tel gent ki la sue derumpet (CdR 19)

'I do not have the troops capable of destroying his (army)'
Many instances in Old French include a preposition + personal pronoun instead of
a possessive, cf.:
l'ame de mei 'my soul'

l'ame de lui 'his soul'
Lesson 7
During the heyday of the littrature courtoise, two important historical

documents were written about the Fourth Crusade (1202-1204). While the
littrature courtoise presents a world of courtly ideals and magic events, the
historians in their work present the real world, with its base passions.
Although Crusades primarily had an ideological motivation -- liberating the places

of pilgrimage and safeguarding pilgims -- political, personal, and socio-economical
reasons soon became important as well. During the Fourth Crusade the original
aim, the liberation of Jerusalem, was completely forgotten when political profit
and personal greed came to prevail.
The expedition was used by the doge of Venice to reinforce his political power. It
established the political hegemony of Venice over the Mediterranean, and ensured
its important commercial privileges. The abuse of power of the doge was based on
the primordial role Venice played in the transportation of troops. The Crusade
never made it beyond Constantinople, which was sacked; there one of the
Crusaders, Baudoin of Flanders, was made emperor of the Latin Empire. The
Empire would last until 1261.
Two participants in the Fourth Crusade have left lengthy reports about the events:
one is written by a poor knight from Picardie, Robert de Clari, who was a simple
warrior. The title of his work is L'histoire de ceux qui conquirent Constantinople.
The other source is the Histoire de la conqute de Constantinople, written

between 1207 and 1213 by one of the leaders of the Crusade, Geoffroi de
Villehardouin, who originally came from Champagne. Villehardouin relates the
historical events in a sober style, but his report may not be completely impartial.
The reading for this lesson has been taken from Villehardouin's Histoire de la
conqute de Constantinople, sections 345 and 346. In it, reference is made to the
Greek as enemy. Having conquered Constantinople, the Crusaders took over
Christian property in the area as well, because the Greek population and church
were not part of the Church of Rome.
The reader will notice Villehardouin's sober style, with its simplicity and lack of
artificial effects. Because of its plainness, many assume that Villehardouin's

language was rather close to the spoken language of the day.
As an important representative of the medieval aristocracy, Villehardouin in his

text expresses many ideals of his class, the most important of which are loyalty
and faithfulness (in relation to God, promises made, and so forth) and braveness.
Consequently he rejects any form of cowardice, as he does in the text selected
here.
The text has an example of a vigesimal numeral: a numeral based on counting in

twenties, rather than in tens. The element in question is the number VI with XX in
superscript, meaning six times twenty, six-vingts 'one hundred and twenty'.
Vigesimals appeared in the various Indo-European languages in Western Europe
during the Middle Ages. Whereas the (inherited) counting system was decimal in
early Old French (e.g. huitante 'eighty'), vigesimal numbers emerged and spread
starting in the 12th century. In the 16th and 17th centuries their number
decreased, and modern quatre-vingts and soixante-dix (a so-called semi-
vigesimal) are residues of a phenomenon that was widespread in Old and Middle
French (see References in Lesson 10).
Or conte li livres une grant mervoille:

que Reniers de Trit, qui ere a Finepople,
bien .IX. jornees loing de Costantinople,
et avoit bien .VIXX. chevaliers avec lui,
que Reniers ses fils le guerpi, et Giles ses freres,
et Jakes de Bondine, qui ere ses niers,
et Achars de Vercli, qui avoit sa file.
or -- adverb; <or> now -- ...
conte -- verb; third person singular present <conter> count, relate -- relates
livres -- noun; nominative singular <livre> book, inventory -- book
mervoille -- noun; oblique singular <merveille> what is surprising, wonder --

remarkable event
que -- conjunction; <que> that -- the fact that
Reniers de Trit -- proper name; nominative singular <Renier de Trit> Renier de

Trit -- Renier de Trit
ere -- verb; third person singular imperfective <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- was
Finepople -- proper name; oblique singular <Finepople> Finepople -- Finepople
bien -- adverb; <bien> well, many, much, really -- at least
.IX. -- number; <.IX.> nine -- nine # numbers in Old French texts are preceded
and followed by a dot
jornees -- noun; oblique plural <jornee> day's journey -- a... days journey
loing -- adverb; <loing, loin, luin, lonc> far, far away -- away
Costantinople -- proper name; oblique singular <Costantinoble> Constantinople

-- Constantinople
et -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- ...
avoit -- verb; third person singular imperfective <avoir, aveir> have, be -- had
.VIXX. -- number; <.VIXX.> six times twenty, one hundred and twenty --
hundred and twenty # numbers in Old French texts are preceded and followed
by a dot
chevaliers -- noun; oblique plural <chevalier> knight -- knights
avec -- preposition; <avuec, avec, avoc> with -- with
him
que -- conjunction; <que> that -- and the fact that
Reniers -- proper name; nominative singular <Renier> Renier -- Renier
ses -- possessive; third person singular nominative singular masculine <son> his
-- his
fils -- noun; nominative singular <fil> son -- son

him
guerpi -- verb; third person singular preterite <guerpir> abandon, leave --

abandoned
et -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- with
Giles -- proper name; nominative singular <Giles> Giles -- Giles
-- his
freres -- noun; nominative singular <frere> brother -- brother
Jakes de Bondine -- proper name; nominative singular <Jake de Bondine> Jake

de Bondine -- Jake de Bondine
-- his
niers -- noun; nominative singular <nevot, neveu> grandson, nephew -- nephew
Achars de Vercli -- proper name; nominative singular <Achar de Vercli> Achar de

Vercli -- Achar de Vercli
avoit -- verb; third person singular imperfective <avoir, aveir> have, be -- was
married to
file -- noun; oblique singular <fille> daughter -- daughter
Et li tolirent bien .XXX. de ses chevaliers,

et s'en cuidoient venir en Costantinople,
et l'avoient laissi en si grant peril com voz oez.

from him
tolirent -- verb; third person plural preterite <tolir> take off, cut off -- they took
away
.XXX. -- number; <.XXX.> thirty -- thirty # in Old French, numbers were

s'en cuidoient venir -- personal pronoun; third person plural direct object <se> he
+ pronoun; inanimate <en> of it + verb; third person plural imperfective
<cuidier> think + verb; infinitive <venir> come, go -- they thought of going
en -- preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of -- to
Costantinople -- proper name; oblique singular <Costantinoble> Constantinople

-- Constantinople
l'avoient -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object <il> he + verb;
third person plural imperfective <avoir, aveir> have, be -- they had... him
laissi -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <laissier> leave, let,
abandon -- abandoned
si -- adverb; <si> thus, that way, that much -- such
peril -- noun; oblique singular <peril> danger -- danger
com -- conjunction; <com, comme> as -- as
voz -- personal pronoun; second person plural nominative <vos> you -- you
oez -- verb; second person plural present <oir, odir> hear -- well understand
Si troverent la terre revellee encontre els,

et furent desconfit, si les pristrent li Grieu,
qui, puis les rendirent le roi de Blakie,
qui puis aprs lor fist les testes trencier.
troverent -- verb; third person plural preterite <trover> find -- they found
revellee -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular feminine <reveler> revolt --

in revolt
encontre -- preposition; <encontre> to, towards, against -- against
els -- personal pronoun; third person plural direct object masculine <il> they --
them
furent -- verb; third person plural preterite <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- they were
desconfit -- verb; perfective participle nominative plural masculine <desconfire>

demolish, defeat -- defeated
si -- conjunction; <si> and, and thus -- and thus
les -- personal pronoun; third person plural direct object masculine <il> they --
them
pristrent -- verb; third person plural preterite <prendre> take, take hold of, seize
-- took... prisoner
Grieu -- proper name; nominative plural <gr, grieu, griu, gri> Greek -- Greek
puis -- adverb; <puis> subsequently -- subsequently
them
rendirent -- verb; third person plural preterite <rendre> give, return -- handed
over
roi -- noun; oblique singular <roi> king -- to... king
Blakie -- proper name; oblique singular <Blaquie> Blaquie -- Blaquie
puis -- adverb; <puis> subsequently -- ...
aprs -- adverb; <apres> after, afterwards -- afterwards
lor -- personal pronoun; third person plural indirect object masculine <il> they --
...
fist -- verb; third person singular preterite <faire> make -- ordered

les -- definite article; oblique plural feminine <li> the -- their
testes -- noun; oblique plural <teste> head -- heads
trencier -- verb; infinitive <trenchier> cut -- to (be) cut off
Et sachiez que mult furent petit plaint de la gent,

por ce que il avoient si mespris vers celui
qu'i ne dessent mie faire.
sachiez -- verb; second person plural imperative <savoir> know -- you should
know
furent -- verb; third person plural preterite <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- they were
petit -- adjective, adverb; <petit> small, little -- little
plaint -- verb; perfective participle nominative plural masculine <plaindre>

complain, regret, mourn -- mourned
de -- preposition; <de> of, from -- by
por ce que -- preposition; <por> for + demonstrative; oblique singular neuter

<cil> that + conjunction; <que> that -- because
avoient -- verb; third person plural imperfective <avoir, aveir> have, be -- had
si -- adverb; <si> thus, that way, that much -- that much
mespris -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <mesprendre>

make a mistake, commit a crime -- been misbehaving
vers -- preposition; <vers> towards -- towards
celui -- demonstrative; oblique singular masculine <cil> that -- the one
qu'i -- relative pronoun; object <qui> who + personal pronoun; third person plural
nominative <il> they -- to whom... they
dessent -- verb; third person plural subjunctive imperfective <devoir> have to --

should have
faire -- verb; infinitive <faire> make -- behaved that way
Et quant li autre chevalier Renier de Trit virent ce,

qui si prs ne li estoient mie,
cum cil qui en doterent mains la honte,
si le guerpirent, bien .LXXX. chevalier tuit ensemble,
et s'en alerent per une autre voie.
autre -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <altre> other -- other
chevalier -- noun; nominative plural <chevalier> knight -- knights
Renier de Trit -- proper name; oblique singular <Renier de Trit> Renier de Trit --
of Renier de Trit
virent -- verb; third person plural preterite <veoir> see -- saw
ce -- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter <cil> that -- that
qui -- relative pronoun; subject <qui> who -- those who
si -- adverb; <si> thus, that way, that much -- that
prs -- adverb; <pres> close -- close

to him
estoient -- verb; third person plural imperfective <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- were
mie -- negation; <mie> not -- not
cum -- conjunction; <com, comme> as -- as
cil -- demonstrative; nominative plural masculine <cil> that -- people
doterent -- verb; third person plural preterite <doter> doubt, be afraid -- were
afraid of
mains -- adverb; <meins, mains, moins> less, fewer -- less
honte -- noun; oblique singular <honte> shame, disgrace -- shame
si -- conjunction; <si> and, and thus -- ...

him
guerpirent -- verb; third person plural preterite <guerpir> abandon, leave --

abandoned
.LXXX. -- number; <.LXXX.> eighty -- eighty # numbers in Old French texts are
chevalier -- noun; nominative plural <chevalier> knight -- knights
tuit -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <tot> all, every, completely -- all
ensemble -- adverb; <ensemble> together -- together
s'en alerent -- personal pronoun; third person plural direct object <se> he +
pronoun; inanimate <en> of it + verb; third person plural preterite <aler> go --
they went away
per -- preposition; <par> through, by, by reason of -- via
autre -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <altre> other -- other
voie -- noun; oblique singular <veie> road -- road
Et Reniers de Trit remest entre les Griex a pou de gent:

que il n'avoit mie plus de .XV. chevaliers a Phynepople et a Stanemac,
qui ere uns chastiaux mult fort que il tenoit,
ou il fu puis longuement assis.
Reniers de Trit -- proper name; nominative singular <Renier de Trit> Renier de

