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20.1 Introduction
In chapter 1 we attempted to explain the world in terms of the fewest number
of fundamental quantities. Up to now only length, mass, and time have concerned
us. Now we will consider the fourth fundamental quantity, electric charge. Our
knowledge of electric charge is not new. The earliest known experiments on
electrostatics were performed by Thales of Miletus (ca. 624-547 B.C.) around 600
B.C., when he found that amber, when rubbed with fur, attracted light objects.
Today, we say that the amber possesses an electrical charge. (The word electric is
derived from the Greek word elektron, meaning amber.) The study of electric charges
at rest under the action of electric forces is called electrostatics.
20-1
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
Rubbed
Amber rod Amber rod
Pith ball Pith ball Pith ball
Glass rod
rubbed with
silk
Repulsion
(d) (e) (f) Repulsion
Attraction
(g)
The thought that should now occur to us is, Does rubbing any material
generate electric charge? Let us repeat the experiment, only this time with a glass
rod. First, we touch the unrubbed glass rod to a new pith ball. As before nothing
happens to the pith ball. Then we rub the glass rod with silk and touch it to the pith
ball, figure 20.1(e). We see that the pith ball flies away, as in figure 20.1(f). Electric
charge has again been generated by rubbing the rod. But is this the same charge
that was generated when the amber rod was rubbed? At this point we cannot
answer the question. To be completely general, let us assume that it is a different
electric charge, one that we will arbitrarily call positive charge. The positive charge
appears to flow from the glass rod to the pith ball during contact, leaving the pith
ball also positively charged. The pith ball then flies away from the glass rod, again
indicating that like charges repel each other. Is this really a different charge, that
is, a positive one? The experimental results are the same for both rods. Both pith
balls are repelled from the rod.
20-2
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
Let us now hang two separate pith balls from the ceiling, and charge the one
on the left negatively by touching it with the rubbed amber rod. The pith ball to the
right we charge positively by touching it with the glass rod rubbed with silk. If the
charges on both balls are really the same, then the balls should repel each other,
just as the balls were repelled from the rods in figures 20.1(d) and 20.1(f). We
observe, however, that the two pith balls are attracted to each other, as shown in
figure 20.1(g). Therefore rubbing the glass rod with silk does indeed produce a
different charge, a positive one, than that produced by rubbing an amber rod with
fur, the negative charge. Also note that the unlike charges attract each other. This
experiment can be continued by rubbing different rods with various materials, but
only these two types of charges, negative and positive, are ever found. We conclude
that there are two and only two types of electric charges in nature -- negative
charge and positive charge. As a result of these experiments, the fundamental
principle of electrostatics can be stated: Like electric charges repel each
other, whereas unlike electric charges attract each other. To give a more
modern description of electrostatics we need to discuss atomic structure.
20-3
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
system. Rutherford found this positive particle of the nucleus and named it the
proton in 1919. The proton has a positive charge equal in magnitude to the charge
on the electron. The mass of the proton, mp = 1.6726 1027 kg, is about 1836 times
greater than the electron mass.
In 1920 Rutherford suggested that there is probably another particle within
the nucleus, a neutral one, to which he gave the name the neutron. The neutron
was discovered some twelve years later in 1932 by the English physicist, James
Chadwick. In terms of these particles, or building blocks, the different atoms are
formed. The difference between one chemical element and another is in the number
of protons, and electrons within it. As seen in figure 20.2(a), the chemical element
hydrogen contains a nucleus which consists of one positive proton about which
orbits the lighter, negative electron. Sometimes the electron is to the right and
p+ e e 2p+ e
2n
e 3p+ 4p+
e e e
3n 4n
e
e
(c) Lithium (d) Beryllium
sometimes to the left of the nucleus. Sometimes it is above and sometimes below the
nucleus. By symmetry, the electrons mean position coincides with the position of
the positive nucleus. Therefore, the atom as a whole acts as though it were
electrically neutral. The next chemical element helium is formed by the addition of
another proton to the nucleus, and another electron to the orbit, figure 20.2(b). Two
neutrons are also found in the nucleus of helium. The next chemical element,
lithium is formed by the addition of another proton, another electron, and another
20-4
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
neutron, figure 20.2(c). In this way all of the chemical elements are formed,
although in the higher elements there are usually more neutrons than protons.
