A - AN

If you have to use a or an, depends on the sound the word begins with.

If the first sound is a consonant you have to use a.

banana

a sandwich

toffee

If the first sound is a vowel you have to use an.

orange

an apple

ice - cream

NOTE:
an hour - because the first letter is silent and the word starts with an au-sound.
a uniform, a university - because the first letter starts with a ju-sound.

ARTICLES
There are only three articles in English: a, an (indefinite article) and the (definite
article).

We use a / an when the listener doesnt know what thing we mean. We use the when it
is clear which thing we mean.
Example: I watched a movie last night. The movie was thrilling.
 THE PLURAL
Singular + s
parrot parrots apple apples girl girls

Words ending with y if a consonant is written before. ----> ies

lolly lollies story stories strawberry strawberries
but: boy boys toy - toys bay - bays

Words ending with ch, x, s, sh, o ----> es

class classes brush brushes box boxes

Some words ending with f, fe, lf ----> ves

knife knives wolf wolves life lives
but: chiefs, safes, cliffs, handkerchiefs

Irregular forms
man - men woman - women tooth - teeth
goose - geese ox - oxen louse - lice
foot - feet mouse - mice child - children
person - people

Some nouns are identical to the singular form

bison - bison deer - deer sheep - sheep
fish - fish mouse - mouse offspring - offspring
You can use singular or plural with words like family, class, police, team, army,
band, choir, class, club, crew, company, firm, gang, government, orchestra, party,
staff, etc.
In British English the plural is used more often than in American English.

If the group acts in unison (as a group), use a singular verb:

My family lives in Miami. All the members living under one roof.
The team was successful. You see the team as a group.

If the group acts individually, use a plural verb:

My family live in towns all over Florida. Each individual is living a separate life in a
different town.
The team were successful. You see the single members of the team
 AM IS ARE

Long form Short form Example Negation Question

I am I'm I am late. I am not ('m not) late. Am I late?
You are You're You are clever. You are not (aren't) clever. Are you clever?
He is He's He is happy. He is not (isn't) happy. Is he happy?
She is She's She is hungry. She is not (isn't) hungry. Is she hungry?
It is It's It is cold. It is not (isn't) cold. Is it cold?

We are We're We are late. We are not (aren't) late. Are we late?
You are You're You are sleepy. You are not (aren't) sleepy. Are you sleepy?
They are They're They are great. They are not (aren't) great. Are they great?
 POSSESSIVE CASE
The possessive case is used to express that something belongs to someone or
to show a relationship between two or more people. We show this ownership by
adding an apostrophe and an s to the noun if the noun is a person or an
animal. We use the word "of" if there is a relation between two or more things.

With persons and animals:

Singular: 's Plural: s'
This is Tom's bike. These are the boys' bikes.
This is Kathy's mother. This is the girls' mum.

's with irregular plural forms: These are our children's cell phones.
's or s' with people's names ending in "s": This is Charles' / Charles's car.
To express an ownership for two or more people put the 's to the final name:
This girl is Ken and Bob's sister.

With things:
of
The colour of the table is black. The second chapter of this book.

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
Possessive adjectives are used to show that something or someone belongs to
a person. The possessive adjective is always used with a noun.

Examples: I like my new mountain bike. She does her homework

PERSONAL PRONOUNS POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES

(Die persnlichen Frwrter) (Die besitzanzeigenden Frwrter)
I ich my mein
you du your dein
he er his sein
she sie her ihr
it es its sein

we wir our unser

you ihr your euer
they sie their ihre
 QUESTIONS WORDS
WHAT - was What is your name?
WHEN - wann, als When does he come?
WHERE - wo, wohin Where do you live?
WHY - warum Why are you late?
WHO - wer Who is that girl?
WHOSE - wessen Whose pen is it?
WHICH - welche(r)(s) Which book do you like best?
HOW - wie How are you?
HOW MUCH - wieviel How much is the dress?
HOW MANY - wieviel How many rackets do you have?
 PRESENT SIMPLE

We use the present simple to express habits, facts, thoughts and feelings.
It is also used with general statements and actions that are repeated. It is
formed with the base form of the verb, except the third person singular where
you have to add an "s".
Key words: often, always, never, every day, month,..., usually,
sometimes, generally, normally, rarely, seldom, whenever, on
Mondays, Tuesdays,...

DON'T (do not) + TO BE, CAN, MUST -->

I, YOU + PLURAL
VERB VERB + NOT

They don't go to They are not (aren't) at

They go to school.
school. home.
The boys are not
I like oranges. I don't like oranges.
(aren't) in the park.
We don't I am not (I'm
We hate peppermint.
hate peppermint. not) hungry.
We can not (cannot /
You have a cold. You don't have a cold.
can't) swim.
Monkeys (= Monkeys don't I must not
They) eat bananas. eat snakes. (mustn't) go out.
Bob and I (= Bob and I don't
We) go shopping. go shopping.
Jim and Carol Jim and Carol don't
(=They) sing a song. sing a song.

DOESN'T (does not) +

HE, SHE, IT + S VERB + NOT
VERB

He doesn't want an ice She is not (isn't) at

He wants an ice cream.
cream. school.
She doesn't like hot
She likes hot dogs. It is not (isn't) hungry.
dogs.
He can not (cannot /
It drinks milk. It doesn't drink milk.
can't) sing.
The dog doesn't Susan is not
The dog (= It) hates cats.
hate cats. (isn't) angry.
Ann (= Ann doesn't
She) hates chewing gums. hate chewing gums.
Bob (= Bob doesn't
He) speaks English. speak German.

NOTE
- es after - s / - ch / - sh
Examples: passes - watches - finishes
- ies if there is a consonant before the y
Examples: study - studies / carry - carries / but play - plays
do - does / go - goes / have - has

PRESENT TENSE - ASKING QUESTIONS

That's the way how to form questions. The question word (what, ...) always
comes first!
(So stellst du Fragen. Das Fragewort (what, where,...) kommt immer an die erste Stelle!)