Trit -- Renier de Trit
remest -- verb; third person singular preterite <remanoir> stay, remain, resist --
stayed
entre -- preposition; <entre> between, among, in the midst of -- among

Griex -- proper name; oblique plural <gr, grieu, griu, gri> Greek -- Greek
a -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on -- with
pou -- adverb; <poi, pou, pau> little, few -- few
que -- conjunction; <que> that -- because
n'avoit -- negation; <ne, nen> not + verb; third person singular imperfective
<avoir, aveir> have, be -- did not... have
plus -- adverb; <plus> more -- more
de -- preposition; <de> of, from -- than
.XV. -- number; <.XV.> fifteen -- fifteen # numbers in Old French texts are
Phynepople -- proper name; oblique singular <Phynepople> Phynepople --

Phynepople
Stanemac -- proper name; oblique singular <Stanemac> Stanemac -- Stanemac
uns -- indefinite article; nominative singular masculine <un> a -- a
chastiaux -- noun; nominative singular <chastel, castel> castle -- castle
fort -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <fort> strong, hard, fierce --

strong

tenoit -- verb; third person singular imperfective <tenir> hold, keep, seize,
consider -- held
ou -- relative pronoun; <ou, u> where -- and where
fu -- verb; third person singular preterite <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- was
puis -- adverb; <puis> subsequently -- subsequently
longuement -- adverb; <longement> long, for a long time -- for a long time
assis -- verb; perfective participle nominative singular masculine <asseoir> place,

set up, lay siege -- besieged
Lesson Text
Or conte li livres une grant mervoille:

que Reniers de Trit, qui ere a Finepople,
bien .IX. jornees loing de Costantinople,
et avoit bien .VIXX. chevaliers avec lui,
que Reniers ses fils le guerpi, et Giles ses freres,
et Jakes de Bondine, qui ere ses niers,
et Achars de Vercli, qui avoit sa file. Et li tolirent bien .XXX. de ses chevaliers,
et s'en cuidoient venir en Costantinople,
et l'avoient laissi en si grant peril com voz oez. Si troverent la terre revellee
encontre els,
et furent desconfit, si les pristrent li Grieu,
qui, puis les rendirent le roi de Blakie,
qui puis aprs lor fist les testes trencier. Et sachiez que mult furent petit plaint de
la gent,
por ce que il avoient si mespris vers celui
qu'i ne dessent mie faire. Et quant li autre chevalier Renier de Trit virent ce,
qui si prs ne li estoient mie,
cum cil qui en doterent mains la honte,
si le guerpirent, bien .LXXX. chevalier tuit ensemble,
et s'en alerent per une autre voie. Et Reniers de Trit remest entre les Griex a pou
de gent:
que il n'avoit mie plus de .XV. chevaliers a Phynepople et a Stanemac,
qui ere uns chastiaux mult fort que il tenoit,
ou il fu puis longuement assis.
Translation
The book relates a great remarkable event:

the fact that Renier de Trit, who was at Finepople,
at least a nine-days journey away from Constantinople,
had at least one hundred and twenty knights with him,
and the fact that Reniers, his son, abandoned him with Giles, his brother,
and Jake de Bondine, who was his nephew,
and Achar de Vercli, who was married to his daughter.
And they took away from him at least thirty of his knights,
and they thought of going to Constantinople,
and they had abandoned him in such great danger, as you well understand.
And they found the country in revolt against them,
and they were defeated, and thus the Greek took them prisoner,
who subsequently handed them over to the king of Blaquie,
who afterwards ordered their heads to be cut off.
And you should know that they were very little mourned by the people,
because they had been misbehaving that much towards the one
to whom they should not have behaved that way.
And when the other knights of Renier de Trit saw that,
those who were not that close to him,
as people who were less afraid of shame,
they abandoned him, at least eighty knights all together,
and they went away via another road.
And Renier de Trit stayed among the Greek with few people:
because he did not have more than fifteen knights at Phynepople and at Stanemac,
which was a very strong castle that he held,
and where he subsequently was besieged for a long time.
Grammar
31 Interrogatives: Forms and Uses
Questions in Old French can be marked by intonation, cf.:
il vos mescroit de moi forment

et j'en tendrait le parlement?
(Br., Trist. 169-170, Lesson 5)
'he suspects you strongly because of me and I would talk about it?'
Inversion is also found, cf.:
Sire cumpain, faites le vos de gred?' (CdR 2000)

'Sir companion, do you do this of free will?
In addition a series of interrogative elements are used. The Old French
interrogative pronoun qui, ki traces back to Latin quis 'who' (fem. quae, and
neuter quod). The paradigm in Old French is as follows:
Interrogative Pronoun, qui 'who?', que 'what?', 'which?'
Masc/Fem. Neuter
Nom. Sg/Pl. qui, ki que, ke
Nom. Sg/Pl. (str.) quoi, coi
Dir. Obj. Sg/Pl. que, ke que, ke
Dir. Obj. Sg/Pl. (str.) cui quoi, quei
Indir. Obj. cui
Examples:
qui nominative masculine and feminine:
E ki serat devant mei en l'ansguarde? (CdR 748)

'and who will be in front of me in the vanguard?'
que direct object animate and neuter nominative and direct object, cf.:
que fereient il el? (CdR 1185)

'what would else would they do?'
cui functions as a strong direct object (e.g. with a preposition) and as indirect
object, cf.:
de co qui calt? (CdR 1806)

'to whom is it of importance?'
This example also shows that qui and cui often are confused.
As the strong form of the neuter interrogative, quoi may be used in isolation
(quoi? 'what?'), but it typically combines with prepositions, cf.:
Pur quei me portez ire? (CdR 1723)

'why are you angry with me?'
de quei avez pesance? (CdR 832)

'what hurts you?'
In addition, Old French has an interrogative element quant meaning 'how much,
how many':
Declension of quant 'how much', 'how many'
Masculine Feminine Neuter

Nom. sg. quanz quante quant
Obl. sg. quant quante quant
Nom. pl. quant quantes -

Obl. pl. quanz quantes -
And an element quel 'which, what', which has the following paradigm:
Declension of quel 'which', 'what'
Masculine Feminine Neuter

Nom. sg. quels quel(s) quel
Obl. sg. quel quel quel
Nom. pl. quel quels -

Obl. pl. quels quels -
NB: -l- may vocalize before -s, which will give: queus
Examples:
Par quele gent quiet il espleiter tant? (CdR 395)

'for what people is he pretending to accomplish such things?'
En quel mesure en purrai estre fiz? (CdR 146)

'in what circumstances can I trust it?'
The reader will have noticed that interrogative elements tend to occur in clause-
initial position and therefore trigger subject inversion when they do not convey
subject function, cf.:
que fereient il el? (CdR 1185)

'what would else would they do?'
with an interrogative adverb, cf.:
U estes vos, bels nis (CdR 2403, Lesson 2)

'where are you, beloved cousin?'
U est vostre espee? (CdR 1363)

'where is your sword?'
cum le purrum nus faire? (CdR 1698)

'how should we do it?'
32 Relative Pronouns: Forms and Uses
The paradigm for the relative pronoun is almost identical to that of interrogatives,
cf.:
Relative Pronoun, qui 'who', que 'that, which'
Masc/Fem. Neuter
Nom. Sg/Pl. qui, ki que, ke

Nom. Sg/Pl. (str.) quoi, coi
Dir. Obj. Sg/Pl. que que, ke
Dir. Obj. Sg/Pl. (str.) cui quoi, quei
Indir. Obj. cui
Other elements that are used in relative clauses are:
dont, originally an adverb of place and often used as an interrogative or relative,

meaning 'from where, whence'. It may also refer to animate nouns, 'of whose'.
lequel 'which', which spread from the 13th century onwards.
ou, originally a relative and interrogative. It refers to animate and inanimate

nouns, meaning 'where, in which, in whom'.
32.1. Function of qui as impersonal. On the whole the uses of the relative pronoun
correspond to the regular functions of the cases. Yet there are a few important
phenomena. One of them is the use of subject qui conveying generalizing value,
often tending toward 'if one ...', 'whoever'. Cf.:
Ki l'unt od remainent en grant dute (Al. 300)

'those who heard it remain very frightened'
Many proverbs in Old French include a generalizing qui:
qui tout tient tout pert

'who keeps it all to himself, will lose it all' >
'if one keeps it all to one's self, one will lose it all'
32.2. Cui is used in Old French primarily as indirect object, but is also found in the
function of a direct object, a genitive, or a prepositional complement.
32.3. Regular use of relative pronouns includes the occurrence of an antecedent,

cf.:
N'i ad castel ki devant lui remaigne (CdR 4, Lesson 1)

'there is no castle that resists him'
The physical distance between the antecendent and the relative pronoun may be
rather lengthy:
Li reis Marsilie la tient, ki Deu nen aimet (CdR 7, Lesson 1)

'Marsilie holds it, who does not love God'
The antecedent ce is often deleted, cf.:
ne sai jo que face (CdR 1982)

32.4. Deletion of relative pronoun. The relative pronoun is quite often deleted
after a negation, cf.:
Ja mais n'ert hume plus volenters le serve (CdR 2254)

'there will never be a man who will serve him more readily'
33 On
While Latin nouns that survived in Old French originally were accusatives, a few
nominatives made it into (Old) French as well, cf. the difference between modern
sire and seigneur, which trace back to the nominative and accusative respectively.
Similarly two forms of the Latin noun homo survive, one goes back to the
nominative, one is the former accusative, cf. La. homo, which survives as on 'one',
and La. hominem which survives as modern French homme 'man'. We therefore
observe that in the history of Old French the nominative form homo survived and
grammaticalized into a pronoun; the accusative form survived as a regular noun
and did not undergo a process of grammaticalization.
Grammaticalization is a type of change whereby a lexical element develops into a

grammatical element: in this instance the noun homo developed into a
pronominal element in French. Similarly the Latin noun mente developed into a
derivational suffix in adverb formation in Romance (see Grammar Point 26). It is
also possible that a grammatical element develops a stronger grammatical profile.
This happened when Latin demonstratives -- with deictic value -- developed into
definite articles (see Grammar Point 13).
The fact that Old French (l')on is a grammaticalized personal pronoun does not
mean that the original element no longer is used as noun. The noun in question
had the following declension pattern:
Declension of (l')ome
Sg. Pl.
Nom. (l') (h)om, (li) (h)ome
(l ) on
(l') uem
Obl. (l') (h)ome (les) (h)omes
Nominative singular forms, with or without definite article, occur with the
generalizing meaning of 'one' from early texts onward, cf.:
iluec paist l'um del relef de la tabla (Al. 247, Lesson 3)

'there they feed him on the scraps of dinner'
que l'an ne l'apialt recreant (Yv. 2563, Lesson 6)

'so that one will not call him a coward'
The nominal origin of the element is reflected in the occurrence of the definite
article. Since the element refers to an undetermined person or undetermined

persons, on may be rendered by in translations by 'one', general 'they', or passive
constructions.
In the glosses instances of (l')on have been identified as third person personal
pronouns because the grammaticalization process has reached that stage in Old
French.
34 Agreement
In Old French we find several processes of agreement:
Agreement between subject and finite verb. When there are several subjects in a
clause, the verb agrees with the subject that is closest, cf.:
Karles l'ot e ses cumpaignes tutes (CdR 1757, Lesson 2)

'Charles hears it and all his troops' >
'Charles and all his troops hear it'
For collective subjects there is variation: sometimes the finite verb is singular
sometimes it is plural:
Quan Rollant voit la ... gent,

ki plus sunt neirs que ... (CdR 1933-1934)
'when Rollant sees the ... people who are more black then ...'
Agreement between noun and adjective. The patterns in Old French are not
different from those in Indo-European. A remarkable phenomenon is the
declension of adjectives that are used as adverbs (see Grammar Point 26), but
continue to be marked for agreement, cf.:
tote sui sole en ceste terre (Br., Trist. 153, Lesson 5)