Because each element contains the same number of electrons and protons, each
element is electrically neutral.
Although this model of the atom is quite useful, it is not completely correct.
An electron moving in a circle is an accelerated charge, and it has been found that
whenever a charge is accelerated, it radiates energy. Therefore the radiating
electron should lose energy and spiral into the nucleus and the atom should cease to
exist. The world, which is made up of atoms, should also cease to exist. Since the
world continues to exist, the above model of the atom can not be completely correct.
Also since like charges repel each other, the protons in the nucleus should
also repel each other and the nucleus should blow itself apart. Hence, the whole
world should blow itself apart. But it does not. Therefore, there must be some other
force within the nucleus holding the protons together. This new force is called the
strong nuclear force. Because the electron is the smallest unit of charge ever found,
the fundamental unit of charge, the Coulomb, named after the French physicist
Charles A de Coulomb (1736-1806), is defined in terms of a certain number of these
electronic charges. That is, 1 Coulomb of charge is equal to 6.242 1018 electronic
charges, and the charge on one electron is 1.60219 1019 Coulomb. The unit for
electrical charge, the Coulomb, will be abbreviated as a capital C, in keeping with
the SI convention that units named after a person are symbolized by capital letters.
Because electric charge only comes in multiples of the electronic charge, it is said that
electric charge is quantized. Also, the total net charge of any system is constant, a
result known as the law of conservation of electric charge.
Although no electric charges have ever been found carrying fractional
portions of the electronic charge, the latest hypothesis in elementary particle
physics is that protons and neutrons are made up of more elementary particles
called quarks. (Murray Gell-Mann, 1964) It is presently proposed that there are six
quarks: the (1) up (u), (2) down (d), (3) strange (s), (4) charm (c), (5) bottom (b), and
(6) top (t) quark. The charges on these quarks are fractional as shown in table 20.1.
20-5
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
u
u d
charge
2/3 +2/3 - 1/3 = 1
Figure 20.3 The quark configuration of a proton.
and two down quarks as shown in figure 20.4. Of course, individual quarks have
not yet been found, and indeed most theories of particle physics predict that an
isolated single quark cannot exist. There is, however, strong indirect evidence from
scattering experiments that quarks do indeed exist. The quark model has also
predicted the existence of other elementary particles which have been found,
indicating that the quark hypothesis is on very good experimental ground. Of
course, if the existence of quarks are definitely confirmed, the next question that
would then have to be asked is, What are quarks made of?
u
d d
charge
2/3 - 1/3 - 1/3 = 0
20-6
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
touches the neutral pith ball, electrons from the originally neutral pith ball flow
onto the glass rod, neutralizing some of its positive charge. The deficiency of
electrons on the pith ball causes the pith ball to become positive. This correctly
explains the previous experiment where, at that time, we incorrectly assumed that
positive charges flowed from the glass rod to the pith ball. In all these cases of
charging bodies by rubbing, the charge that moves from one body to another is
always the negative electronic charge. Recall that the electron is 1/1836 lighter than
the proton and hence easier to move. Also the heavier protons are tightly bound into
the nucleus and are not as easy to detach from the atom as the weakly bound
electrons.
We use the letter q to represent the electric charge on a body and, in general,
the net charge q on a body consisting of both protons and electrons is given by
q = (Np Ne)e
(a) (b)
Figure 20.5 An electroscope.
leaf or aluminum foil fastened to the end of a metallic rod. The metallic rod is
housed in an insulated enclosure. The top of the rod is connected to a metallic ball
at the top of the electroscope. If a negatively charged rod is touched to the metal ball
on the top of the electroscope, electrons move from the negative rod to the ball of the
electroscope, down through the metallic connecting rod to the aluminum leaves,
some moving to the right leaf and some to the left leaf. The negative charge on the
aluminum leaves repel each other, thereby separating the leaves, as shown in figure
20-7
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
20.5(b). The amount of separation of the leaves becomes a measure of the quantity
of charge. If instead of the negative rod, a positive rod were touched to the
electroscope, the leaves would separate in the same way, only this time positive
charge would be on each leaf. Electrons on the electroscope would flow to the
positive rod leaving a deficiency of negative charges on the leaves of the
electroscope. Hence, the leaves would have positive charges on them.