1. am - is -are - can - must - have got

Are they happy? Where are the children?

Is she a nice girl? What is the time?
Can you swim? What can you draw?
Have you got a dog? How many stickers have you got?

2. with verbs - do, does

Do the boys play football? Where do the boys play?

Do you like ice cream? What do you like?
Do they like coffee? What do they like for breakfast?

With he, she, it - does What does she like?

Where does Carol live?
Does she like hamburgers? What does an elephant eat?
Does Carol play the guitar?
Does an elephant eat nuts?
 COMMANDS
Commands are also known as the imperative form. There is no difference if
you give a command to a single person or to a goup of people - the form of the
verb is the same. Put the verb in the infinitive form without "to" at the
beginning of the sentence, you don't use a subject and end the sentence with
an object.

Tell someone to do something:

Put out the rubbish.
Take an umbrella with you.
Turn off the TV.

Negative form: to make commands negative, put "don't" or "do not" before
the verb.

Tell someone not to do something:

Don't shout at me.
Don't open the window.
Do not stay out too late.

Polite form: if you want to use the polite form, then add the word "please".

Polite form:
Please don't shout at me.
Please tell me your phone number.
Hand out the books, please.
Help me with the homework, please.
 SOME - ANY

We use some und any with uncountable things.

SOME: 1. In sentences you expect a positive answer and with demands

Examples: I bought some very nice postcards. Give me some orange juice, please.
2. In polite questions or requests or if we expect the answer "YES"
Examples: Would you like some more coffee? Do we have some time to go to the cinema?

ANY: 1. In questions: Have you got any blue shoes?

2. In negations: No, I haven't got any.
3. In conditional clauses: If I had any, I would wear it.
4. We use any with never, without and hardly They hardly do any homework.

Compound nouns with some and any:

They are used the same way as some and any.
Talking about people: somebody - anybody = someone - anyone
I didn't know anyone at the meeting. I had to ask someone to find the hotel.

Talking about things: something - anything

We don't have anything to eat. He saw something in his garden.

Talking about places: somewhere - anywhere

We didn't go anywhere last weekend. They stayed somewhere near Manchester.
 THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
Monosyllabic adjectives are compared with -er, -est.

(Einsilbige Adjektive werden mit -er, -est gesteigert.)

positive comparative superlative

strong stronger strongest
small smaller smallest
late later latest
nice nicer nicest
big bigger biggest
thin thinner thinnest
fat fatter fattest

Example: London is bigger than Vienna.

Disyllabic adjectives ending with y, er, ow, le are compared with -er, -est.

(Zweisilbige Adjektive auf y, er, ow, le werden mit -er, -est gesteigert.)

positive comparative superlative

easy easier easiest
happy happier happiest
clever cleverer cleverest
narrow narrower narrowest

Example: Which is the easiest exercise?

All the other adjectives are compared with more, most.

(Alle anderen Adjektive werden mit more, most gesteigert.)

positive comparative superlative

careful more careful most careful
expensive more expensive most expensive
difficult more difficult most difficult
tired more tired most tired
terrible more terrible most terrible

Which dress is more expensive? Which dress is the most expensive?

(Welches Kleid ist teurer?) (Welches Kleid ist am teuersten?)

Special adjectives can be compared with -er, -est or more, most.

(Manche Adjektive werden mit -er, -est oder mit more, most gesteigert.)
positive comparative superlative
clever cleverer / more clever cleverest / most clever
common commoner / more common commonest / most common
likely likelier / more likely likeliest / most likely
pleasant pleasanter / more pleasant pleasantest / most pleasant
polite politer / more polite politest / most polite
quiet quieter / more quiet quietest / most quiet
stupid stupider / more stupid stupidest / most stupid
sure surer / more sure surest / most sure
subtle subter / more subtle subtlest / most subtle
simple simpler / more simple simplest / most simple

Irregular forms

positive comparative superlative

good better best
bad worse worst
much more most
many more most
little less least

(not) as ... as

Ann is as tall as Mary. - (Anna ist genauso gro wie Maria.)

I think tomorrow it will be as hot as today.
This test was not as difficult as the last one.
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS
SUBJECT OBJECT
I ich me mich
you du you dich
he er him ihn
she sie her sie
it es it es

we wir us uns
you ihr you euch
they sie them sie
 PREPOSITIONS OF TIME
AT
We use at with times
at 5 o'clock - at 11.45 - at midnight - at
lunchtime
Tom usually gets up at 7 o'clock.
We use at in these expressions:
at night - at Christmas - at the moment / at
present - at the same time - at weekends -
at the age of...
IN
We use in for longer periods of time
in April - in 1986 - in winter - in the 19th
century - in the 1970s - in the morning(s) /
in the afternoon(s) / in the evening(s)
In + period of time = a time in the future:
Jack will be back in a week.
The train will leave in a few minutes.
In + how long it takes to do something
I learned to drive in four weeks.
FOR
We use for + a period of time expressing
duration
for six years - for two hours - for a week
I've lived in this house for six years. They
have been watching TV for two hours.
UNTIL
We use until/till to say how long a
situation continues
Let's wait until it stops raining. I stayed in
bed until half past nine.
ON
We use on with dates and
days
on 12 March - on Friday(s) - on
Friday morning(s)
on Sunday afternoon(s) - on
Saturday night(s)
on Christmas Day (but at
Christmas)
DURING
We use during + noun to say
when something happens
during the film - during our
holiday - during the night
We met a lot of interesting
people during our holiday.
I fell asleep during the film.
SINCE
We use since + a starting
point, a specific time
since April - since 1992 - since
8 o' clock
It has been raining since one o'
clock. They've known each
other since they were at school.
FROM - TO
We use from - to + beginning
and end of a period
Last evening we watched TV
from 5 to 8 o' clock.
 PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE
1 ) AT - IN - ON

General Information

AT ON
We use at for a point: We use on for a surface:
at the window - at the entrance - at the door on the wall - on the ceiling - on the floor - on a page
at the end of the street - at the station - at
on a cover
the top
Bill is waiting for you at the bus stop. Have you seen the notice on the notice board?