'I am completely alone in this country'
Agreement between nouns and their determiners: there is agreement marking for
case, number, and gender, cf.:
cest mien anel (Yv. 2603)

'this ring of mine'
Agreement between noun and perfective participle. Agreement patterns depend
on the auxiliary used in these contexts. A perfective participle that combines with
the auxiliary estre 'be' will agree in case, number and gender with the subject of
the clause, cf.:
fut presentede Maximiien (Eul. 11, Lesson 4)

'she was brought before Maximian'
morz est Rollant (CdR 2397, Lesson 2)

'Roland has died'

When the perfective participle combines with the auxiliary avoir 'have', it may
agree in case, number and gender with the direct object, independently of its
relative position to the participle, cf.:
co dist li reis que sa guere out finee (CdR 705)

'the king says that he had finished his war'
Rollant ad l'enseigne fermee (CdR 707)

'Roland has attached the standard'
Cordres ad prise e les murs peceiez (CdR 97, Lesson 1)

'he has taken Cordres and smashed its walls'
proe avez la duchesse

'you have robbed the duchess'
When the direct object is masculine, agreement is especially manifest when the
participle follows, cf.:
Charles li magnes ad Espaigne guastede

les castels pris, les citez violees (CdR 703-704)
'Charlemagne has devastated Spain,
taken castles and violated towns'
Conversely when the direct object -- masculine or feminine -- follows the
participle, there may be no agreement:
j'ai cre vostre parole

'I believed what you said'
The perfective participle may also agree with the direct object of an infinitive or
with a direct object that is not explicit in the clause. Neuter elements (pronouns)
do not feature agreement. Along these same lines, there is no agreement in
compound tenses including impersonal verbs.
35 Brace Constructions
In a so-called brace construction, the finite verb and the perfective participle are
separated by the direct object, cf.:
Li empereres out sa raisun fenie (CdR 193)

'the emperor had finished his speech'
In Grammar Point 17 it was noted that if word order in Old French already had
strong SVO characteristics, there still are several archaic features, cf. for example
the occurrence of SOV in subordinate clauses. Another archaism is the ordering of
the direct object between the auxiliary and the perfective participle, as in:
Li reis ad la culur muee (CdR 441)

'the king had changed color'
This type of construction goes back to the original Latin construction in which a
lexical verb 'have' combined with a direct object determined by a perfective
participle, cf.:
epistulas scriptas habeo

letters-Acc.fem written-Acc.fem.sg. have-1sg.pers.
'I have letters that are written'
puer epistulas scriptas habet

'the boy has letters that are written'
It would go too far to discuss the development of habeo into a Romance auxiliary,
but it is clear that when habeo changed position, a so-called brace construction
emerged, cf.:
puer habet epistulas scriptas

In Old French:
li gars a letres escrites

At later stages:
le garcon a escrit(es) les letres

The brace construction survived in Old French for a long time: instances are still
found in the 17th century. Yet in the Old French documents, one observed a
gradual decline in occurrence.
Examples in Old French:
ad sun tens uset (CdR 523)

'he has finished his time'
par tant teres ad sun cors travaillet (CdR 540)

'he has burdened his body by all these countries'
Guenes li fels ad nostre mort juree (CdR 1456)

'Ganelon the traitor has sworn to our death'
Lesson 8
During the 12th century new techniques in agriculture were developed and, as a
result, crop harvests increased dramatically. Consequently the population was
better nourished, more productive, and achieved greater wealth; commerce could
expand. Towns grew, becoming more important centers of regional and national
commercial activity and craftsmanship. In the 13th century, with the foundation of
universities, towns became centers of academic activity as well. In addition to the
Church and the Aristocracy, a third non-peasant class emerged, the bourgeoisie.
Members of this class not only played their own roles within medieval society, but
also were organized in (professional) institutions, and developed a cultural life of
their own reflected in literature and theater, the littrature bourgeoise.
The literary audience was broader and less refined than that of the littrature
courtoise. The texts, mainly narratives in a rather loose style, were more openly
joyful. Narrative texts can be divided into religious works (e.g. Les Miracles de la
Vierge) and comic texts featuring animals. There was also a growing production of
plays, religious and comic (see Lesson 9). The animal texts are either short
narratives that fit the long-lasting tradition of fables (fabliaux), or longer texts,
among them the Roman de Renart. The fabliaux are meant to make people laugh,
but they also present wise lessons, based on critical observations of mankind. The
characters are animals, presenting the characteristics of their species in
combination with typically human behavior. In fact, the fabliaux present a
disguised form of social satire and criticism. All groups in society are represented.
The texts also offer a lively description of everyday medieval life and society.
The Roman de Renart (late 12th and early 13th centuries) is a series of poems
relating the adventures of the fox Renart.
The fabliaux continue a long tradition that is rooted in the East (India), and came
to Greece (e.g. Aesop) and Rome (e.g. Phaedrus). A manuscript of the Latin fables
allegedly of Phaedrus made it into the Middle Ages and was translated around
1180 by the well-known author Marie de France, with the title Isopet. In the 13th
century the word Isopet refers to any collection of fables.
The text for this lesson is the fable Du Renart et du Corbet (Isopet 1.15). Isopet I is
a 13th century collection of fables by an unknown author. The fable selected here
is part of a long tradition and, with La Fontaine in the 17th century, became one of
the best known stories in French literature. It is a story of animals criticizing
man's greed for glory. The main characters are the Raven, who is vain, and the
Fox, who is the incarnation of slyness and deception. Another character is
mentioned, Hersen, who in the Roman de Renart is the wife of the wolf Ysengrin,
Renart's opponent. Hersen spends her life spinning and represents simple life
without claims to fame.
Sire Tiercelin, le Corbiau,

Qui cuide estre avenant et biau,
Tenoit en son bech un fromage.
sire -- noun; nominative singular <seignor> lord -- sir
Tiercelin -- proper name; nominative singular <Tiercelin> Tiercelin -- Tiercelin
le -- definite article; nominative singular masculine <li> the -- the
Corbiau -- proper name; nominative singular <Corbiau> Raven -- Raven
cuide -- verb; third person singular present <cuidier> think -- thinks
estre -- verb; infinitive <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- he is
avenant -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <avenant> beautiful,

attractive -- attractive
biau -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <bel> dear, beloved, handsome --

handsome
tenoit -- verb; third person singular imperfective <tenir> hold, keep, seize,
consider -- had
his
bech -- noun; oblique singular <bec> beak -- beak
fromage -- noun; oblique singular <fromage> cheese -- cheese
Renart, qui a fait maint dommaige,

Par mi le bois chassant couroit
Com cil qui de grant fain mouroit.
Renart -- proper name; nominative singular <Renart> Renart -- Renart
fait -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <faire> make -- done
maint -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <maint> many, many a -- much
dommaige -- noun; oblique singular <damage> trouble, harm -- harm

par mi -- preposition; <parmi, par mi> through, in the middle -- through
bois -- noun; oblique singular <bos, bois> forest, tree -- forest
chassant -- verb; present participle nominative singular masculine <chasser> hunt

-- hunting
couroit -- verb; third person singular imperfective <corre> run -- ran
com -- conjunction; <com, comme> as -- like
cil -- demonstrative; nominative singular masculine <cil> that -- someone
fain -- noun; oblique singular <faim> hunger, desire -- hunger
mouroit -- verb; third person singular imperfective <morir> kill, die -- would die
Le fromaige li vit tenir;

Bien scet qu'il n'i puet avenir
Se n'est par art et par engin.
fromaige -- noun; oblique singular <fromage> cheese -- cheese

him
vit -- verb; third person singular preterite <veoir> see -- he saw
tenir -- verb; infinitive <tenir> hold, keep, seize, consider -- hold
scet -- verb; third person singular present <savoir> know -- he knows

n'i -- negation; <ne, nen> not + particle; <i> there -- not... to it
can
avenir -- verb; infinitive <avenir> arrive, happen -- get

se n'est -- conjunction; <se> if + negation; <ne, nen> not + verb; third person
singular present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- unless
art -- noun; oblique singular <art> liberal art, craft -- craft
par -- preposition; <par> through, by, by reason of -- ...
engin -- noun; oblique singular <engin, engien> skill, cheating -- cheating
"Ha," dit Renart, "biau Tiercelin,

Qui estes enparents,
Dommaiges iert que ne chants
Aussi bien com fist vostre pere.
ha -- interjection; <ha> ha, hello -- ha
dit -- verb; third person singular present <dire> say, tell -- says
biau -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <bel> dear, beloved, handsome --

dear
qui -- relative pronoun; subject <qui> who -- you who
enparents -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <emparent> of noble

lineage -- of noble lineage
dommaiges -- noun; nominative singular <damage> trouble, harm -- a pity
iert -- verb; third person singular imperfective <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- it is
chants -- verb; second person singular present <chanter> sing -- you do sing
aussi -- adverb; <aussi> also, likewise -- as
com -- conjunction; <com, comme> as -- as
fist -- verb; third person singular preterite <faire> make -- did

vostre -- possessive; second person plural nominative singular masculine <vostre>

your -- your
pere -- noun; nominative singular <pere> father -- father
Se aussi chantissiez, par saint Pere,

Je cuit qu'en tout le bois n'est
Oisel qui tant a tous plest."
aussi -- adverb; <aussi> also, likewise -- as well
chantissiez -- verb; second person plural subjunctive imperfective <chanter> sing

-- you sang
saint -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <saint> holy -- St.
Pere -- noun; oblique singular <Perre> Peter -- Peter
cuit -- verb; first person singular present <cuidier> think -- think
qu'en -- conjunction; <que> that + preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of -- that
in
tout -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <tot> all, every, completely -- entire
bois -- noun; oblique singular <bos, bois> forest, tree -- forest
n'est -- negation; <ne, nen> not + verb; third person singular subjunctive
imperfective <avoir, aveir> have, be -- there would be no
oisel -- noun; oblique singular <oisel> bird -- bird
tant -- adverb; <tant> so, so much -- that much
tous -- adjective; oblique plural masculine <tot> all, every, completely -- all
plest -- verb; third person singular subjunctive imperfective <plaire> please --

pleases
Le Corbiau, qui pas n'apercoit

Que Renart l'engingne et decoit,
Et qui par son chant plaire cuide,

En chanter met si grant estude
Que son fromage li che.
n'apercoit -- negation; <ne, nen> not + verb; third person singular present
<apercevoir> notice, know -- does not notice
l'engingne -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine <il>
he + verb; third person singular present <engignier, engeignier> invent, seduce,
deceive -- deceives him
decoit -- verb; third person singular present <decoivre> deceive, mislead --

misleads
par -- preposition; <par> through, by, by reason of -- with
his
chant -- noun; oblique singular <chant> song, melody -- singing
plaire -- verb; infinitive <plaire> please -- he will please
cuide -- verb; third person singular present <cuidier> think -- thinks
chanter -- verb; infinitive <chanter> sing -- his singing
met -- verb; third person singular present <metre, mectre, mettre> put -- puts
estude -- noun; oblique singular <estude, estudie> study, zeal -- zeal

son -- possessive; third person singular nominative singular masculine <son> his
-- his
fromage -- noun; nominative singular <fromage> cheese -- cheese

...
che -- verb; third person singular preterite <cheoir, chaeir> fall -- fell
Renart ne fu pas esba,