Negatively
charged rod
Rubber
band Copper wire
Metal
ball
Glass
rod
the right shows a charge but the one to the left does not. The reason for this
phenomenon can be explained by the connecting material between the metal bulb
and the electroscope. The copper wire is called a conductor because it allows the
charge deposited on the bulb to be conducted to the electroscope. The rubber band is
called an insulator because it does not permit the charge to reach the electroscope.
(The rubber band insulates the electroscope from the charged bulb.)
In general, most substances fall into either one of these categories. Materials
that permit the free flow of electric charge through them are called conductors.
Materials that do not permit the free flow of electric charge through them
are called insulators or dielectrics. Most metals are good conductors of electric
charge, whereas most nonmetals are insulators. (There are a few materials called
semiconductors, whose characteristics lie between those of conductors and those of
insulators.)
An interesting characteristic of all conductors is that whenever an electric
charge is placed on a conducting body, that charge will redistribute itself until all of
the charge is on the outside of the body. For example, if electric charges are placed
on a solid metallic sphere, the charges exert forces of repulsion on one another and
20-8
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
the charges try to move as far apart as they can. The greatest separation they can
achieve is when they are on the outside of the sphere.
Charging by Induction
Most bodies are electrically neutral, that is, they contain the same number of
positive charges as negative charges. If a negatively charged rod is brought into the
vicinity of an uncharged conducting sphere the negative rod repels the electrons on
the sphere, as shown in figures 20.7(a) and 20.7(b). The sphere still contains equal
(a) Negative rod far away (b) Negative rod brought close
from metallic sphere to, but not touching, metal
sphere
numbers of positive and negative charges but they are now redistributed so that the
right side of the sphere has a negative distribution of charge whereas the left side
has a positive one. (If the rod is removed, the charge would redistribute itself to its
initial neutral configuration.) If you were to touch your finger to the sphere you
would provide a path for the electrons to escape to the ground, as shown in figure
20.7(c).
When you remove your finger from the sphere and remove the negative rod,
the sphere is charged positively. A positive charge has been induced on the sphere
without having touched it with a positive charge.
centers, figure 20.8, then Coulomb found that the force between the charges could
be stated as: The force between the point charges q1 and q2 is directly proportional
r
q q
1 2
to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance separating them. The direction of this force lies along the line separating
the charges. This result is known as Coulombs law. Coulombs law can be stated
mathematically as
q1q2
F=k 2 (20.1)
r
where k is a constant depending upon the units employed and on the medium in
which the charges are located. For a vacuum
For air the value of k is so close to the value of k for a vacuum that the same
value will be used for both. To simplify the solution of problems in this text the
value of k used will be rounded off to the value
and o = 8.854 1012 C2/N m2 and is called the permittivity of free space. If the
charges are placed in a medium other than air or vacuum, then there will be a
different value for the permittivity for that medium and hence a different value of
k. In this text only the simple form, equation 20.1, of Coulombs law will be used.
If the charges are much larger than point charges, Coulombs law can still be
used if the distance separating the charges is quite large compared to the size of the
electric charge. Under these circumstances the charges approximate point charges.
Let us consider some examples of the use of Coulombs law.
Notice the similarity between the form of Coulombs law of electrostatics and
Newtons law of universal gravitation:
20-10
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
Gm 1 m 2
F= (6.37)
r2
Let us compare the electric and gravitational forces between an electron and a
proton in a hydrogen atom. The mass of the proton is mp = 1.67 1027 kg, whereas
the mass of the electron is me = 9.11 1031 kg. The radius of the lowest energy
orbit for the electron is r = 5.29 1011 m. The charge on the electron and proton is
1.60 1019 C. The gravitational force between the electron and the proton is found
from Newtons law of universal gravitation, equation 6.37, as
Gm p m e
Fg =
r2
(6.67 % 10 N m /kg ) 1.67 % 10 27 kg )(9.11 % 10 31 kg )
11 2 2 (
=
(5.29 % 10 11 m ) 2
= 3.63 1047 N
The electric force between the electron and the proton is found from
Coulombs law of electrostatics, equation 20.1, as
kq p q e
Fe =
r2 2
(9.00 % 10 N m /C ) 1.60 % 10 19 C )
9 2 2 (
=
(5.29 % 10 11 m ) 2
= 8.23 108 N
Although both forces seem quite small, let us compare the relative magnitude
of these forces by taking the ratio of the electric force to the gravitational force, that
is,
Fe
= 8.23 % 1047N = 2.27 % 10 39
8
F g 3.63 % 10 N
or
Fe = (2.27 1039)Fg
That is, for the electron-proton system discussed here, the electric force is 1039 times
greater than the gravitational force. Because magnitudes are sometimes hard to
visualize in scientific notation for the beginning student, we can also write this
number as
Fe = 2,270,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 Fg
Therefore, on the atomic level the gravitational force is an extremely weak force,
whereas the electric force is very large. Hence, in the solution of electrostatics
problems the gravitational force can be ignored when compared to the electric force.