IN
We use in for an enclosed space:
in the garden - in the house - in London - in
the water
in her bag - in a row - in a town
There is nobody in the room. She lives in a
small village.

Special Information

AT
1. We say that someone is at an event:
at a party - at a pop concert - at a
conference - at a meeting
Tom is at a party.
2. We say at with buildings when we say where
the event (film, concert,...) takes place:
Where were you yesterday? At the cinema.
The meeting took place at the headquarters.

3. We say at someone's house: 4. We say at for a place which is a part of our

journey:
We were at Bill's house last Thursday. We stopped at a very nice village. Does the train
stop at Nashville?

ON
1. We use on with small islands:
She spent her holiday on a small island.
2. We say that a place is on the coast / on a river
/ on a road:
London is on the river Thames.
Portsmouth is on the south coast of England.

IN
1. We say in when we talk about a 2. We usually say in with towns and villages:
buildingitself.
The rooms of Tom's house are small. His parents live in York.
Note these expressions

AT
at home - at work - at school - at university - at college - at the station - at an airport - at the
seaside - at sea (on a voyage) - at reception - at the corner of a street - at the back / front of a
building / cinema / group of people, etc. - arrive at with other places or events

IN
in the newspaper - in bed - in hospital - in prison - in the street - in the sky - in an armchair (sit) -
in a photograph - in a picture - in a mirror - in the corner of a room - in the back / front of a car -
arrive in a country or town

ON
on a farm& - on the left - on the right - on the ground floor - on the first, second,... floor - on the
way - on the chair (sit) - on the radio - on television - on a horse - on the corner of a street - on
the back / front of a letter / piece of paper etc.

2) TO - INTO - BY

TO INTO
We say go / come / travel / fly / walk /
We say go into / come into etc. = enter a room /
return / drive / have been etc. to a place or
building etc.:
event:
Last year we flew to London. We went to He opened the door and went into the room.
work at seven.

BY
We say by to say how we travel:
We went to Paris by plane. I usually go to
work by bike / by car / by underground / by
bus

BUT:
We say on foot
We cannot use by if you say my car
/ the train / a taxi
We use in for taxis and cars. I was in a taxi when she called me.
We use on for bike / public transport. I rode to school on my bike.
 PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

How to form: I am + verb + ing I am playing.

he, she, it is + verb + ing The bird is singing.
you, we, they are + verb + ing We are dancing.
Short forms: I'm playing. The bird's singing. We're dancing
Negation: I am not (I'm not) + ing form
he, she, it is not (isn't) + ing form
you, we, they are not (aren't) + ing form
Question: Are they learning for the test?
Form of to be - subject - ing form

The present progressive is used to indicate actions happening at the time of speaking
or future actions.
(Zeigt an, dass eine Handlung gerade jetzt im Augenblick des Sprechens vor sich geht. Sie wird auch verwendet
um eine geplante Handlung in der Zukunft auszudrcken.)
Key words: look, listen, now, at the moment, still, at present
Note: take taking no e
make making no e
When a short vowel is spoken doubling of the
run running
consonant
sit sitting Nach kurzem Selbstlaut Verdopplung des Konsonanten
lie lying ie y

Examples: Look, Ann is running down the street.

She is sleeping now.
Listen, I'm talking to you!
 THE PAST SIMPLE
The simple past or past simple is used to write and talk about completed
actions that happened in a time before the present. It is the basic form of the
past tense in English. Study the following information how to form the simple
past and how to form the negation and questions.

REGULAR VERBS

How to form: Infinitive + ed = 2nd form

Examples: walk + ed walked
laugh + ed laughed
want + ed wanted
Note: cry - cried yi
carry - carried yi
love - loved no e
hope - hoped no e
stop - stopped if you speak a short vowel doubling
drop -dropped Bei kurz gesprochenen Vokal Verdopplung

Key words: yesterday, last week (month, Monday, October,...), in

1984, ago

IRREGULAR VERBS

Examples: 1st form 2nd form 1st form 2nd form

am, is was see saw
are were do did
get got take took
go went have had

NEGATION

didn't (= did not) + 1st form

He didn't go to her last party. They didn't like his story.

BUT: was not (wasn't), were not (weren't), could not (couldn't)

QUESTION

did + 1st form

Did he go to her last party? Did they like his story?
Where did they live?
 Question word did Person verb

BUT: Was he angry? Were they late? Could they swim?

THE WILL FUTURE

How to form: will + infinitive (=1st form) They will be late. / He will come.
Short form: will = 'll They'll be late. / He'll come.
Negation: will not = won't They will not be late / He won't come.
Question: Will .... ? Will they be late? / Will he come?

Key words: tomorrow, next week (month, year, summer, Monday, weekend,...), in
2020...

Examples:
I think I will meet her tomorrow.
I hope he will be back before 9.30.
I think I'll be there at five.

The will - future is used

1. to talk about future actions we can't influence or control.

2. to foretell future actions or to express hopes, expectations, fears, offers, promises, refusals,...
.
Key words: Im sure, I believe, I expect, I hope, I suppose, I think, I'm afraid, I wonder, I
fear, I worry, I promise, I guess or perhaps, possibly, surely, probably, maybe
3. with I / we for spontaneous reactions or making promises
I shall is sometimes used instead of I will.
 Question tags
Question tags are used in spoken English, but not in written English. They are
put at the end of the sentence.
To make a question tag, use the first auxiliary (forms of to be, have) or modal
verb (must, can, will). If there isnt an auxiliary or modal verb, use do, does or
did.

Positive or negative

If the sentence is positive, the question tag must be negative.

He is good at dancing, isnt he?

They left yesterday afternoon, didnt they?
She was surprised, wasnt she?

