Chapter 5: Chemical Bond

Stability of Noble Gases

1. Group 18 elements (Noble Gases) exist as monoatom in nature.
2. They are inert in nature and do not react with any other elements (or themselves) to form
any chemical compounds.
3. In other words, they are chemically very stable (or chemically very non-reactive).

Duplet and Octet Electron Arrangement

1. The charge on the nucleus and the number of electrons in the valence shell determine
the chemical properties of an atom.
2. The stability of noble gas is due to their electrons arrangement.
3. The diagram above shows the first four elements of Noble Gas. We can see that the
outer most shell (valence shell) of Helium has 2 electrons. We call this duplet electron
arrangement.
4. The maximum number of electrons can be filled in the first shell is 2 electrons, which
means 2 electrons in the first shell is considered FULL.
5. The valence shell all other Group 18 elements (including Xenon and Radon which is not
shown in the diagram) has 8 electrons, and we call this octet electron arrangement.
6. When the electron arrangement of an atom is duplet or octet, the energy of the electrons
is very low, and it is very difficult (even though it is not impossible) to add or remove
electrons from the atom.
7. This explains why noble gases are reluctant to react with all other elements.
The Octet Rule
1. Atoms of other main group elements which are not octet tend to react with other atoms
in various ways to achieve the octet.
2. The tendency of an atom to achieve an octet arrangement of electrons in the outermost
shell is called the octet rule.
3. If the outermost shell is the first shell, then the maximum number of electrons is two, and
the most stable electron arrangement will be duplet.
4. A configuration of two electrons in the first shell, with no other shells occupied by
electrons, is as stable as the octet electron arrangement and therefore is also said to obey
the octet rule.

How Atoms Achieve Duplet or Octet Electron Arrangement?

1. Atoms can achieve duplet or octet electron arrangement in 3 ways:
1. throw away the excess electron(s)
2. receiving electron(s) from other atom if they are lack of electron(s)
3. sharing electron
The Ionic Bond

(Ionic Bond)
1. By releasing or receiving electron(s), the atoms will become ions and consequently form
ionic bond between the ions.
2. Ionic bonds are always formed between metal and non-metal. For example, sodium
(metal) react with chlorine (non-metal) will form an ionic bond between sodium ion and
chloride ion.
3. The compounds formed are called the ionic compounds.
4. Some time, an ionic bond is also called electrovalent bond.

The Covalent Bond

(Covalent Bond)
1. By sharing electron(s), the atoms will form covalent bond between the atom and the
molecule formed is called the covalent molecule.
2. Covalent bond is always formed between non-metal with another non-metal.
Formation of Ion

1. An ion is an atom or group of atoms carrying positive or negative charge. Example Ca , 2+

O , SO4 etc.
2- 2-

2. If a particle has equal numbers of protons (+) and electrons (-), the particle charge is
zero, and the particle is said to be neutral.
3. In a chemical reaction, electron(s) can be transferred from atom to another atom.
4. If electron(s) is removed from an atom, the number of protons will be more than number
of electrons. In this case, the atom will has excess positive charge and hence form a
positive ion (cation).

(An atom losses electron to form positive ion)

5. If an atom gains electrons, there is an excess negative charge in the atom, so a negative
ion is formed.
6. In other words,
1. The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion (cation) and is usually a metal.
2. The atom gaining electrons forms a negative ion (anion) and is usually a non-
metallic element.

(An atom gain electron to form negative ion)

Formation of Positive Ion
1. Usually, the atom of metals consist of 1, 2 or 3 valence electrons.
2. In order to achieve octet electrons arrangement, the atoms will release the valence
electrons.
3. After releasing the valence electrons, the protons in the nucleus will out number the
electrons. As a result, positive ions formed.

Example: Formation of Ion with +1 Charge

(A sodium atom release one electron to form a sodium ion with +1 charge)

Example: Formation of Ion with +2 Charge

(A magnesium atom release one electron to form a sodium ion with +2 charge)
Example: Formation of Ion with +3 Charge

(An aluminium atom release one electron to form a sodium ion with +3 charge)

Formation of Negative Ion

1. Negative ions are formed among atoms of non-metal elements except group-18
elements.
2. Non-metal elements usually located in group 15, 16 and 17 in the periodic table and
have 5, 6 or 7 valence electrons.
3. To achieve octet arrangement of electrons, their atoms will receive 3, 2 or 1 electron.
4. As a result, the electrons will out number the protons and hence negative ions formed.

Formation of Negative Ions of -1 Charge

(A fluorine atom receives one electron to form a fluoride ion with -1 charge)
Formation of Negative Ions of -2 Charge

(An oxygen atom receives two electrons to form a oxide ion with -2
charge)

Difference Between Fluoride Ion and Neon Atom

1. After forming an ion, the electron arrangement of the ion is similar to the noble gases.
2. For example, the electron arrangement of fluoride ion is 2.8 which is similar to a Neon
atom, 2.8.
3. Fluoride ion and the neon atom have similar electron arrangement.
4. Fluoride ion carries charge whereas neon atom is neutral.

(The electrons arrangement of a fluoride ion is the same as a neon atom. However, they are so much different chemically)
Ionic Bonding

1. Ionic bonds are formed by one atom transferring electrons to another atom to form ions.
2. Ions are atoms, or groups of atoms, which have lost or gained electrons.
3. The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion (a cation) and is usually a metal.
4. The atom gaining electrons forms a negative ion (an anion) and is usually a non-metallic
element.
5. Ions of opposite charge will attract one another by strong electrostatic force, thus
creating an ionic bond.
6. Ionic bond is also known as electrovalence bond.