On an atomic level, the gravitational force is indeed very weak. By contrast,
however, when extremely large masses are involved, such as in a large dying star,
the gravitational force is so great, that electrons are driven right into the nuclei of
20-11
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
atoms, converting the nuclear protons into neutrons, and creating a neutron star.
The density of the matter in such a neutron star is so great that one tablespoon of
that matter would weigh 10 billion tons if it were located in the gravitational field
at the surface of the earth.
Let us now consider the electrostatic force between the two protons in a
helium nucleus. The protons are separated by a distance of about 2.40 1015 m.
The force between the two protons is
kq p q p
F pp =
r2 2
(9.00 % 10 9 N m 2 /C 2 )(1.60 % 10 19 C )
=
(2.40 % 10 15 m ) 2
= 40.0 N
If we compare this repulsive force between the two protons in the helium nucleus to
the attractive electrostatic force between the electron and the proton in the
hydrogen atom, we see that their ratio is
F pp 40.0 N
= = 4.86 % 10 8
F ep 8.23 % 10 8 N
or
Fpp = 4.86 108 Fep
The force between the two protons in the helium nucleus is an enormous force
and hence the helium nucleus should blow itself apart. The fact that it does not is
an indication of the existence of another force, the strong nuclear force, that holds
the protons together within the nucleus. From the calculation, the nuclear force
holding the nucleus together is at least 108 times greater than the electric force
holding the atom together, that is,
FN = 108 FA
Example 20.1
Coulombs law for two point charges. A point charge, q1 = 2.00 C is placed 0.500 m
from another point charge q2 = 5.00 C. Calculate the magnitude and direction of
the force on each charge.
F12 F21
r
+q 1 -q
2
20-12
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
Solution
The force acting on charge q1, is a force of attraction caused by the negative charge
of q2. This force will be called F12 (force on charge 1 caused by charge 2). Since this
force is in the positive x-direction it can be written as
F12 = iF12
kq 1 q 2
F 12 =
r2
2 (2.00 % 10 6 C)(5.00 % 10 6 C )
F 12 = 9.00 % 10 9 N m
C2 (0.500 m ) 2
F12 = 0.360 N
and the force is
F12 = (0.360 N)i
The force acting on charge q2, F21, is a force of attraction caused by charge q1. Since
this force points in the negative x-direction, it can be written as
F21 = F21i
The magnitude of the force F21 is found from Coulombs law and is given by
kq 2 q 1
F 21 =
r2
2 (5.00 % 10 6 C)(2.00 % 10 6 C )
F 21 = 9.00 % 10 9 N m
C2 (0.500 m ) 2
F21 = 0.360 N
and the force is
F21 = (0.360 N)i
Note that the magnitudes of the forces on q1 and q2 are identical, but their
directions are opposite. This could have been deduced immediately from Newtons
third law, for if charge 1 exerts a force on charge 2, then charge 2 must exert an
equal but opposite force on charge 1.
20-13
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
Example 20.2
The effect of touching two charged spheres. Two identical metal spheres are placed
0.200 m apart. A charge q1 of 9.00 C is placed on one sphere while a charge q2 of
3.00 C is placed upon the other. (a) What is the force on each of the spheres? (b) If
the two spheres are brought together and touched and then returned to their
original positions, what will be the force on each sphere?