If the sentence is negative, the question tag must be positive.

He isnt good at dancing, is he?

They didnt leave yesterday, did they?
She wasnt surprised, was she?

Auxiliary verbs

They havent met him before, have they?

He is in the park, isnt he?
They are studying at the moment, arent they?
She has a brother, hasnt she?
They were in Paris last week, werent they?

Modal verbs

She can help him, cant she?

He will tell me, wont he?
They should learn for the test, shouldnt they?
It cant be true, can it?

No auxiliary or modal verb

She left last Friday, didnt she?

He works in your company, doesnt he?
You dont know him, do you?

NOTE:

with "I am" you have to use "arent I"

I am the best, arent I?

There is a new restaurant next to your company, isnt there?

Lets go to the shopping mall, shall we?
Use the same auxiliary, modal verb or do, does or did to reply:

Your holidays were really relaxing, werent they? Yes, they were. We really
enjoyed them.
She visited her aunt last week, didnt she? Yes, she did. She went to her
last Saturday.
You couldnt help him in the garden, could you? No, I couldnt. I had to work
in the office.
 POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS
Possessive adjectives and pronouns are used to show that something or
someone belongs to a person. The possessive adjective is used with a noun, the
possessive pronoun is used without a noun.
The possessive pronoun replaces an possessive adjective + a noun:

This laptop is his laptop and not my laptop. This laptop is his and not mine.

Possessive Adjective Possessive Pronoun

This is my house. No, it's mine.

Is this your bike? No, it's yours.
This is his book. Yes, it's his.
Her pullover is green. No, hers is brown.
Here is its ball. ---- (We don't use its)

We like our dog. This dog is ours.

Is this your car? Yes, it's yours.
This is their telephone. No, it isn't theirs.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

Reflexive pronouns are used to express that someone is doing something

on his/her own. These pronouns always refer back to the subject of the
sentence. They end in -self in the singular, and in -selves in the plural.

Personal pronoun Reflexive pronoun

I myself
you yourself
he himself
she herself
it itself

we ourselves
you yourselves
they themselves

He killed himself with poison.

I can do it myself.
The parents blamed themselves.
 ADJECTIVE OR ADVERB
THE DIFFERENCE

An adjective tells us more about a noun. Example: an expensive car, a clever girl

An adverb tells us more about a verb. Example: He talked nervously.

HOW TO FORM THE ADVERB

Adjective + ly

sad sadly quiet quietly

nervous nervously soft softly

Adjectives ending in -y ily

happy happily angry angrily

Adjectives ending in -le ly

terrible terribly capable capably

Adjectives ending in -ly

friendly in a friendly way / manner daily daily

lively in a lively way / manner early early
lonely in a lonely way / manner monthly monthly
lovely in a lovely way / manner weekly weekly
silly in a silly way / manner yearly yearly

Irregular forms

good well low low

fast fast straight straight
hard hard extra extra
long long doubtless doubtless

Double forms

hard hard hardly = kaum

near near nearly = beinahe
late late lately = in letzter Zeit
 HOW TO USE THE ADVERB

Verb + adverb
The adverb describes a verb.

Example: He drove carefully.

verb adverb
She sold her house quickly
verb adverb

Adjective + adverb
The adverb describes an adjective.

Example: Her necklacewas horribly expensive.

adverb adjective
She was terribly sorry.
adverb adjective

Adverb + adverb
The adverb describes an adverb.

Example: They played terribly badly.

adverb adverb
He did his homework absolutely correctly.
adverb adverb
 CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are words that join different kinds of grammatical structures. They
connect words, phrases or sentences and are used to give more information
about time, place, persons and things, but also give reasons and express
contrast.

TIME when, until, till, after, before, since, while, at first, but
then
Janet was in her room when her mother called.
He waited until she came.
After Peter had gone to bed, he read a book.

PLACE where
He didn't know where he had put his purse.

REASON because, so, therefore / that's why

He couldn't help them because he didn't have any time.
She was ill, and so she couldn't go to the party.

CONTRAST but
This city is nice to visit, but I wouldn't like to live there.

RELATIVE CLAUSES who (persons), which (animals, things), that

This is the man who / that won the race.
Is this the car which / that he bought last summer?

MODAL VERBS
NEGATION EXAMPLE
can cannot We can speak English.
to be able to to be not able to They were able to run faster.
may may not On this road wild animals may cross.
to be allowed to to be not allowed to She wasn't allowed to go to the party
In this park you must keep off the
must Must not
lawn.
The road is dangerous. You should
should should not
drive carefully.
Children only need to pay half the
need Dont/doesnt need
price.
 PAST PROGRESSIVE

How to form: I, he, she, it was (not) + ing-form was (not) working
you, we, they were (not) + ing-form were (not) working

1. Shows that an action in the past lasted a long time.

2. If an action happened while another action took place. We use the past simple
for the short action and the past progressive for the long action.
3. Two long past actions happened at the same time.

1. zeigt an, dass eine Handlung in der Vergangenheit lngere Zeit angedauert hat.
2. Wenn ein Ereignis whrend einer Handlung eintrat, verwendet man fr das kurze Ereignis
(short action) das past simple, fr die lange Handlung (long action) das past progressive.
3. Zwei vergangene Handlungen verlaufen gleichzeitig.

Key words: while (whrend), when (als)

Examples:

What were they doing yesterday?

While I was repairing my bike, she was watering the flowers.

He was watching TV while she was reading a book.
PAST PROGRESSIVE PAST PROGRESSIVE
long action long action

When Tom was cooking, he burnt his hand.

PAST PROGRESSIVE PAST SIMPLE
long action short action
 PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

The Present Perfect Simple is used, if an action happened in the past and there is a connection to
the present. This action has just stopped or is still going on. There's no exact time expressed when
the action happened.