Qui son chant mout petit prisa;
Le fromaige tantost pris a,
Si le menja trestout Renart;
Oncques Tiercelin n'i ot part.
esba -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <esbai> frightened, troubled,

surprised -- surprised
his
chant -- noun; oblique singular <chant> song, melody -- singing
mout -- adverb, adjective; <molt, mult, mout> many, much, very -- very
petit -- adjective, adverb; <petit> small, little -- little
prisa -- verb; third person singular preterite <prisier, proisier> esteem, appreciate
-- appreciated
fromaige -- noun; oblique singular <fromage> cheese -- cheese
tantost -- adverb; <tantost> immediately -- immediately
pris -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <prendre> take, take
hold of, seize -- taken

menja -- verb; third person singular preterite <mangier, manjuer> eat -- ate
trestout -- reinforcing element; <tres> ... + adjective; oblique singular masculine

<tot> all, every, completely -- completely
oncques -- adverb; <onques> once, ever -- ...
n'i -- negation; <ne, nen> not + particle; <i> there -- never... of it
ot -- verb; third person singular preterite <avoir, aveir> have, be -- had
part -- noun; oblique singular <part> part, portion -- a portion
Mout en fu dolent le Corbiau,

Et de honte li croist son diau.
mout -- adverb, adjective; <molt, mult, mout> many, much, very -- very
en -- pronoun; inanimate <en> of it -- about it
dolent -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <dolent> sorrowful, wetched --

sorry
de -- preposition; <de> of, from -- because of
honte -- noun; oblique singular <honte> shame, disgrace -- shame

...
croist -- verb; third person singular present <croistre, creistre> grow -- increases
son -- possessive; third person singular nominative singular masculine <son> his
-- his
diau -- noun; nominative singular <dol, duel> suffering, grief -- grief
La moralit :
Qui vaine gloire quiert et chace,

Sa perte et sa honte pourchace.
Fausse honneur, ce pous entendre,
Maint grand anuy souvent engendre.
moralit -- noun; nominative singular <moralit> character, lesson -- lesson
qui -- relative pronoun; subject <qui> who -- whoever
vaine -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <vain> weak, empty -- vain
gloire -- noun; oblique singular <gloire> glory -- glory
quiert -- verb; third person singular present <quere, querre> look for, want, ask --
looks for
chace -- verb; third person singular present <chasser> hunt -- hunts for
perte -- noun; oblique singular <perte> fall, destruction -- fall
honte -- noun; oblique singular <honte> shame, disgrace -- disgrace
pourchace -- verb; third person singular present <porchacier> seek, pursue --

pursues
fausse -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <fals, faus> false -- false
honneur -- noun; nominative singular <onor, enor, anor> honor, respect, esteem,
fief -- honor
ce -- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter <cil> that -- this
pous -- verb; second person singular present <pooir, poeir, poier> can, be able --
you can
entendre -- verb; infinitive <entendre> try, pay attention, understand, hear --

understand
maint -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <maint> many, many a -- very
grand -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <grant> great, large, tall -- great
anuy -- noun; oblique singular <enoi, enui> torment, pain -- pain

souvent -- adverb; <sovent> frequently, often -- often
engendre -- verb; third person singular present <engeindre, engendrer> cause --

causes
Les fols qui quierent vainne gloire

Sieulent asss de honte boire;
Gloire les met hors de leur sen.
les -- definite article; nominative plural masculine <li> the -- the
fols -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <fol> crazy -- crazy people
quierent -- verb; third person plural present <quere, querre> look for, want, ask --
pursue
vainne -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <vain> weak, empty -- vain
gloire -- noun; oblique singular <gloire> glory -- glory
sieulent -- verb; third person plural present <soloir> be accustomed -- are used
to
asss -- adverb; <asez, asss> many, much, very well -- much
honte -- noun; oblique singular <honte> shame, disgrace -- disgrace
boire -- verb; infinitive <bevre> drink -- drinking
gloire -- noun; nominative singular <gloire> glory -- glory
them
met -- verb; third person singular present <metre, mectre, mettre> put -- puts
hors de -- preposition; <hors> out, out of, except + preposition; <de> of, from --
out of
leur -- possessive; third person plural oblique singular masculine <lor, leur> their
-- their
sen -- noun; oblique singular <sen, sens> direction, sense -- senses
Plus saige tien dame Hersen

Qui viut sa coloingne filer;
Pour ce ne la doi aviler.
Qui veut estre trop apparent,
De faintise n'avra garent.
plus -- adverb; <plus> more -- ...
saige -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <saige, saive> clever, educated --

wiser
tien -- verb; first person singular present <tenir> hold, keep, seize, consider -- I
consider
dame -- noun; oblique singular <dame> lady, dame -- lady
Hersen -- proper name; oblique singular <Hersen> Hersen -- Hersen # Hersen is

the wife of the wolf Ysengrinus in the Roman de Renart
viut -- verb; third person singular present <voloir> want -- wants
sa -- possessive; third person singular oblique singular feminine <son> his -- her
coloingne -- noun; oblique singular <quenoille, queloigne> distaff -- distaff
filer -- verb; infinitive <filer> spin -- to draw threat from
pour -- preposition; <por> for -- for
ce -- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter <cil> that -- this reason
doi -- verb; first person singular present <devoir> have to -- I do... have to
aviler -- verb; infinitive <aviler> abandon, disgrace -- disgrace
qui -- relative pronoun; subject <qui> who -- whoever
veut -- verb; third person singular present <voloir> want -- wants
estre -- verb; infinitive <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- to be
apparent -- adjective; nominative singular <aparant> visible -- visible
faintise -- noun; oblique singular <feintise> pretense, deceit -- deceit
n'avra -- negation; <ne, nen> not + verb; third person singular future <avoir,
aveir> have, be -- will have no
garent -- noun; oblique singular <garant, garent> protection, defense --

protection
Lesson Text
Sire Tiercelin, le Corbiau,

Qui cuide estre avenant et biau,
Tenoit en son bech un fromage. Renart, qui a fait maint dommaige,
Par mi le bois chassant couroit
Com cil qui de grant fain mouroit. Le fromaige li vit tenir;
Bien scet qu'il n'i puet avenir
Se n'est par art et par engin. "Ha," dit Renart, "biau Tiercelin,
Qui estes enparents,
Dommaiges iert que ne chants
Aussi bien com fist vostre pere. Se aussi chantissiez, par saint Pere,
Je cuit qu'en tout le bois n'est
Oisel qui tant a tous plest." Le Corbiau, qui pas n'apercoit
Que Renart l'engingne et decoit,
Et qui par son chant plaire cuide,
En chanter met si grant estude
Que son fromage li che. Renart ne fu pas esba,
Qui son chant mout petit prisa;
Le fromaige tantost pris a,
Si le menja trestout Renart;
Oncques Tiercelin n'i ot part. Mout en fu dolent le Corbiau,
Et de honte li croist son diau. La moralit :
Qui vaine gloire quiert et chace,
Sa perte et sa honte pourchace.
Fausse honneur, ce pous entendre,
Maint grand anuy souvent engendre. Les fols qui quierent vainne gloire
Sieulent asss de honte boire;
Gloire les met hors de leur sen. Plus saige tien dame Hersen
Qui viut sa coloingne filer;
Pour ce ne la doi aviler.
Qui veut estre trop apparent,
De faintise n'avra garent.
Translation
Sir Tiercelin, the Raven,

Who thinks he is attractive and handsome,
Had a cheese in his beak
Renart, who has done much harm,

Ran through the forest hunting
Like someone who would die of great hunger.
He saw him hold the cheese;

He knows well that he cannot get to it
Unless by craft and cheating.
"Ha," says Renart, "dear Tiercelin,

You who are of noble lineage,
It is a pity that you do not sing
As well as did your father.
If you sang as well, by St Peter,

I think that there would be no bird
In the entire forest who would please all that much."
The Raven, who does not notice

That Renart deceives and misleads him,
And who thinks that he will please with his singing,
Puts such great zeal in his singing
That his cheese fell.
Renart was not surprised,

Who appreciated his singing very little;
Renart has taken the cheese immediately,
And ate it completely
Tiercelin never had a portion of it.
The Raven was very sorry about it,

And his grief increases because of shame.
The lesson:
Whoever looks and hunts for vain glory,
Pursues his fall and his disgrace.
False honor, this you can understand,
Often causes very great pain.
The crazy people who pursue vain glory

Are used to drinking much disgrace;
Glory puts them out of their senses.
I consider lady Hersen wiser

Who wants to draw threat from her distaff;
And for that reason I do not have to disgrace her.

Whoever wants to be too visible,
Will have no protection from deceit.
Grammar
36 Passive
While Latin had a fully developed passive paradigm -- an innovation, from an

Indo-European perspective -- Old French had analytic forms to express passive
voice, cf.:
e por o fut presentede Maximiien (Eul. 11, Lesson 4)

'and for this reason she was brought before Maximian'
furent desconfit (Conq. 345, Lesson 7)

'they were defeated'
The passive was not a common structure in Old French, as the texts analyzed in
this course illustrate: so far only three passive constructions have been attested.
Generally the agent -- if expressed at all -- is referred to by a prepositional phrase

introduced by de, cf.:
purent petit plaint de la gent (Conq. 345, Lesson 7)

'they were little mourned by the people'
The prepositions par and a are found as well in this function, albeit not very
frequently.
37 Reflexive or Pronominal Verbs
Old French has many more reflexive -- or rather pronominal -- verbs than today's
language. That is because many intransitive verbs took the pronominal form,
referring to an action that does not involve anything or anyone outside the subject
itself, cf.:
se craindre 'fear
se demorer 'remain'
se dormir 'to sleep'
se feindre 'feign'
se pasmer 'faint'
se douter 'to be afraid'
se morir 'to die'
se perir 'to perish'
se monter 'ascend'
se partir 'leave'
s'apoier 'learn'
Several of these verbs exist in non-proniminal form as well, cf. for example
demorer 'remain', monter 'ascend, mount', feindre 'behave in a cowardly way',
perir 'perish', partir 'leave', morir 'die'.
Not all pronominal verbs of today go back to a reflexive form in the Middle Ages:
Li reis est par matin levet (CdR 163)

'the king has gotten up early'
Modern French has the pronominal se lever in this use, cf.:
In compound tenses the auxiliary is estre, although instances with avoir are
attested as well, cf.:
with auxiliary estre:
sur l'erbe verte s'i est culchet (CdR 2358, Lesson 2)

'there he has lain down on the green grass'
with auxiliary avoir:
il s'a vestu
'he has put his clothes on'
For practical reasons, pronominal verbs have not all been identified in the glosses
of this course as a separate category. The pronominal element has been identified
as a pronoun, with the appropriate case indication, or the verb has been given as
se + infinitive (e.g. se pasmer).
38 Nominal Forms of the Verb
Old French has several so-called nominal forms of the verb: while these forms are
part of a given verbal paradigm, they express nominal characteristics, such as
gender, case, and number, and assume nominal functions. In Old French, the
nominal forms of the verb include the perfective participle, the present participle,
the gerund, and the infinitive.
the perfective participle is based on the perfective stem, cf. for example:
chanter chantet
fenir fenit
partir parti
corre coru
faire fait
venir venu
metre mis
the present participle is based on the present stem, cf. for example:
chanter chantant
finir fenissant
partir partant
corre corant
faire fesant / faisant
venir venant
metre met(t)ant
Formally the declension of present participles follows the patterns of class III
adjectives, cf.:
Declension of the Present Participle
Masculine Feminine
Nom. Sg. chantanz chantant / chantanz
Obl. Sg. chantant chantant
Nom. Pl. chantant chantanz

Obl. Pl. chantanz chantanz
gerunds are formally identical to present participles, but in contrast to these
forms, gerunds are invariable.
infinitives, e.g. chanter 'sing', fenir 'end', partir 'leave', remanoir 'stay', corre 'run'.
Infinitives may convey case (see Grammar Point 39) as expressed in the definite
article and the case ending.
Declension of the Infinitive
Nom. Sg. li chanters