(a) (b)
Diagram for example 20.2
Solution
a. The magnitude of the attractive force on sphere 1 is found from Coulombs law as
kq 1 q 2
F 12 =
r2
2 (9.00 % 10 6 C)(3.00 % 10 6 C )
F 12 = 9.00 % 10 9 N m
C2 (0.200 m ) 2
F12 = 6.08 N
and the force is found as
F12 = (6.08 N)i
b. When the spheres are touched together, the 3.00 C of charge q2, neutralizes
+3.00 C of charge q1, leaving a net charge of
This charge of 6.00 106 C is then equally distributed between sphere one and
sphere two, giving q1 = q2 = 3.00 106 C. Since the charges on both spheres are
now positive, the force on each sphere is now repulsive. When the spheres are
removed to the original distance the magnitude of the force on each sphere is now
kq 2 q 1
F=
r2
2 (3.00 % 10 6 C)(3.00 % 10 6 C )
= 9.00 % 10 9 N m
C2 (0.200 m ) 2
20-14
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
F = 2.03 N
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 + .... (20.4)
Example 20.3
Multiple charges in a line. Three charges are placed on the line as shown. The
separation of the charges are r12, = 0.500 m and r23 = 0.500 m. If q1 = 1.00 C, q2 =
2.00 C, and q3 = 3.00 C, find: (a) the resultant force on charge q1, (b) the
resultant force on charge q2, and (c) the resultant force on charge q3.
r13
r r23
12
q q q3
1 2
The resultant force on each charge is equal to the vector sum of all the forces acting
on that charge.
a. As can be seen in diagram 20.3(a), the force on charge 1 is
F1 = F12 + F13
where F12 is the force on charge 1 caused by charge 2, and F13 is the force on charge
1 caused by charge 3. Because q2 is negative, F12 is a force of attraction to the right
and is given by
F12 = iF12
20-15
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
r13
r12 r23
F13 F12
q1 q q3
2
Diagram for example 20.3(a).
F13 = iF13
F1 = iF12 iF13
where
kq 1 q 2
F 12 =
r 212
2 (1.00 % 10 6 C)(2.00 % 10 6 C )
F 12 = 9.00 % 10 9 N m
C2 (0.500 m ) 2
F12 = 0.0720 N
while
kq 1 q 3
F 13 =
r 213
2 (1.00 % 10 6 C)(3.00 % 10 6 C )
F 13 = 9.00 % 10 9 N m2
C (1.00 m ) 2
F13 = 0.0270 N
Therefore,
F1 = iF12 iF13 = (0.0720 N)i (0.0270 N)i
F1 = (0.0450 N)i
That is, the resultant force on charge 1 is a force of 0.0450 N to the right.
F2 = iF23 iF21
From Newtons third law
F21 = F12 = (0.0720 N)i
and
20-16
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
r13
r12 r23
F21 F23
q1 q q3
2
Diagram for example 20.3(b).
kq 2 q 3
F 23 =
r 223
2 (2.00 % 10 6 C)(3.00 % 10 6 C )
F 23 = 9.00 % 10 9 N m
C2 (0.500 m ) 2
F23 = 0.216 N
F3 = iF31 iF32
r13
r12 r23
F32 F31
q1 q q3
2
Diagram for example 20.3(c).