Key words: already (schon, bereits), just (gerade soeben), yet (noch,
schon), ever (jemals), never (nie), for (seit - Zeitdauer), since (seit - Zeitpunkt), so far (bisher, bis
jetzt), up to now (bisher, bis jetzt), not yet (noch nicht), lately (in letzter Zeit), recently (vor kurzem)

How to form: I, you, we, they have + 3rd form

he, she, it has + 3rd form
Short forms: I've been We've studied
He's worked She's found
Negation: I, you, we, they have not (haven't) + 3rd form
he, she, it has not (hasn't) + 3rd form
Question: Have you already done your homework?
Have/Has - subject - verb
How long have you been there?
Question word - have/has - subject -verb

EXAMPLES
PAST PRESENT
Nick has gone on holiday. result He is not in the office.
He has already met Sue. connection with the present He likes her.
He has just eaten something bad. connection with the present He feels sick now.
He has lived in Spain for ten days. connection with the present He is still there.
He has been in Spain since Friday. connection with the present He is still there.
Have you ever been to Italy? connection with the present Do you know Italy?
No, I've never been there.
 PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
(aka Present Perfect Continuous)

The Present Perfect Progressive is used when a long action has started in the past and
has just ended (usually recently) or is still continuing. There has to be a connection to the
present. The verbs have to express a long period of time.

Key words: all day, how long, for, since

How to form: I, you, we, they have been + ing form

he, she, it has been + ing form
Short forms: I've been reading / They've been listening
She's been dancing / He's been watching
Negation: I, you, we, they have not (haven't) been + ing form
he, she, it has not (hasn't) been + ing form
Question: Have they been helping you since this morning?
Have/Has - subject - been + ing form
How long has she been working at the office?
Question word - has/have - subject - been +ing form

Examples:
I have been working all day.
She has been watching TV since 7.30.
Nick has been lying in bed for two days.- He is still in bed or has just got up.
She has been working since 4 o'clock. - She is still working or she has just stopped
working.
How long have they been playing?
 RELATIVE CLAUSES
We use relative clauses to describe or tell something more about a person or a
thing. A relative clause always starts with a relative pronoun. Relative pronouns in
English are who, which, whose and that. Whom is also sometimes used, but
very formal.

I dated a girl. She lives next door.

I dated a girl who lives next door.
I dated a girl that lives next door.

This is my new laptop. I bought it two days ago.

This is my new laptop which I bought two days ago.
This is my new laptop that I bought two days ago.

I was invited by Peter. I met him last Monday.

I was invited by Peter whom I met last Monday.
I was invited by Peter who I met last Monday.

I have a friend. His brother is a mechanic.

I have a friend whose brother is a mechanic.

Whose bike is it? Its Susans.

We use:

Who when we talk about people

Which when we talk about things or animals
Whose when we talk about possessions.
That when we talk about people, things or animals
Whom when we talk about people (object) very formal

Further information:

There are also non-defining relative clauses. We use them to give extra
information about the person or thing that is not important. We use commas in
non-defining relative clauses, but we dont use that.

Sarah, who I met yesterday, worked at my fathers company.

Do you know that woman, who is standing at the corner?
My motorbike, which is very old, broke down last weekend.

The relative pronoun can be left out when the pronoun refers to the object of a
sentence.

This is the watch her parents bought her for her birthday.
The girls we met yesterday are very smart.
 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
Conditional clauses are also called conditional sentences or if sentences. They
always have two parts, a main clause and an if clause. These two parts are
closely connected. The action in the main part can only happen if a certain
condition is taking place. This condition has to be expressed in the if clause.

If he comes to my party, I will be happy.

The condition is "If he comes to my party" and the consequence of this

condition is "I will be happy".

You can start a conditional clause with the main clause or the if clause:

If I have a problem, she helps me. or She helps me if I have a problem.

Zero Conditional
The zero conditional is used with general statements, actions that are certainly happening and
facts. We use it with things that are true. In both clauses the present tense is used.
If there is a problem, I can always talk to Carol.
PRESENT TENSE ------ PRESENT TENSE

First Conditional
It's possible that . . . We use the Conditional I to talk about the future situations that are realistic to
happen. We use the present tense in the if-clause and the will-future in the main clause.
Colin is an intelligent boy. It is April 15th. The exam is on April 23rd. He has enough time to learn for the
exam - he can pass it.
If he studies, he will pass the exam on April 23rd.
PRESENT TENSE ------ WILL FUTURE

Second Conditional
It's possible but not very probable . . . We use the Conditional II to talk about the future situations that
are unreal or nearly impossible to happen. We use the past tense in the if-clause and conditional present in
the main clause.
Colin didn't learn. He played football. It' April 22nd. Tomorrow is the exam. It is possible but not very
probable that he will pass the exam.
If he studied, he would pass the exam.
PAST TENSE ------ CONDITIONAL PRESENT (would + infinitive)

Third Conditional
It didn't happen and it is impossible now . . . We use the Conditional III to talk about past situations
that didn't happen. We use the past perfect tense in the if-clause and the conditional perfect in the main
clause.
It's April 23rd. Colin didn't pass the exam.
If he had learned, he would have passed the exam.
PAST PERFECT ------ CONDITIONAL PERFECT (would + have + 3rd form)

Using commas in conditional sentences:

When the condition is at the beginning of the sentence, you have to separate it from the main clause with a
comma. If the condition is at the back of the sentence, you don't use a comma.
Examples: If he comes to my party, I'll be happy. I'll be happy if he comes to my party.
 ADJECTIVE + PREPOSITION

nice / kind / good / stupid / silly / intelligent / clever / sensible (1) / (i

m)polite / rude (2)/ unreasonable (3) OF someone (to do something)

Thank you it was very nice / kind of you to help me. It's stupid of her to go out
without a coat.

nice / kind / good / (im)polite / rude / (un)pleasant (4) / (un)friendly /

cruel TO someone

She has always been very nice / kind to me. Why are you so rude / unfriendly
to Ann?