Obl. Sg. le chanter
The use of a preposition could lead to article enclisis, e.g. du doner 'of the fact of
giving'.
39 Nominal Forms of the Verb: Uses
39.1. The infinitive in Old French may function as a noun assuming the function of
subject, direct object, or complement in a prepositional phrase, cf.:
subject:
tencier est laide chose (Theb. 3924)

'quarreling is no good'
object:
doubtant le retourner de son adversaire (CNN 52.118)

'afraid of his ennemy's return'
complement of preposition:
se seigne a l'entrer el champ (Art. 102.13)

'he crosses himself when he enterd the battlefield'
en chanter met si grant estude (Isop. 1.15; this lesson)

'he puts such great zeal in his singing'
The combining of a preposition + (determiner) + infinitive generally conveys
temporal or causal value, manner, means, for example:
temporal value:
se seigne a l'entrer el chanp (Art. 102.13)

'he crosses himself when he enters the battlefield'
au redrecier
'at his getting up'
expressing manner:
par nos passage paier

'by paying our crossing'
Infinitive used as a nominal complement, cf.:
tens est del herberger (CdR 2482)

'it is time to encamp'
The nominal characteristics of the infinitive are manifest not only in its combining
with a definite article, but also in case endings (for forms, see Grammar Point 38),
cf.:
(li) parlers 'the fact of talking'

For example:
li corners ne nos avreit mester (CdR 1742)

'blowing the horn would not be of help to us'
Determiners other than definite articles combine with the infinitive as well, cf.:
jusq'au mien partir

'until my leaving, until my departure'
Direct objects of infinitives may take either the form of an accusative (verbal
syntax) or a genitive (nominal syntax), cf.:
a l'ouvrir la chambre (CNN 279.55)

'at the opening of the room'
li porters dou rainsel

'the fact of carrying the small branch'
The accusative in this context reflects verbal syntax, showing that the infinitive is
considered a fully verbal element. The genitive reflects nominal syntax, showing
that the infinitive is considered a nominal element.
Nominal uses of the infinitive survived until the 16th century; today's language has
several fossilized forms, cf. le dner, le djeuner 'lunch', le devoir 'task', and others.
39.2. The forms in -ant in Old French functioned as present participles and as
gerunds, but the distinction between both types of use is not always clear. The
form in -ant is commonly attested in prepositional phrases, expressing adverbial
value. The phrase may include a possessive:
a lor vivant 'in their lifetime'

en son dormant 'during his sleep'
The prepositional phrase may also include a noun conveying an underlying direct
object or subject, cf.:
subject:
devant midi sonnant (R. Cambr. 8399)

'before noon'
al coc cantant (Brut. 995)

'at cockcrow'
direct object:
a la porte ouvrant
'at the opening of the door'
eust grant peur de la teste perdant

'he was afraid he would lose his head'
Forms in -ant and infinitives may show overlap in some of the prepositional uses,
cf.:
par mes armes portant par noz testes trancher

'by carrying my arms' 'by cutting off our heads'
en mon dormant vi une vision jusqu'au mien partir

'I had a vision during my sleep' 'until my departure'
By contrast, forms in -ant alone combine with a finite form of the verb to indicate
progressive action or to specify the circumstances in which the action conveyed by
the main verb is carried out, cf.:
que Carles diet ... qu'il fut mort cunquerant (CdR 2362-2363)
'that Charles will say that he died a conqueror'
desuz un pin i est alet curant (CdR 2357, Lesson 2)

'he has gone under a tree running'
Forms in -ant in combination with forms of the verb aler or estre specifically
convey action in progress, cf.:
il est as porz passant (CdR 1767)

'he passes by the ports'
40 Absolute Constructions
Absolute constructions in Old French are residues of a much wider (occurrence

and use) phenomenon in earlier times. An absolute construction is a combination
of a noun and a participle; both elements agree in number, case and gender and
are syntactically completley independent from the other elements in the clause.
The noun typically conveys the underlying subject or the direct object of the
participle. Latin absolutes typically had the ablative form and they conveyed a
wide range of meanings, such as temporal, causal, or conditional value. Cf.:
armis acceptis Crassus... (Caes., DBG 3.23)

weapons-Abl. accept-Pf.Part.Abl.pl. Crassus-Nom.
'having accepted the weapons, Crassus... '
These constructions survive in Old French--mostly in the oblique case--but their
use is rather limited. They often include nouns referring to clothes, bodyparts, and
general equipment. They are slightly fossilized and descriptive, cf.:
juntes ses mains est alet a sa fin (CdR 2392)

'his hands joined he went to his death'
Their fossilized nature is especially manifest in fixed expressions, such as helmes
laciez 'helmets fastened', espee cainte 'sword girded', and others.
Lesson 9
The littrature bourgeoise (see Lesson 8) also incorporated many plays, either
comic or religious. Theater has its roots in early religious ceremonies. From the
10th century, the liturgy of important Christian holidays (e.g. Christmas) came to
include a dramatic representation of the events that were celebrated. Persons in
special costumes would represent characters in the holy stories. Gradually, these
characters began to exchange sentences and communicate with one another;
dialogues became longer, and the sets more sophisticated. In the 12th century,
several scenes came to be combined on one stage. When the texts began to include
too many non-religious aspects, the stage left the confines of the church and
instead was set up outside, in front of the church. French was used increasingly,
actors were no longer recruited among priests and other religious figures alone,
and the topics became more diverse. Yet the topics within this setting remained
religious; they addressed the history of mankind (starting at the Garden of Eden,
Le Jeu d'Adam), focused on saints (Le jeu de St. Nicolas), or related stories
featuring the Virgin Mary (Le miracle de Thophile).
The Virgin Mary played a most important role in the Middle Ages as a person who
would intercede on behalf of sinful Christians, even during their lives. Regretting
sin was the primary condition for salvation.
Some of the stories of these plays became very popular indeed, and are found in
other forms of art as well. The story of Theophile, for example, which had Greek
origins, is represented in the tympan on the north side of Notre Dame cathedral in
Paris.
The text chosen for this lesson is taken from Le miracle de Thophile (540-580;
585), written by Rutebeuf during the second half of the 13th century. Theophile is
a priest to whom injustice is being done by his bishop. He therefore rejects God
and instead signs an agreement with the Devil. The Devil, in exchange for
Theophile's soul, ensures that Theophile gets back his possessions and standing
and prestige. Later Theophile regrets his actions and, in despair, decides to
beseech Our Lady to save him.
The fragment selected here presents Theophile petitioning Mary for help. After a
first rejection, Mary decides to save him and to wrest the agreement from the
Devil.
ICI PAROLE NOSTRE DAME A THEOPHILE ET DIST

Qui es tu qui vas par ci ?
ici -- adverb; <ici, issi> here -- here
parole -- verb; third person singular present <parler> speak, talk -- speaks
Nostre Dame -- possessive; first person plural nominative singular feminine

<nostre> our + noun; nominative singular <dame> lady, dame -- Our Lady
Theophile -- proper name; oblique singular <Theophile> Theophile -- Theophile
dist -- verb; third person singular preterite <dire> say, tell -- she said
qui -- interrogative; nominative singular <qui> who -- who

es -- verb; second person singular present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- are
vas -- verb; second person singular present <aler> go -- goes
THEOPHILES
Ha, Dame ! aiez de moi merci !
C'est li chetis
Theophiles, li entrepris
Que mauf ont loi et pris.
Theophiles -- proper name; nominative singular <Theophile> Theophile --

Theophile
ha -- interjection; <ha> ha, hello -- dear
Dame -- noun; nominative singular <dame> lady, dame -- lady
aiez -- verb; second person plural imperative <avoir, aveir> have, be -- have
de -- preposition; <de> of, from -- on
merci -- noun; oblique singular <merci> grace, mercy, pity -- mercy
c'est -- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter <cil> that + verb; third person
singular present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- it is
chetis -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <chaitif> miserable --

miserable
Theophiles -- proper name; nominative singular <Theophile> Theophile --

Theophile
entrepris -- noun; nominative singular <entrepris> unhappy person -- unhappy

one
que -- relative pronoun; object <qui> who -- whom
mauf -- noun; nominative plural <malf> devil, demon -- devils

ont -- verb; third person plural present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- have
loi -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <lier, loier> bind --
tied
pris -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <prendre> take, take
hold of, seize -- taken hold of
Or vieng proier
A vous, Dame, et merci crier,
Que ne gart l'eure qu'asproier
Me viengne cil
Qui m'as mis a si grant escil.
Tu me tenis ja por ton fil,
Rone bele !
or -- conjunction; <or> now -- now
vieng -- verb; first person singular present <venir> come, go -- I come
proier -- verb; infinitive <prier, preier> pray, beg, beseech -- to pray
vous -- personal pronoun; second person plural direct object <vos> you -- you
Dame -- noun; nominative singular <dame> lady, dame -- Lady
merci -- noun; oblique singular <merci> grace, mercy, pity -- mercy
crier -- verb; infinitive <crier> shout -- to beg for
que -- conjunction; <que> that -- so that
gart -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <garder> watch over, guard
-- he will look for
l'eure -- definite article; oblique singular feminine <li> the + noun; oblique
singular <ore, eure> hour, time -- the moment that
qu'asproier -- conjunction; <que> that + verb; infinitive <asproier> torment,

prosecute -- to torment
viengne -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <venir> come, go -- he

will come
cil -- demonstrative; nominative singular masculine <cil> that -- he
m'as -- personal pronoun; first person direct object <jo, jou, jeu> I + verb; third
person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- has... me
mis -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <metre, mectre,

mettre> put -- put
escil -- noun; oblique singular <essil, eissil, issil> wretchedness, ruin -- misery
tenis -- verb; second person singular preterite <tenir> hold, keep, seize, consider
-- considered
ja -- adverb; <ja, jai> now, already, at once -- already
por -- preposition; <por> for -- as
ton -- possessive; second person singular oblique singular masculine <ton> your --
your
fil -- noun; oblique singular <fil> son -- son
rone -- noun; nominative singular <reine, raine, roine> queen -- queen
bele -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <bel> dear, beloved, handsome --

beloved
NOSTRE DAME PAROLE

Je n'ai cure de ta favele.
Va t'en, is fors de ma chapele.

n'ai cure de -- negation; <ne, nen> not + verb; first person singular present
<avoir, aveir> have, be + noun; oblique singular <cure> care, anxiety +

preposition; <de> of, from -- do not care about

your
favele -- noun; oblique singular <favele> story, lie -- story
va t'en -- verb; second person singular imperative <aler> go + personal pronoun;

second person singular direct object <tu> you + pronoun; inanimate <en> of it --
go away
is -- verb; second person singular imperative <issir> go out, come out -- go out
fors -- adverb; <fors> out, outside -- ...
ma -- possessive; first person singular oblique singular feminine <mon> my -- my
chapele -- noun; oblique singular <chapele> chapel -- chapel
THEOPHILE PAROLE
Dame, je n'ose
Flors d'aiglentier et lis et rose
En qui li Filz Dieu se repose,
Que ferai gi ?
Theophile -- proper name; nominative singular <Theophile> Theophile --

Theophile
dame -- noun; nominative singular <dame> lady, dame -- Lady
n'ose -- negation; <ne, nen> not + verb; first person singular present <oser> dare
-- do not dare
flors d'aiglentier -- noun; nominative singular <flor> flower + preposition; <de>

of, from + noun; oblique singular <aiglantier> wild rose -- flowering wild rose
lis -- noun; nominative singular <lil> lily -- lily
rose -- noun; nominative singular <rose> rose -- rose

qui -- relative pronoun; object <qui> who -- whom
Filz -- noun; nominative singular <fil> son -- son
Dieu -- proper name; oblique singular <Dieu, Deu> God -- of God
se repose -- verb; third person singular present <se reposer> rest -- rests
que -- interrogative; oblique <qui> what -- what
ferai -- verb; first person singular future <faire> make -- shall do
gi -- personal pronoun; first person singular nominative <jo, jou, jeu> I -- I
Malement me sent engagi