20-17
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
Example 20.4
Multiple charges not on a line. Find the resultant force on charge q2 in the diagram
if q1 = 13.0 C, q2 = 4.00 C, q3 = 5.00 C. r13 = 0.500 m, r23 = 0.800 m,
y
F2
F23
F21
F21y
q x
2 F21x
r12
r23
r13
q q
1 3
F2 = F21 + F23
20-18
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
where F21 is the force on charge 2 caused by charge 1, and F23 is the force on charge
2 caused by charge 3. The distance r12 is found from the diagram and the
Pythagorean theorem as
r 12 = r 213 + r 223
r 12 = (0.500 m ) 2 + (0.800 m ) 2
r12 = 0.940 m
kq 2 q 1
F 21 =
r 212
2 (4.00 % 10 6 C)(13.00 % 10 6 C )
F 21 = 9.00 % 10 9 N m
C2 (0.940 m ) 2
F21 = 0.530 N
while the magnitude of F23 is
kq 2 q 3
F 23 =
r 223
2 (4.00 % 10 6 C)(5.00 % 10 6 C )
F 23 = 9.00 % 10 9 N m
C2 (0.800 m ) 2
F23 = 0.281 N
The addition of the two vectors is an example of the addition of vectors discussed in
chapter 3. The resultant vector is given by
F2 = iF2x + jF2y
F 2 = (F 2x ) 2 + (F 2y ) 2
The force F21 is given by
F21 = iF21x + jF21y
F23 = jF23
and as can be seen from the diagram the y-component of the resultant vector is
F 2 = (F 2x ) 2 + (F 2y ) 2 = (0.281 N ) 2 + (0.730 N ) 2
F2 = 0.782 N
F 2y
$ = tan 1 = tan 1 0.730
F 2x 0.281
= 68.90
Example 20.5
More multiple charges. Find the resultant force on charge q2 in the diagram if q1 =
3.00 C, q2 = 5.00 C, q3 = 4.00 C, r12 = 0.500 m and r23 = 0.500.
Solution
20-20
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
q
3
r13
r23
F21
r12 q
q 2
1
F23 F2
F2 = F21 + F23
F 2 = (F 21 ) 2 + (F 23 ) 2
where
kq 2 q 1
F 21 =
r 221
2 (5.00 % 10 6 C)(3.00 % 10 6 C )
F 21 = 9.00 % 10 9 N m
C2 (0.500 m ) 2
F21 = 0.540 N
and
kq 2 q 3
F 23 =
r 223
2 (5.00 % 10 6 C)(4.00 % 10 6 C )
F 23 = 9.00 % 10 9 N m
C2 (0.500 m ) 2
F23 = 0.720 N
F2 = iF21 jF23
F3 = (0.540 N)i (0.720)j
F 23
= tan 1 = tan 1 0.720
F 21 0.540
= 53.10
Example 20.6
Charged pith balls. Two equally charged pith balls are separated by 0.100 m as
shown in figure 20.9(a). Find the charge on each ball and the tension in the string
if the mass of each ball is 5.00 103 kg, and the length l of the string is 0.250 m.
l
T
Ty
r Fe
Tx
(a) (b) w
Let us consider the forces acting on the ball at the right. The forces acting are the
tension T in the string, the weight w of the ball, and the electric force of repulsion
on the ball Fe as shown in figure 20.9(b).
Since the ball is in equilibrium the first condition of equilibrium is applied as
Fy = 0, Fx = 0
Ty w = 0, Fe T x = 0
T sin = w, Fe = T cos
Fe = T cos = 1
w T sin tan
20-22
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
Fe = w
tan
kq2 = mg
r2 tan
r 2 mg
q=
k tan
= cos1 r/2
l
= cos 5.00 cm
1
25.0 cm
= 78.50
Therefore, the charge on each ball is
r 2 mg
q=
k tan
2
(0.100 m ) (5.00 % 10 3 kg )(9.80 m/s 2 )
=
(9.00 % 10 9 N m 2 /C 2 ) tan 78.5 0
= 1.05 107 C
The tension in the string is
T sin = w
T= w
sin
= mg
sin
= (5.00 10 kg)(9.80 m/s2)
3
sin 78.50
= 5.00 102 N
F21
+q F21 +q
2 2
ro r F12
r
ro
F12 +q1 -q 1
If a charge + q2 is brought into the vicinity of charge q1, it will experience the
force
q2q1
F 21 = k r (20.5)
r2 o
where F21 is the force on charge q2 caused by charge q1. If q1 and q2 are of like sign
then the force on the secondary charge q2 is in the same direction as the unit vector
ro, and the force is one of repulsion as expected and is shown in figure 20.10(a). If
the primary charge is negative, that is, q1, then the charges are of opposite sign
and the force on charge q2 is in the opposite direction of the unit vector ro, and the
force is one of attraction as seen in figure 20.10(b). By Newtons third law, the force
on charge q1 is equal and opposite to the force on charge q2 as expected. That is,
F12 = F21
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 + .
20-24
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
where, again, , the Greek letter sigma, means the sum of and the sum goes from i
= 1 to i = N.