angry / furious (5) ABOUT something / WITH someone / FOR something

Why are you so angry about it? They were furious with me for not inviting
them to my party.

pleased (6) / disappointed (7) / satisfied (8) WITH something

I was pleased with the present you gave me. Were you disappointed with your
examination results?

bored / fed up (9) WITH something

You get bored / fed up with doing the same thing every day.

surprised (10) / shocked / amazed (11) / astonished (12) AT / BY some

thing

Everyone was surprised by /at the news.

excited / worried / upset (13) ABOUT something

Are you excited about going on holiday next week?

afraid / scared (14) / frightened / terrified OF someone / something

Are you afraid of dogs?

proud / ashamed (15) OF someone / something

I'm not ashamed of what I did.

good / bad / excellent / brilliant / hopeless (16) AT (doing) something

I'm not very good at repairing things.

married TO someone (Linda is married to an American.)

sorry ABOUT something (I'm sorry about the noise last night.)

sorry FOR doing something (I'm sorry for shouting at you yesterday.)

be / feel sorry FOR someone (I feel sorry for George.)

famous FOR something (Florence is famous for its art treasures.)

responsible (17) FOR something (Who was responsible for this noise last
night?)

interested IN something (Are you interested in art?)

fond (18) OF something / someone (Mary is fond of animals.)

full OF something (The letter was full of mistakes.)

short OF (19) something (I'm a bit short of money.)

keen ON (20) something (We stayed at home because Mary wasn't very keen
on going out in the rain.)

similar TO (21) something (Your writing is similar to mine.)

crowded WITH (22) (people,...) (The city was crowded with tourists.)
 FUTURE TENSES
There are four different ways in English to talk about the future. You can use
the simple future, the going to - future, the present progressive and the
present simple to write or talk about future actions. There is often only a little
difference between the future tenses, especially between the going to - future
and the present progressive. It also depends on the country and region and on
the communication what future tense is used. In written English the simple
future is usually used while in spoken English we use the going to - future more
often.

The simple future tense (will - future) is used

1. to talk about future actions we can't influence or control.

2. to foretell future actions or to express hopes, expectations, fears, offers,

promises, refusals,...
Key words: I'm sure, I believe, I expect, I hope, I suppose, I think, I'm afraid, I
wonder, I fear, I worry, I promise, I guess or perhaps, possibly, surely, probably,
maybe

3. with I / we for spontaneous reactions or making promises

I shall is sometimes used instead of I will.

The going to - future is used

1. to talk about future things you intend to do, plan or decided to do

Examples:
Did you know that Sarah is in hospital? No, I didn't. I'll visit her this afternoon.
(spontaneous reaction will - future)

Yes, I'm going to visit her next month.

(planned action going to - future)

2. to foretell future actions for which we have proofs that they are going to
happen.

The present progressive is used

to talk about future things that are fixed, planned or definitely decided
The speaker must refer to the future and not to the present.

Examples:
I am visiting my grandparents tomorrow.
What are you doing next Friday?

The present simple is used

to talk about times of arrivals and departures of traffic and times of events.

Examples:
The train leaves at 10.20.
The bus goes at 8.30.
When does the concert begin?
 PAST PERFECT

When you tell a story it's sometimes necessary to tell about actions that had
happened before the past tense. To express the time when these actions happened
you have to use the past perfect.

How to form: had (not) + 3rd form

Key words: after, before

Examples:
She needed help because someone had stolen her car.
He passed the test because he had studied a lot.
After she had done her homework, she visited me.
When I came home, they had already eaten.
They had sold everything before they moved to Glasgow.
 THE PASSIVE VOICE
Sentences can be active or passive. We usually use the active in written and
spoken language. The difference is that in an active sentence the subject
performs the action and in a passive sentence the subject receives the action.
Study the following information to learn how to form a passive sentence, how
to put an active into a passive sentence and how to form the tenses in the
passive voice.

How the passive is formed

SUBJECT FORM OF TO BE + 3rd FORM ADVERB, ...

The room is cleaned every day.
They are sold as pets.
A lot of guests are invited to a party.

Put an active sentence into a passive one:

Subject Verb Object

Active: Bats eat insects.

Passive: Insects are eaten by bats.

Subject Verb by Agent

Subject Verb Object

Active: Tom saw the burglars

Passive: The burglars were seen by Tom

Subject Verb by Agent

Subject of the active sentence Agent of the passive sentence

Object of the active sentence Subject of the passive sentence

Tenses
Tense Active Passive (form of to be + 3rd form)
Present tense invite // see am / is / are invited // seen
Past tense invited // saw was / were invited // seen
Future tense will invite // see will be invited // seen
Present perfect tense have / has invited // seen have / has been invited // seen
Past perfect tense had invited // seen had been invited // seen
 REPORTED (= INDIRECT) SPEECH
Is the reporting verb in the past form (said, told,...) you have to change the
tense.

Direct speech Indirect speech Direct Speech Indirect speech

Present simple Past simple go went
was/were
Present progressive Past progressive am/is/are going
going
Past simple Past perfect went had gone
Past perfect
Past progressive was/were going had been going
progressive
Present perfect
Past perfect has/have gone had gone
simple
Present perfect Past perfect has/have been
had been going
progr. progressive going
Future Conditional I will go would go

Example: Peter said, "Carol is a nice girl." Peter said (that) Carol was a nice
girl.

Don't change these verbs: might, could, would, should

Example: He said, "I might arrive late." He said (that) he might arrive late.

It isn't necessary to change the present tense into the past tense if the
information in the direct speech is still true or a general statement.
Examples:

Frank said, "My sister is a secretary." Frank said (that) his sister is (was) a
secretary.

He told us, "The sun rises in the east." He told us that the sun rises (rose) in
the east.

When you form the reported speech you have to pay attention that
the pronouns refer to the correct persons.

Examples: Susan said, "My parents are clever scientists."