Envers le mauf enragi
Ne sai que fere :
Ja mes ne finirai de brere !
Virge, pucele debonere,
Dame honoree,
Bien sera m'ame devoree,
Qu'en enfer fera demoree
Avoec Cahu.
malement -- adverb; <malement> badly -- badly
me -- personal pronoun; first person singular nominative <jo, jou, jeu> I -- I
sent -- verb; first person singular present <sentir> smell, feel -- I feel
engagi -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <engagier>

commit -- am commited
envers -- preposition :; <envers> towards -- towards
mauf -- noun; oblique singular <malf> devil, demon -- devil
enragi -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <enragi> furious -- furious
sai -- verb; first person singular present <savoir> know -- I do know
que -- interrogative; oblique <qui> what -- what
fere -- verb; infinitive <faire> make -- to do
ja mes ne -- adverb; <ja> ever + adverb; <mais> more, further, rather + negation;
<ne, nen> not -- never
finirai -- verb; first person singular future <fenir, finir> end, stop -- I will stop
brere -- verb; infinitive <braire> shout, sing -- begging
virge -- noun; nominative singular <virge> virgin -- virgin
pucele -- noun; nominative singular <pucele> girl, servant, maiden -- maiden
debonere -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <debonaire> noble, sweet --

noble
honoree -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <honore> honored --

honored
bien -- adverb; <bien> well, many, much, really -- completely
sera -- verb; third person singular future <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- will be
m'ame -- possessive; first person singular nominative singular feminine <mon>

my + noun; nominative singular <anme, alme, arme, ame> soul, somebody -- my
soul
devoree -- verb; perfective participle nominative singular feminine <devorer>

devour -- devoured
qu'en -- conjunction; <que> when + preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of --
when... in
enfer -- noun; oblique singular <enfern> hell -- hell
fera demoree -- verb; third person singular future <faire> make + noun; oblique
singular <demoree> delay, stay -- staying
avoec -- preposition; <avuec, avec, avoc> with -- with
Cahu -- proper name; oblique singular <Cahu> Cahu -- Cain # According to some
Cahu was a pagan God, reinterpreted as the devil; others think that Cahu refers to
Cain
NOSTRE DAME
Theophile, je t'ai se
Ca en arriere a moi e.
Saches de voir,
Ta chartre te ferai ravoir
Que tu baillas par nonsavoir.
Ja la vois querre.

Theophile -- proper name; nominative singular <Theophile> Theophile --

Theophile
t'ai -- personal pronoun; second person singular direct object <tu> you + verb;
first person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- have... you
se -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <savoir> know --

known
ca en arriere -- adverb; <ca en arriere> formerly, until now -- in the past when
moi -- personal pronoun; first person singular direct object <jo, jou, jeu> I -- my
service
e -- verb; first person preterite <avoir, aveir> have, be -- I had
saches -- verb; second person singular subjunctive present <savoir> know --

know
de voir -- preposition; <de> of, from + adjective; oblique singular masculine

<voir> true -- for sure

your
chartre -- noun; oblique singular <chartre> letter, agreement -- agreement
te -- personal pronoun; second person singular direct object <tu> you -- you
ferai -- verb; first person singular future <faire> make -- I shall make
ravoir -- verb; infinitive <ravoir> have back -- have back
que -- relative pronoun; object <qui> that -- which
baillas -- verb; second person singular preterite <baillier> own, receive, give --
gave away
nonsavoir -- noun; oblique singular <nonsavoir> ignorance -- ignorance
ja -- personal pronoun; first person singular nominative <jo, jou, jeu> I -- I

vois -- verb; first person singular present <aler> go -- go
querre -- verb; infinitive <quere, querre> look for, want, ask -- look for
ICI VA NOSTRE DAME POR LA CHARTRE THEOPHILE
ici -- adverb; <ici, issi> here -- here
va -- verb; third person singular present <aler> go -- leaves

por -- preposition; <por> for -- to get
Theophile -- proper name; oblique singular <Theophile> Theophile -- of

Theophile
Sathan ! Sathan ! es tu en serre ?

S'es or venuz en ceste terre
Por commencier a mon clerc guerre,
Mar le pensas.
Sathan -- proper name; nominative singular <Satan> Satan -- Satan
es -- verb; second person singular present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- are
serre -- noun; oblique singular <serre> prison -- prison
s'es -- conjunction; <se> if + verb; second person singular present <estre, iestre,
aistre> be -- if you have
venuz -- verb; perfective participle nominative singular masculine <venir> come,

go -- come
en -- preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of -- to
terre -- noun; oblique singular <terre> land, country, earth -- world

por -- preposition; <por> for -- in order to
commencier -- verb; infinitive <comencier> begin, start -- start
mon -- possessive; first person singular oblique singular masculine <mon> my --

my
clerc -- noun; oblique singular <clerc, clerge> clerk -- clerk
guerre -- noun; oblique singular <guerre> war, trouble -- to trouble
mar -- adverb; <mar> wrongly, in vain -- in vain
le -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine <il> he -- so
pensas -- verb; second person singular preterite <penser> think, pay attention --
you thought
Rent la chartre que du clerc as,

Quar tu as fet trop vilain cas.
rent -- verb; second person singular imperative <rendre> give, return -- give
back
du -- preposition; <de> of, from + definite article; oblique singular masculine <li>
the -- from the
clerc -- noun; oblique singular <clerc, clerge> clerk -- clerk
as -- verb; second person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- you got
quar -- conjunction; <quar, car> for, because -- because
fet -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <faire> make -- done
trop -- adverb; <trop> too much, extremely, excessively -- too much
vilain cas -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <vilain> ugly, bad + noun;
oblique singular <cas> fall, event, affair -- harm
SATHAN PAROLE
Je la vous randre !
J'aim miex assez que l'en me pende ! ...
je -- personal pronoun; first person singular nominative <jo, jou, jeu> I -- me
vous -- personal pronoun; second person plural indirect object <vos> you -- to
you
randre -- verb; infinitive <rendre> give, return -- give... back
j'aim miex -- personal pronoun; first person singular nominative <jo, jou, jeu> I +
verb; first person singular present <amer> love + comparative adverb; <miels,
mels> better, rather -- I would... prefer
assez -- adverb; <asez, asss> many, much, very well -- very much
l'en -- definite article; nominative singular masculine <li> the + personal

pronoun; third person singular nominative <om, on> one -- they
pende -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <pendre> hang -- hang
NOSTRE DAME
Et je te foulerai la pance.

te -- personal pronoun; second person singular indirect object <tu> you -- ...
foulerai -- verb; first person singular future <foler> harm -- trample
la -- definite article; oblique singular feminine <li> the -- your
pance -- noun; oblique singular <pance> stomach, belly -- belly
Lesson Text
ICI PAROLE NOSTRE DAME A THEOPHILE ET DIST

Qui es tu qui vas par ci ? THEOPHILES

Ha, Dame ! aiez de moi merci !
C'est li chetis
Theophiles, li entrepris
Que mauf ont loi et pris. Or vieng proier
A vous, Dame, et merci crier,
Que ne gart l'eure qu'asproier
Me viengne cil
Qui m'as mis a si grant escil.
Tu me tenis ja por ton fil,
Rone bele ! NOSTRE DAME PAROLE
Je n'ai cure de ta favele.
Va t'en, is fors de ma chapele. THEOPHILE PAROLE
Dame, je n'ose
Flors d'aiglentier et lis et rose
En qui li Filz Dieu se repose,
Que ferai gi ? Malement me sent engagi
Envers le mauf enragi
Ne sai que fere :
Ja mes ne finirai de brere !
Virge, pucele debonere,
Dame honoree,
Bien sera m'ame devoree,
Qu'en enfer fera demoree
Avoec Cahu. NOSTRE DAME
Theophile, je t'ai se
Ca en arriere a moi e.
Saches de voir,
Ta chartre te ferai ravoir
Que tu baillas par nonsavoir.
Ja la vois querre. ICI VA NOSTRE DAME POR LA CHARTRE THEOPHILE
Sathan ! Sathan ! es tu en serre ?
S'es or venuz en ceste terre
Por commencier a mon clerc guerre,
Mar le pensas. Rent la chartre que du clerc as,
Quar tu as fet trop vilain cas. SATHAN PAROLE
Je la vous randre !
J'aim miex assez que l'en me pende ! ... NOSTRE DAME
Et je te foulerai la pance.
Translation
HERE OUR LADY SPEAKS TO THEOPHILE, AND SHE SAID:

Who are you, who goes through here?
THEOPHILE:
Dear Lady! Have mercy on me!
It is the miserable
Theophile, the unhappy one
Whom devils have tied and taken hold of.
Now I come to pray
To you, Lady, and to beg for mercy,
So that he will not look for the moment that
He will come to torment me, he
Who has put me in such great misery.
You considered me already as your son,
Beloved queen!
OUR LADY SPEAKS:

I do not care about your story.
Go away, go out of my chapel.
THEOPHILE SPEAKS:
Lady, I do not dare.
Flowering wild rose and lily and rose,
In whom the Son of God rests,
What shall I do?
I feel I am badly committed
Towards the furious devil
I do not know what to do :
I will never stop begging!
Virgin, noble maiden,
Honored Lady,
My soul will be devoured completely,
When staying in hell
With Cain.
OUR LADY:
Theophile I have known you
In the past when I had you at my service.
Know for sure,
I will make you have your agreement back
Which you gave away by ignorance.

I go look for it.
HERE OUR LADY LEAVES TO GET THE AGREEMENT OF THEOPHILE

Satan, Satan, are you in prison?
If you have come to this world now
In order to start to trouble my clerk,
You thought so in vain.
Give back the agreement that you got from the clerk
Because you have done too much harm.
SATAN SPEAKS:
Me give it back to you!
I would very much prefer that they hang me! ...
OUR LADY:
And I will trample your belly.
Grammar
41 Indefinite Elements
There are a number of indefinite elements in Old French, nouns, pronominal

elements, adjectival elements.
Indefinite nouns. Among indefinite nouns, chose (cose) and rien (ren) are the
most important and most common. Chose traces back to Latin causam 'cause,
business', whereas rien originated in Latin rem 'thing, business'. In Old French,
both chose and rien mean 'thing, something, (some) business, person'. The
difference between the two elements resides in the occurrence of rien in negated
contexts, meaning 'nothing'; cf.:
ne rien veer 'to see nothing'

It is this negated use that rien preserved into the modern period, cf.:
il ne mange rien 'he does not eat anything'

Pronominal and adjectival elements. There is a group of quantifying (quant, tant)
and qualifying (tel) elements. As nominal elements, they have declensional
paradigms.
Declension of quant, '(how)ever many, (how)ever much'
Masculine Feminine
Nom. Sg. quanz quante
Obl. Sg. quant quante
Nom. Pl. quant quantes

Obl. Pl. quanz quantes
The student will have noticed that the declension of this element follows the
patterns of Class I and Class II adjectives. The group includes tant 'so much, so
many' and alquant (auquant) 'certain ones, several', which appear only in the
plural.
Declension of tel 'such, such one'
Masculine Feminine
Nom. Sg. tels, teus tel
Obl. Sg. tel tel
Nom. Pl. tel tels, teus

Obl. Pl. tels tels, teus
Various lexical qualifiers. In addition there is a series of indefinites that qualify
nouns, adjectives, verbs or adverbs: molt 'many, much', poi (pou, peu) 'a little,
little', tot 'all, entirely'; cf.:
Mult grant eschech en unt si chevaler (CdR 99, Lesson 1)