Besides the forces caused by a discrete distribution of charge, the force on a
single charge qo caused by a continuous distribution of charge can be handled in a
similar way. The uniform distribution of charge can be broken up into a large
number of infinitesimal elements of charge, dq, and each element of charge will
produce an element of force dF on the discrete charge qo. Coulombs Law can then be
written as
q o dq
dF= k 2 r o (20.7)
r
where r is the distance from the element of charge dq to the single discrete charge
qo. ro is a unit vector that points from the element of charge dq, and points toward
the discrete charge qo. The total force F on the discrete charge qo, caused by the forces
from the entire distribution of all the dqs is again a sum, but since the elements of
charge dq, are infinitesimal the sum becomes the integral of all the elements of force
dF. That is, the force is found as
q o dq
F= dF= k 2 r o (20.8)
r
y
dF cos dF cos
dq dq
r r
dF dF
dF sin qo x dF sin
dF dF
Figure 20.11 Force on a point charge caused by a continuous distribution of
charge.
20-25
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
second component, dF sin, lies along the negative y-axis. When we add up
(integrate) the effect of all the charges dq we see that half the components dF cos,
are in the positive x-direction, while the other half are in the negative x-direction.
Thus, the sum of all the x-components of the forces will be zero, and we need only
consider the y-components. Both y-components, dF sin, are in the negative
y-direction, and the total force can be written as the scalar integration
q o dq
F = 2dF sin = 2k sin (20.9)
r2
Notice that, in general, k and qo, are constants and, for this particular
problem, r, the radius of the ring is also a constant. Hence, they can all be taken
outside the integral sign. The integral is now given as
2kq o
F=
r2
sin dq (20.10)
Notice that the integration is over dq. Rather than integrating over a charge, it is
easier to integrate over a geometrical figure. We define a linear charge density
as the amount of charge per unit length, that is,
q
= s (20.11)
where q is the total charge on the semicircular ring and s is the total length of the
semicircular ring and also represents the arc of the semicircular ring. Solving
equation 20.11 for q gives
q = s
dq = ds (20.12)
2kq o
F=
r2
sin ds (20.13)
Now the sin and ds are not independent and the relation between them must be
stated before the integration can begin. The angle is related to the radius r and
the arc s of a circle by
s = r
Differentiating this equation we get
ds = r d (20.14)
20-26
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
where ds is an element of an arc of the semicircular ring, r is the radius of the ring,
and d is the small angle subtended by the arc ds. Replacing equation 20.14 into
equation 20.13 gives
2kq o
F=
r2
sin rd
Assuming is a constant, it can be taken out of the integral to yield
2kq o
F= r 0/2 sin d (20.15)
Notice that the integration is now over the angle , and the integration is from = 0
to = /2. Integrating equation 20.15 gives
2kq o
F= r ( cos )| 0
/2
2kq o
F= r cos cos 0
2
2kq o
F = r (0 1 )
2kq o
F= r (20.16)
Equation 20.16 gives the force acting on the discrete charge qo in terms of the
linear charge density . It can be expressed in terms of the total charge q on the
semicircular ring by writing equation 20.11 as
q q
= s = r (20.17)
Notice that the arc s of the semicircular ring is equal to half the circumference of a
circle, namely, r. Substituting equation 20.17 into equation 20.16 we get
2kq o q
F= r r
2kq o q
F= (20.18)
r 2
20-27
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
Quarks
Elementary particles of matter. There are six quarks. They are: up, down, strange,
charm, bottom, and top. The proton and neutron are made of quarks, but the
electron is not (p. ).
Conductors
Materials that permit the free flow of electric charge through them (p. ).
Insulators or Dielectrics
Materials that do not permit the free flow of electric charge through them (p. ).
Coulombs law
The force between point charges q1 and q2 is directly proportional to the product of
their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance separating
them. The direction of the force lies along the line separating the charges (p. ).
20-28
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
20-29
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
r
q q
1 2
9. Repeat problem 8 but now let charge q1 be negative, and find any position
on the line, either to the left of q1 , between q1 and q2, or to the right of q2, where a
third charge can be placed that experiences a zero resultant force.
10. Three charges of 2.00 C, 4.00 C, and 6.00 C are placed at the vertices
of an equilateral triangle of length 10.0 cm on a side. Find the resultant force on
each charge.