Susan said (that) her parents were clever scientists.
Tom said, "I like PE best."
Tom said (that) he liked PE best.
They said, "We went swimming with our friends."
They said (that) they had gone swimming
with their friend.
Betty said, "Sam told me the truth."
Betty said (that) Sam had told her the truth.

Direct speech Indirect speech

She said I - my - me she - her - her
He said I - my - me he - his - him
They said we - our - us they - their - them

You and your:

They told her / him / me / them / us, "George likes you."

They told her / him / me / them / us (that) George liked her / him / me /
them / us.
They told her / him / me / them / us,"George likes your sister."
They told her / him / me / them / us (that) George likes her / his / my /
their / our sister.
They told her / him / me / them / us,"You are clever."
They told her / him / me / them / us (that) she / he / I / they / we was /
were clever.

Expressions of time and place - we have to change them.

Direct speech Indirect speech

Time now then
today that day
yesterday the day before
tomorrow the next / following day
last week, the previous week, month,... / the week,
month,... month,... before
next week,
the following week, month,...
month,...
a (week,...) ago a (week,...) before
Place here there
this that
these those

Example: She said, "I have already seen Carol today."

She said (that) she had already seen Carol that day.

Reported Questions

If there is a question word we keep it.

Examples: They asked me, "Where is the next supermarket?"

They asked me where the next supermarket was.
She asked them, "How often do you play golf?"
She asked them how often they played golf.

If there is no question word we start the reported speech with if or whether

Examples: She asked me, "Do you like some tea?"

 She asked me if/whether I liked some tea.
We asked them, "Did she arrive in time?"
We asked them if/whether she had arrived in time.

Reported Requests

If someone asks you in a polite way use (not) to + infinitive

Examples: He asked her, "Could you close the door, please?"

He asked her to close the door.
She asked them, "Help me, please."
She asked them to help her.

Reported Orders

If someone doesn't ask you politely or gives you an order use (not) to +
infinitive

Examples: He told me, "Be quiet!"

He told me to be quiet.
She told us, "Don't stay up too late!"
She told us not to stay up too late.
 IRREGULAR VERBS LIST - SPANISH