'his knights had a very large booty'
42 Adverbs
In Lesson 6 adverbs of manner were already discussed. In fact manner adverbs are
the most "regular" among the adverbs in Old French. The other adverbs have a
variety of etymological backgrounds. Some trace back to preposition, others to
particles, and so forth.
Adverbs of time. Time reference in Old French is conveyed by a group of adverbs,

cf.:
Present
ore, ores, or 'now'
maintenant 'now'
(h)ui 'today'
encui 'today'
oan 'this year'
endementres 'during'
anuit 'tonight'
Future
main 'tomorrow'
demain 'tomorrow'
a piece 'in a moment'

tantost 'shortly'
tost 'soon'
dsormais 'from now on'
encore, encor, uncor 'yet again'
ads 'soon'
todis 'always'
Past
lors 'then'
(h)ier 'yesterday'
l'autrier 'the day before yesterday'
ja, jadis 'in the past'
antan 'last year'
onques 'never'
pieca 'long ago'
Pieca is a fossilized form of the temporal expression piece a:
piece a
segment of time have-3sg. pres.
'there has been some time'
Adverbs of place. Location in space is referred to with a variety of adverbs,
among them:
Here
ici, ci 'here'
ca 'here, hither'
In here
ceanz 'in here'
There
la 'there'
ca 'there'
i 'there, thither'
Place where
ou 'where'
Place from which

dont 'from which, whence'
en 'thence, away'
Inside
leanz 'inside, within'

enz 'inside'
dedenz 'inside, within'
Outside
hors 'outside'
fors 'out, outside'
Above
sus 'up, above'
Under
suz, soz 'under, beneath'
Down
jus 'down'
43 Prepositions
Prepositions in Old French trace back to a variety of elements: prepositions in

Latin, adverbs, participle, and nouns.
Latin origin. Prepositions going back to Latin prepositions may be either

compound forms or non-compound forms:
a < Lat. ad 'at, in, ...'

sans < Lat. sine + s 'without'
tres < Lat. trans 'through'
de < Lat. de 'from'
contre < Lat. contra 'against'
en < Lat. in 'in'
In spoken Latin many prepositions were combined to form new prepositions,
several of which subsequently surivive in (Old) French; see, for example:
avan < La. ab + ante 'before'

devant < La. de + ab + ante 'in front of'
envers < La. in + versus 'in the direction of'
Adverbs. Several prepositions trace back to adverbs, such as:
Nouns. The prepositions chez 'at' and lez 'beside' originally were nouns. Chez
traces back to Latin casa 'hous', whereas lez originates in La. latus 'side'.
Participles. In the later stages of Old French, participles came to be used as

prepositions as well; mostly present participles, cf.:
Present participles:
suivant 'following'
moyennant 'through'
durant 'during'
pendant 'during'
Perfective participles:
hormis 'with the exception of'

except 'with the exception of'
44 Subordinate Conjunction, que
The conjunction que in Old French has a very rich use. It may simply connect a
subordinate clause to the main clause, it may also express intensity ('so that'),
intention ('so that'), cause, reason, or concession ('because', 'although'), and
simply 'and'. Examples:
Connecting element, cf.:
Co sent Rollant que la mort le tresprent (CdR, 2355, Lesson 2)

'Roland feels that death overcomes him completely'
Intention, cf.:
Congi ... li requiert ... d'aler tornoier

que l'an ne l'apialt recreant. (Yv. 2563, Lesson 6 )
'he asks permission to fight in tornaments'
'so that they do not call him a coward'
Pur co l'ad fait que il voelt veirement (CdR 2361, Lesson 2)

'for this reason he has done this that he really wants'
Cause, reason, concession, cf.:
La dame tantost li otroie,

qu'el ne set qu'il vialt demander (Yv., 2556)
'the lady immediately grants it to him,
'although she does not know what he wants to ask'
45 Facts: Numbers, Distances, Measures, Time
Numbers. In Old French texts, numbers are either spelled out in full or are
rendered by Roman numbers. When Roman numbers are used, the number is
preceded and followed by a dot.
Numerals. Numerals in Old French are decimal, continuing a long tradition in

Indo-European. During the Middle Ages, vigesimals emerge in various languages
in Western Europe, among them Old French. They are also attested in other
Medieval Romance languages as well as Germanic and Celtic languages. They are
used specifically in combination with elements that typically are counted:
agricultural products, coins, measures, and so forth. From the 16th and 17th
centuries vigesimals became less frequent again. Numerals like quatre-vingts in
modern French therefore are residues of a much wider use (see Grammar Point 48
in Lesson 10 for references).
Time. As pointed out in Lesson 3, the calendar of the Church determined life in
the Middle Ages to a great extent. The year, for example, is organized around
important Christian holidays or around important days in the liturgy of the
Church. These special days are used in reference to time, cf.:

huit jorz aprs la Saint Johan (Yv., 2574-2576, Lesson 6)
'at the very least within one year
'make sure to come back in time
'eight days after the feast of St. John'
Reference is systematic as is the structure of the Church calendar. Epiphany, for
example, is set on the Twelfth Night following Christmas (i.e. on January 6);
Easter is set on the first Sunday following the first full moon after March 21; Lent
is set during the forty days preceding Easter; Pentecost (cf. Gk. pentekostos
'fiftieth') is celebrated on the 50th day after Easter and is preceded ten days before
by Ascension.
Hour indication in Medieval texts is quite relative, and follows Roman habits. The
24-hour day itself is divided into two important parts, the daylight part and the
night part, each of twelve hours. The twelve hours divide each of these segments.
Consequently, the length of the individual hours varies according to season. An
hour at night in summer, for example, is much shorter than an hour at day in
summer or an hour at night in winter. In addition, Old French had several adverbs
indicating moments of the day; several of them are related to prayer habits in
monasteries, cf.:
vespres 'early evening', 'sunset', when it gets dark

[early evening prayers]
complie 'evening', around 9 PM
[prayers of thanks for the completed day]
laudes between 3 AM and dawn
[laudative songs at dawn]
matins 'early morning'
first canonical hour, between midnight and dawn
[first prayers in the morninng]
The hours are referred to with ordinal numbers, e.g.:
prime 'sunrise', around 6 AM

terce 'mid morning, around 9 AM
midi 'midday'
none 'nineth hour', 'mid afternoon', around 3 PM
Distance/length. Distance and length are measured in a way not found in a
metrical system: the measuring unit varies with the type of length and the object,
and there is no consistent correlation between the individual units (as there is
between a centiment, a decimeter, a meter, a kilometer, and so forth). The safest
strategy for the student/reader is to check the individual instances of distance
indication that are encountered. A few measures are relatively frequent:
pi 'a foot', a measure used in Antiquity; approx. 30 cm.

pouz 'a thumb', approx. 2.7 cm. (there are twelve pouz in one pi)
lieue 'a Gallic mile', approx. 4-5 km. (roughly three sea miles)
Granz 'XXX' liwes ... (CdR, 1756, Lesson 2)

'a long thirty miles away'
The absolute value of these measures often varies with the region.
Monetary system. The monetary system, which during the Middle Ages reaches
isolated parts of the countryside as well, has strong local characteristics. While the
official monetary system based on pounds (Fr. livres) becomes increasingly
important for commercial and tax reasons, local systems continues to be used as
well. The pound includes 20 shillings, each of twelve pennies, and goes back to
Charlemagne's reform of the monetary system.
Lesson 10
Students will have noticed that translations played an important role in medieval
French literature: texts in languages other than French, most commonly Latin,
were indeed an important source of inspiration. In addition, the gradual spread of
translations shows the increasing importance of French as a language of
communication -- that is, in registers other than the day-to-day spoken varieties.
The text selected for this lesson is from Le voyage de St. Brandan, a translation of
the Latin Navigatio. Brendan was a 6th century Irish Benedictine monk who had
founded a monastery on an island and one day set out to sail to the "Promised
Land" situated in the West, which he reaches after seven years. His adventures
have been related in the Latin Navigatio, which in all likelihood is a collection of
stories of a sea-faring nation.
The Irish in the (early) Middle Ages were well-known for their marine skills, and
they had the habit of traveling regularly from one island to another. That the
Navigatio may have more to it than just imagination became clear in 1976 and
1977, when an expedition proved that it is possible to cross the Atlantic Ocean and
reach North America while taking a northerly route in Irish skin boats (see
references below). During their journey in the 1970s, the crew regularly came
across phenomena that could be identified as the ordeals described in the text of
the Navigatio. If the adventures related in the Navigatio indeed reflect stories of
Irish people travelling to North America, then the Irish discovered that continent
long before Columbus, or even the Vikings.
The Latin text, which also had a Germanic version, was translated into Old French
no later than the second half of the 13th century.
The fragment chosen here relates the beginnings of Brendan's odyssey. Brendan is
head of a monastery at Clonfert when he receives a visit from another monk, St.
Barind. St. Barind tells him that he has been visiting his godson, Mernoc, who had
left him to live as an anchorite and has founded a new monastery on an island.
Mernoc invites St. Barind to travel to the "Promised Land," which is described as
rich in flowers and fruits and providing plenty of food. Hearing about these
possibilities, Brendan selects a group of monks and decides to seek the "Promised
Land" himself.
Cis Barintes commencha a plourer et se coucha a terre

et demoura longhement en orisons.
cis -- demonstrative; nominative singular masculine <cest, cist> this -- this
Barintes -- proper name; nominative singular <Barintes> Barind -- Barind
commencha -- verb; third person singular preterite <comencier> begin, start --

started
plourer -- verb; infinitive <plorer> cry, shed tears -- cry
se coucha -- verb; third person singular preterite <se coucher> lie down -- lay
down
a -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on -- on
terre -- noun; oblique singular <terre> land, country, earth -- the soil
demoura -- verb; third person singular preterite <demorer> stay, remain --

remained
longhement -- adverb; <longement> long, for a long time -- for a long time
orisons -- noun; oblique singular <orison, oraison> prayer, speech -- prayers
Mais sains Brandains le leva de terre

et le baisa si dist:
Bials pere pour coi auons nous tristeche en te venue
Enne venistes vous a no consolation.
mais -- conjunction; <mais, mes> but -- but
sains Brandains -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <saint> holy + proper

name; nominative singular <Brandain> Brendan -- St. Brendan

him
leva -- verb; third person singular preterite <lever> lift up -- lifted... up
terre -- noun; oblique singular <terre> land, country, earth -- the ground

him
baisa -- verb; third person singular preterite <baisier> kiss -- kissed
dist -- verb; third person singular preterite <dire> say, tell -- said
bials -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <bel> dear, beloved, handsome

-- dear
pere -- noun; nominative singular <pere> father -- father
pour coi -- preposition; <por> for + interrogative; oblique <qui> what -- why
auons -- verb; first person plural present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- do... have
nous -- personal pronoun; first person plural nominative <nos> we -- we
tristeche -- noun; oblique singular <tristece> sadness, horror -- sadness

en -- preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of -- at
te -- possessive; second person singular oblique singular feminine <ton> your --

your
venue -- noun; oblique singular <venue> arrival -- arrival
enne -- interrogative adverb; <enne> not -- not
venistes -- verb; second person plural subjunctive imperfective <venir> come, go

-- did... come
vous -- personal pronoun; second person plural nominative <vos> you -- you
no -- possessive; first person plural oblique singular feminine <nostre> our -- our
consolation -- noun; oblique singular <consolation> consolation -- consolation
Tu nous dois miex esleechier que courechier.