Example: Ionic Bonding between Group 1 Metals and Group

17 Elements

1. Figure above shows the illustration of the formation of ionic bond between a sodium
atom (group 1 metal) and a chlorine atom (group 17 element).
2. The electron arrangement of sodium atom is 2.8.1, which is not octet and hence not
stable.
 3. To achieve octet electrons arrangement, the sodium atom donate/release one electron
and form sodium ion.
4. The electron arrangement of chlorine atom is 2.8.7, which is also not octet and hence
not stable, too.
5. To achieve octet electrons arrangement, the chlorine atom receives one electron from
sodium atom and form a chloride ion.
6. The sodium ion and the chloride ion carry opposite charge, hence they attract each other
and form an ionic bond between each other.

Example: Ionic Bonding between Group 2 Metals and Group

17 Elements

1. Figure above shows the illustration of the formation of ionic bond between two
potassium atoms (group 1 metal) and an oxygen atom (group 16 element).
2. The electron arrangement of potassium atom is 2.8.8.1, which is not octet and hence not
stable.
3. To achieve octet electrons arrangement, the potassium atom donate/release one
electron and form potassium ion.
4. The electron arrangement of oxygen atom is 2.6, which is also not octet and hence not
stable, too.
5. To achieve octet electrons arrangement, the oxygen atom receives two electrons from
potassium atoms and form an oxide ion.
 6. The potassium ions and the oxide ion carry opposite charge, hence they attract each
other and form two ionic bond between the ions.

Example: Ionic Bonding between Group 2 Metals and Group

16 Elements

1. Figure above shows the illustration of the formation of ionic bond between a calcium
atom (group 2 metal) and an oxygen atom (group 16 element).
2. The electron arrangement of calcium atom is 2.8.8.2, which is not octet and hence not
stable.
3. To achieve octet electrons arrangement, the potassium atom donate/release two
electrons and form calcium ion.
4. The electron arrangement of oxygen atom is 2.6, which is also not octet and hence not
stable, too.
5. To achieve octet electrons arrangement, the oxygen atom receives two electrons from
the calcium atom and form an oxide ion.
6. The calcium ion and the oxide ion carry opposite charge, hence they attract each other
and form an ionic bond between each other.
Covalent Bonding

1. Covalent bonds are formed by atoms sharing electrons to form molecules. This type of
bond usually formed between two non-metallic elements.
2. In the formation of covalent bonds, atoms of non-metals will combine with each other to
donate one, two or three electrons for sharing.
3. The compound formed through the formation of covalent bonds is called the covalent
compounds.

Examples of Covalent Compound

Covalent Formula Covalent Formula
Compound Compound

Chlorine Cl2 Phosphorus P4

Hydrogen H2 Sulfur dioxide SO2

Oxygen O2 Carbon dioxide CO2

N2 Tetrachloro- CCl4
Nitrogen
methane
Examples of Formation of Covalent
Compounds
Formation of Fluorine Molecule

1. The electrons arrangement of a fluorine atom is 2.7

2. To achieve octet electrons arrangement, 2 fluorine atoms share 1 pair of electrons
between each other.
3. As a result, a covalent bond formed between the 2 atoms.
Formation of Oxygen Molecule

1. The electrons arrangement of an oxygen atom is 2.6

2. To achieve octet electrons arrangement, 2 fluorine atoms share 2 pair of electrons
between each other.
3. As a result, 2 covalent bonds formed between the 2 atoms.

Formation of Carbon Dioxide Molecule

 1. The electrons arrangement of an oxygen atom is 2.6 and the electrons arrangement of a
hydrogen atom is 1.
2. To achieve octet electrons arrangement, the oxygen atom share 2 pair of electrons with
2 hydrogen atoms.
3. The hydrogen atoms achieve duplet electrons arrangement after sharing electron with
the oxygen atom.
4. As a result, covalent bonds formed between the oxygen atom and the hydrogen atoms.

Number of Bond

1. There are 3 types of covalent bond:

1. Single covalent bond sharing of one pair of electrons
2. Double covalent bond sharing of two pairs of electrons
3. Triple covalent bond sharing of three pairs of electrons

Example
Number of electron Example and type of covalent bond

1 pair type of covalent bond: Single Bond

2 pair type of covalent bond: Double Bond

3 pair type of covalent bond: Triple Bond

Formation of Single Bond (Hydrogen Molecule)

Formation of Double Bond (Oxygen Molecule)

Formation of Triple Bond (Nitrogen Molecule)
Comparison between the formation of Ionic and Covalent.

Comparison between the physical properties of ionic and

covalent compounds.
Predicting the Molecular Formula of Covalent Compounds
1. Like the formula of ionic compounds, the formula of most covalent compounds can be
predicted by referring to the group in periodic table of the elements in the compound.
2. We can predict the formula of a covalent compound by referring to the valency of the
elements in the compound, if we know which group in periodic table the element is
located.
3. The valency of an atom is the number of electrons receive of release to achieve octet
electrons arrangement.
4. For example, the electron arrangement of an oxygen atom is 2.6. To achieve octet
electrons arrangement, the oxygen atom need to receive 2 electrons. Therefore, the
valency of oxygen is 2.
5. Table below shows the group of the elements, the valency of the elements and the
predicted formula of covalent compounds formed among the elements.

Element that combine Formula of the covalent compound

Element X from Valency Element Y from Valency
Group 15 3 Group 15 3 XY
Group 15 3 Group 16 2 XY 2 3

Group 15 3 Group 17 1 XY 3

Group 16 2 Group 16 2 XY
Group 16 2 Group 17 1 XY 2

Group 17 1 Group 17 1 XY