Infinitive (1st form) Past simple (2nd f.) Past participle (3rd f.) Spanish
abide abided / abode abided / abode aguantar
alight alighted / alit alighted / alit iluminar
arise arose arisen levantar, erguer
awake awoke / awaked awoken / awaked acordar, despertar
(to) be was, were been ser, estar
bear bore born / borne levar, aguantar
beat beat beaten batir, golpear
become became become hacerse, ponerse
beget begot/begat begotten engendrar
begin began begun comenzar
bend bent bent torcer
bereave bereaved / bereft bereaved / bereft despojar
beseech besought / beseeched besought / beseeched suplicar
bet bet bet apostar
bid bid / bade bid / bidden ofrecer
bind bound bound atar, amarrar
bite bit bitten morder, picar
bleed bled bled sangrar
blow blew blown soplar
break broke broken romper
breed bred bred criar
bring brought brought traer
broadcast broadcast / broadcasted broadcast / broadcasted transmitir, emitir
build built built construir
burn burned / burnt burned / burnt quemar
reventar(se),
burst burst burst
romper(se)
buy bought bought comprar
can could poder
cast cast cast echar, lanzar
catch caught caught coger, agarrar
chide chided / chid chided / chidden reprender
choose chose chosen elegir
cleave cleft / cleaved, clove cleft / cleaved, cloven lascar, rachar
cling clung clung pegarse, agarrarse
clothe clothed / clad clothed / clad vestir
come came come venir, llegar
cost cost cost costar, valer
creep crept crept arrastrarse
crow crowed crowed / crew cacarear, alardear
cut cut cut cortar
deal dealt dealt tramitar, operar
dig dug dug cavar, excavar
dive dived / dove (US) dived tirarse, sumergirse
do did done hacer
draw drew drawn tirar, sacar
dream dreamt / dreamed dreamt / dreamed soar
drink drank drunk beber, tomar
drive drove driven conducir
eat ate eaten comer
dwell dwelt / dwelled dwelt / dwelled morar, vivir
fall fell fallen reprobar
feed fed fed alimentar
feel felt felt sentir
fight fought fought luchar, pelear
find found found encontrar
fit fit / fitted fit / fitted quedar (de ropa)
flee fled fled huir
fling flung flung lanzar, arrojar
fly flew flown volar
forbid forbade forbidden prohibir
forecast forecast forcast pronosticar
forget forgot forgotten olvidar
forgive forgave forgiven perdonar, disculpar
forsake forsook forsaken abandonar
freeze froze frozen helar
geld gelded / gelt gelded / gelt castrar
get got got conseguir
gild gilded / gilt gilded / gilt dorar
give gave given dar
gnaw gnawed gnawed / gnawn roer
go went gone ir
grind ground ground moler, picar
grip gripped / gript gripped / gript asir
grow grew grown crecer
hang hung hung colgar
have had had tener
hear heard heard oir
heave heaved / hove heaved / hove tirar, estirar
hew hewed hewed / hewn labrar, tallar
hide hid hidden esconder
hit hit hit golpear
hold held held tener, abrazar
lastimar, perjudicar,
hurt hurt hurt
doler
keep kept kept guardar
kneel kneeled / knelt kneeled / knelt arrodillarse
knit knitted / knit knitted / knit hacer, tricotar, tejer
know knew known conocer
lade laded laded / laden cargar de
lay laid laid poner, colocar
lead led led llevar, guiar
lean leaned / leant leaned / leant apoyarse
leap leaped / leapt leaped / leapt saltar
learn learnt / learned learnt / learned aprender
leave left left dejar, abandonar
lend lent lent prestar
let let let dejar
lie lay lain tenderse, acostarse
light lit / lighted lit / lighted encender, iluminar
lose lost lost perder
make made made hacer, crear
may might poder
mean meant meant significar
meet met met encontrar
melt melted melted / molten derretir
misunderstand misunderstood misunderstood entender mal
mow mowed mowed / mown segar, cortar
offset offset offset compensar
outbid outbid outbid pujar ms alto que
overtake overtook overtaken adelantar
pay paid paid pagar
pen penned / pent penned / pent escribir, redactar
plead pleaded / pled pleaded / pled aducir, suplicar
prove proved proved / proven demonstrar, probar
put put put poner
quit quit quit renunciar, abandonar
read read read leer
rid rid / ridded rid / ridded deshacerse de
ride rode ridden montar, pasear
ring rang rung sonar
rise rose risen levantarse, elevarse
run ran run correr
say said said decir
saw sawed sawed / sawn serrar
see saw seen ver, mirar
seek sought sought buscar
sell sold sold vender
send sent sent enviar
set set set poner
sew sewed sewed / sewn coser
shake shook shaken sacudir, mover
shall should deber
afeitar(se),
shave shaved shaved / shaven
rasurar(se)
shear sheared sheared / shorn esquilar
shed shed shed derramar
shine shone / shined shone / shined brillar
shit shit / shitted / shat shit / shitted / shat cagar
shoe shod / shoed shod / shoed mostrar
shoot shot shot pegar un tiro a
show showed shown mostrar
shred shred / shredded shred / shredded retalhar, triturar
shrink shrank / shrunk shrunk encoger
shut shut shut cerrar
sing sang sung cantar
sink sank sunk hundir
sit sat sat sentar
slay slew slain matar
sleep slept slept dormir
slide slid slid deslizarse, resbalar
sling slung slung lanzar
slink slinked / slunk slinked / slunk zafarse
slit slit slit cortar, abrir
smell smelt / smelled smelt / smelled oler
smite smote smitten golpear
sow sowed sowed / sown sembrar
speak spoke spoken< hablar
speed sped / speeded sped / speeded correr a toda prisa
spell spelled / spelt spelled / spelt deletrear
spend spent spent gastar
spill spilled / split spilled / split derramar
spin spun spun hacer girar
spill spilled / split spilled / split derramar
spin spun spun hacer girar
spit spitted / spat spitted / spat espetar, soltar
split split split dividir
spoil spoilt spoilt arruinar
spread spread spread tender, desplegar
spring sprang / sprung sprung saltar
stand stood stood pararse, estar de pie
stave (in/off) stove / staved stove / staved evitar, aplazar
steal stole stolen robar
stick stuck stuck pegar
sting stung stung picar
stink stank / stunk stunk apestar
strew strewed strewed / strewn esparcir
stride strode stridden andar a pasos largos
strike struck struck / stricken golpear, pegar
string strung strung ensartar, encordar
strive strove / strived striven / strived esforzarse
swear swore sworn jurar
sweep swept swept barrer
swell swelled swelled / swollen hincharse
swim swam swum nadar
swing swung swung mecer
take (away) took taken tomar
teach taught taught ensear
tear tore torn rasgar, romper
telecast telecast / telecasted telecast / telecasted televisar
tell told told decir
think thought thought pensar
thrive throve / thrived thriven / thrived prosperar
throw threw thrown arrojar, echar
thrust thrust thrust empujar, clavar
tread trod trod / trodden pisar
understand understood understood entender, comprender
upset upset upset afectar, disgustar
wake up woke up woken up despertar
wear wore worn usar, vestir
weave weaved / wove weaved / woven tejer
wed wed / wedded wed / wedded casar
weep wept wept llorar
wet wet / wetted wet / wetted mojar
win won won ganar
dejar sin aliento,
wind wound wound
ovillar
wring wrung wrung torcer
write wrote written escribir
 ENGLISH TENSES
If you need any further explanations click on the tenses.
PRESENT SIMPLE
1st form / he, she, it + s // they go,
he goes
with habits and general statements
(wird bei Gewohnheiten und allgemeinen
Aussagen verwendet.)
Key words: always, often, usually,
every, never, generally, seldom,
rarely, hardly ever, sometimes,
normally
PAST SIMPLE
2nd form // he went, they played
is used to tell or talk about a past
action
(wird verwendet, wenn ber Vergangenes
berichtet wird. (Erzhlzeit).)
Key words: yesterday, last, ago, in
1970
WILL FUTURE
will + 1st form ( N.: won't) // he
will be, she will go
is used to talk about the future
(wird verwendet, wenn man ber die
Zukunft spricht.)
Key words: tomorrow, next
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE
have / has + 3rd form // she has
gone
is used when a past action started in
the past and has just finished or is
still happening.
(wird verwendet, wenn ein Ereignis in der
Vergangenheit begonnen hat und gerade
geendet hat oder noch andauert; = Bezug
zur Gegenwart.)
Key words: already, just, ever,
never, yet, for, since
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
am / is / are + verb + ing // I am
going
when something is happening at the
moment
(wird verwendet, wenn etwas momentan
geschieht.)
Key words: look, listen, now, at the
moment
PAST PROGRESSIVE
was / were + ing form // he was
going
is used to tell or talk about a long
action in the past
(wird bei langen Handlungen in der
Vergangenheit verwendet.)
Key words: while, when
FUTURE TENSES
Going to - FUTURE
am / is / are + going to + verb
Present progressive - FUTURE
Present tense - FUTURE
PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
have / has + been + ing form // he
has been going
is used like the simle form but only
with long actions.
(wird wie die simple form verwendet;
Unterschied: wird bei langen Handlungen
verwendet, vor allem bei Verben, die eine
Ttigkeit ausdrcken.)
Key words: how long, all day, for,
since
PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

had + 3rd form // she had gone
is used when an action had happened
before another action took place.
(wird verwendet, wenn eine Handlung vor
einem vergangenem Ereignis stattgefunden
hat.)
Key words: after, before
had been + ing form // he had been
going
is used like the simple form but only
with long actions.
(wird wie die past pefect simple verwendet -
aber nur fr lange Handlungen.)
Key words: how long, before, after