Demoustre nous le parolle diu
e refai nos ames des divers miracles que tu as veus en le mer.
nous -- personal pronoun; first person plural direct object <nos> we -- us
dois -- verb; second person singular present <devoir> have to -- have to
miex -- comparative adverb; <miels, mels> better, rather -- rather
esleechier -- verb; infinitive <esleecier> rejoice -- make happy
courechier -- verb; infinitive <corocier> anger, afflict -- make sad
demoustre -- verb; second person singular imperative <demostrer> show,

indicate, explaine -- show
nous -- personal pronoun; first person plural indirect object <nos> we -- us
le -- definite article; oblique singular feminine <li> the -- the
parolle -- noun; oblique singular <parole> word, speech -- word
diu -- proper name; oblique singular <Dieu, Deu> God -- of God
refai -- verb; second person singular imperative <refaire> repair -- repair
nos -- possessive; first person plural oblique plural feminine <nostre> our -- our
ames -- noun; oblique plural <anme, alme, arme, ame> soul, somebody -- souls
the -- with the
divers -- adjective; oblique plural masculine <divers> various -- various
miracles -- noun; oblique plural <miracle> miracle -- miracles
veus -- verb; perfective participle oblique plural masculine <veoir> see -- seen
en -- preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of -- on
le -- definite article; oblique singular feminine <li> the -- ...
mer -- noun; oblique singular <mer> sea -- sea
Dont commencha a dire sains Barintes a saint Brandain d'une isle et dist:
Mes fils Mernoc pourueeres des poures ihu crist
se departi de devant mi et iestres curieus.
dont -- adverb; <donc> then, therefore -- then
commencha -- verb; third person singular preterite <comencier> begin, start --

started
dire -- verb; infinitive <dire> say, tell -- talk
sains Barintes -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <saint> holy + proper

name; nominative singular <Barintes> Barind -- St. Barind
saint Brandain -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <saint> holy + proper

name; oblique singular <Brandain> Brendan -- St. Brendan
d'une -- preposition; <de> of, from + indefinite article; oblique singular feminine
<un> a -- about an
isle -- noun; oblique singular <isle, ille> island -- island
dist -- verb; third person singular preterite <dire> say, tell -- he said

-- my
fils -- noun; nominative singular <fil> son -- son
Mernoc -- proper name; nominative singular <Mernoc> Mernoc -- Mernoc
pourueeres -- noun; nominative singular <porveor> purveyor -- purveyor
the -- of the
poures -- noun; oblique plural <povre> poor -- poor
ihu -- proper name; oblique singular <Iesus> Jesus -- of Jesus
crist -- proper name; oblique singular <Christ> Christ -- Christ
se departi -- verb; third person singular preterite <se departir> leave, go away --
left
de devant mi -- preposition; <de> of, from + preposition; <devant> before, in

front of, in the presence of + personal pronoun; first person singular direct object
<jo, jou, jeu> I -- me
iestres -- noun; oblique singular <estre> life, condition, way of life -- a way of life
curieus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <curios> careful -- safe
Il trouva une isle dales le mont de piere

qui est apielee par non isle delisieuse.
Apries une grant pieche de tans me fu nonchiet
qu'il auoit pluiseurs moines aueoc lui.
trouva -- verb; third person singular preterite <trover> find -- found
une -- indefinite article; oblique singular feminine <un> a -- an
dales -- preposition; <dales, dalles, dall> next to, along -- next to
mont -- noun; oblique singular <mont> mountain -- mountain
piere -- noun; oblique singular <piere, pierre> stone, prison -- stone

apielee -- verb; perfective participle nominative singular feminine <apeler>

accuse, summon, call -- called
non -- noun; oblique singular <nom, non> name, title -- the name
delisieuse -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <delicios> delicious -- delicious
apries -- preposition; <apres> after, afterwards -- after
grant -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <grant> great, large, tall -- long
pieche -- noun; oblique singular <piece> piece, segment -- period
tans -- noun; oblique singular <tens, tans> time, weather -- time
me -- personal pronoun; first person singular indirect object <jo, jou, jeu> I -- I
nonchiet -- verb; perfective participle nominative singular masculine <noncier>

announce, tell -- told

auoit -- verb; third person singular imperfective <avoir, aveir> have, be -- had
pluiseurs -- indefinite pronoun; nominative plural masculine <plusor, pluisor>

several -- several
moines -- noun; oblique plural <moine, monie> monk -- monks
aueoc -- preposition; <avuec, avec, avoc> with -- with
him
Et que dex auoit demonstre molt de miracles par lui

En tel maniere alai a lui pour visiter men filluel
et com ie fuisse a trois iours pries de me voie
Il se hasta pour venir encontre mi atout ses freres.

dex -- proper name; nominative singular <Dieu, Deu> God -- God
auoit -- verb; third person singular imperfective <avoir, aveir> have, be -- had
demonstre -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <demostrer>

show, indicate, explaine -- shown
molt -- adverb, adjective; <molt, mult, mout> many, much, very -- many
de -- particle; <de> ... -- ...
miracles -- noun; oblique plural <miracle> miracle -- miracles
him
maniere -- noun; oblique singular <maniere> way, intention -- way
alai -- verb; first person singular preterite <aler> go -- I went
him
pour -- preposition; <por> for -- in order to
visiter -- verb; infinitive <viseter> visit, observe -- visit
men -- possessive; first person singular oblique singular masculine <mon> my --

my
filluel -- noun; oblique singular <filuel> son, godson -- godson
com -- conjunction; <com, comme> when -- when
ie -- personal pronoun; first person singular nominative <jo, jou, jeu> I -- I
fuisse -- verb; first person singular subjunctive imperfective <estre, iestre, aistre>
be -- was
trois -- numeral; <trois> three -- three

iours -- noun; oblique plural <jorn, jor> day -- days
pries -- adverb; <pres> close -- close to
me -- possessive; first person singular oblique singular feminine <mon> my -- ...
voie -- noun; oblique singular <veie> road -- underway
se hasta -- verb; third person singular preterite <se haster, se hasteier> hasten --
hastened
pour -- preposition; <por> for -- to
venir -- verb; infinitive <venir> come, go -- come
encontre -- preposition; <encontre> to, towards, against -- to meet
mi -- personal pronoun; first person singular direct object <jo, jou, jeu> I -- me
atout -- preposition; <atot> with -- with
freres -- noun; oblique plural <frere> brother -- brothers
Car nostre sires li avoit reuele men avenement.
car -- conjunction; <quar, car> for, because -- because
nostre -- possessive; first person plural nominative singular masculine <nostre>

our -- Our
sires -- noun; nominative singular <seignor> lord -- Lord

to him
avoit -- verb; third person singular imperfective <avoir, aveir> have, be -- had
reuele -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <reveler> reveal,

make known -- made known
men -- possessive; first person singular oblique singular masculine <mon> my --

my
avenement -- noun; oblique singular <avenement> arrival -- arrival
Lesson Text
Cis Barintes commencha a plourer et se coucha a terre

et demoura longhement en orisons. Mais sains Brandains le leva de terre
et le baisa si dist:
Bials pere pour coi auons nous tristeche en te venue
Enne venistes vous a no consolation. Tu nous dois miex esleechier que courechier.
Demoustre nous le parolle diu
e refai nos ames des divers miracles que tu as veus en le mer. Dont commencha a
dire sains Barintes a saint Brandain d'une isle et dist:
Mes fils Mernoc pourueeres des poures ihu crist
se departi de devant mi et iestres curieus. Il trouva une isle dales le mont de piere
qui est apielee par non isle delisieuse.
Apries une grant pieche de tans me fu nonchiet
qu'il auoit pluiseurs moines aueoc lui. Et que dex auoit demonstre molt de
miracles par lui
En tel maniere alai a lui pour visiter men filluel
et com ie fuisse a trois iours pries de me voie
Il se hasta pour venir encontre mi atout ses freres. Car nostre sires li avoit reuele
men avenement.
Translation
This Barind started to cry and lay down on the soil

And remained for a long time in prayers.
But St. Brendan lifted him up from the ground
And kissed him and said :
Dear father why do we have sadness at your arrival ?
Did you not come to our consolation ?
You have to make us happy rather than make us sad
Show us the word of God
And repair our souls with the various miracles that you have seen on sea.
Then St. Barind started to talk to St. Brendan about an island and he said :
My son Mernoc, purveyor of the poor of Jesus Christ
Left me and a safe way of life.
He found an island next to the mountain of stone
which is called by the name delicious island.
After a long period of time I was told
That he had several monks with him.
And that God had shown many miracles through him
In such way I went to him to visit my godson
And when I was close to three days under way
He hastened in order to meet me with his brothers.

Because Our Lord had made my arrival known to him.
Grammar
46 Grammars and Dictionaries
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The Linguistics Research Center

The Linguistics Research Center

Brigitte L.M. Bauer and Jonathan Slocum

Like the other Romance languages, French is a daughter-language of Latin. Its

1. Emergence of a New Language

The Frankish kings made important contributions to the development of France:

language. Then in 842 two of Charlemagne's grandsons, Louis le Germanique and

provenc/al), Auvergne (l'auvergnat), Gascony (le gascon), and Languedoc (le

The differences between the dialects are primarily phonological. Lexical

3. Grammatical Characteristics of Old French

Similarly, in the history of word order, an important change occurred in the

Another important characteristic of Old French, and an innovation with respect to

When the demonstratives lost their demonstrative value, new demonstratives

cist < ecce + iste 'this'

Person: 1st sg. 2nd sg. 3rd sg.

Mood: Indicative Subjunctive Imperative Conditional

Voice: Active Passive

Aspect: Imperfective Perfective

Analytic: ai chant 'I have sung'

In syntax, word order is predominantly SVO. Other sequences are motivated:

Subject inversion is very common in Old French: it is triggered when a

l'ost des Franceis

autrement ne m'amerat il mie

juntes ses mains est alet a sa fin

li porters dou rainsel

tens est del hebergier

'I do not know what to do'

ne sai que faire [very rare]

A striking characteristic of Old French texts is their international, European

abl. = ablative acc. = accusative adj. = adjective art. = article

pres. = present pret. = preterite sg. = singular subj. = subject

Related Language Courses at UT

Italic Resources Elsewhere

Our Web Links page includes pointers to Italic resources elsewhere.

Brigitte L.M. Bauer and Jonathan Slocum

La Chanson de Roland (The Song of Roland) is a so-called Chanson de Geste, one

In 778, when Charlemagne crossed the Pyrenees returning from a campaign in

Reading and Textual Analysis

Carles li reis, nostre emperere magnes

Carles -- proper name; nominative singular <Charles> Charles, Charlemagne --

li -- definite article; nominative singular masculine <li> the -- the

reis -- noun; nominative singular <roi> king -- king

nostre -- possessive; first person plural nominative singular masculine <nostre>

emperere -- noun; nominative singular <empereor> emperor -- emperor

magnes -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <magne> great -- great

set -- numeral; <set> seven -- seven

anz -- noun; oblique plural <an> year -- years

pleins -- adjective; oblique plural masculine <plein, plain> full -- full

ad -- verb; third person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- has

estet -- verb; perfective participle nominative singular masculine <ester> stand,

en -- preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of -- in

Espaigne -- proper name; oblique singular <Espaigne> Spain -- Spain

tresqu'en -- preposition; <tresqu', trusqu'> up to, until + preposition; <en> in,

la -- definite article; oblique singular feminine <li> the -- the

mer -- noun; oblique singular <mer> sea -- sea

cunquist -- verb; third person singular preterite <conquerre, cunquerre> conquer,

la -- definite article; oblique singular feminine <li> the -- the

tere -- noun; oblique singular <terre> land, country, earth -- land

altaigne -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <altain> high, deep -- high

N'i ad castel ki devant lui remaigne;

n'i -- negation; <ne, nen> not + particle; <i> there -- there... no

ad -- verb; third person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- is

castel -- noun; oblique singular <chastel, castel> castle -- castle

ki -- relative pronoun; subject <qui> that -- that