11. If q1 = 5.00 C = q2 = q3 = q4 are located on the corners of a square of
length 20.0 cm, find the resultant force on q3.
q
1
q
q 2 q
1 3
l
q q q
3 4 2
12. Charges of 2.54 C, 7.86 C, 5.34 C, and 3.78 C are placed on the
corners of a square of side 23.5 cm. Find the resultant force on the first charge.
13. Find the force on charge q3 = 1.00 C, if q1 = + 5.00 C and q2 = 5.00 C.
The distance separating charges q1 and q2 is 5.00 cm, and l = 1.00 m.
20-30
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
q
3
r23
q q
1 r12 2
Additional Problems.
17. Find the force on charge q5 = 5.00 C, located at the center of a square
25.0 cm on a side if q1 = q2 = 3.00 C and q3 = q4 = 6.00 C.
q 300
q 2
1
q l = 25 cm
5
q q q
1
q
3 4 2
18. Two small, equally charged, spheres of mass 0.500 gm are suspended
from the same point by a silk fiber 50.0 cm long. The repulsion between them keeps
them 15.0 cm apart. What is the charge on each sphere?
19. Two pith balls of 10.0 gm mass are hung from ends of a string 25.0 cm
long, as shown. When the balls are charged with equal amounts of charge, the
threads separate to an angle of 30.00. What is the charge on each ball?
20-31
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
20. Two 10.0 gm pith balls are hung from the ends of two 25.0 cm long strings
as shown. When an equal and opposite charge is placed on each ball, their
separation is reduced from 10.0 cm to 8.00 cm. Find the tension in each string and
the charge on each ball.
q q
1 2
8 cm
10 cm
1m
+q
q
1 r qo
q
3
2a
x
1m
-q
q
2
+q r qo
while the force between a point charge q and the point charge qo varies as 1/r2.
Which force is the weaker?
26. A plastic rod 50.0 cm long, has a charge + q1 = 2.00 C at each end. The
rod is then hung from a string and placed so that each charge is only 5.00 cm from
negative charges q2 = 10.0 C as shown in the diagram. Find the torque acting on
the string.
27. A charge of 5.00 C is uniformly distributed over a copper ring 2.00 cm in
radius. What force will this ring exert on a point charge of 8.00 C that is placed
3.00 m away from the ring. Indicate what assumptions you make to solve this
problem.
28. A charge of 2.50 C is placed at the center of a hollow sphere of charge of
8.00 C. What is the resultant force on the charge placed at the center of the
sphere? Indicate what assumptions you make to solve this problem.
q
2
r r
q
1 q
1
q
2
Interactive Tutorials
31. Coulombs law. Two charges q1 = 2.00 106 C and q2 = 3.00 106 C are
separated by a distance r = 1.00 m. Calculate the electrostatic force F of repulsion
acting on charge 1 as the distance of separation is increased from r = 1 to r = 10 m.
Show how the force F varies with the distance r.
32. Coulombs law. Two electrons of charge q1 = q2 = e = 1.60 1019 C are
positioned at the coordinates (0,1) and (0,1) (in meters) of a Cartesian coordinate
system. Calculate the net force F3 on an electron q3 as it is moved from x = 0 to x =
10.0 m along the x-axis.
20-33
Chapter 20 Electrostatics and Coulombs Law
33. Coulombs law and multiple charges. Two charges q1 = 8.32 106 C and
q2 = 2.55 106 C lie on the x-axis and are separated by the distance r12 = 0.823 m.
A third charge q3 = 3.87 106 C is located a distance r23 = 0.475 m from charge q2,
and the line between charge 2 and 3 makes an angle = 60.00 with respect to the
x-axis. Find the resultant force on (a) charge 3, (b) charge 2, and (c) charge 1.
34. Coulombs law and a continuous charge distribution. A rod of charge of
length L = 0.100 m lies on the x-axis. One end of the rod lies at the origin and the
other end is on the positive x-axis. A charge q = 7.36 106 C is uniformly
distributed over the rod. Find the force exerted on a point charge q = 2.95 106 C
that lies on the x-axis at distance x0 = 0.175 m from the origin of the coordinate
system.