Fluid Machineries

Republic of Iraq
Ministry of Higher Education

-
and Scientific Research
University of Technology-
Electromechanical
Department
2014 1435
September 14 2014 Lab. of Fluid Machineries Electromechanical Eng. Dept
Title Page No.
Experiment No. (1): Characteristics of Pelton turbine
Experiment No. (2): Turbine characteristic at constant head
Experiment No. (3): Turbine characteristic at constant speed
Experiment No. (4): Turbine characteristic at constant efficiency
Experiment No. (5): Single Pump Operation
Experiment No. (6): Series Pump Operation
Experiment No. (7): Parallel Pump Operation
Experiment No. (8): Fan Constant Speed Characteristics
Experiment No. (9): Dimensional Analysis
Experiment No. (10): Fan System Characteristics

Objective:
To determine the operating characteristics of a Pelton Turbine.
Method
Using a brake dynamometer in order:
1) To vary the speed of the turbine rotor from maximum speed (zero,torque) to
minimum speed (rotor stalled / maximum torque) in stages
2) To measure the torque produced by the turbine rotor at each stage
Using a spear valve to change the volume flow rate through the turbine, allowing
the above tests to be repeated at different flow rates.
From the readings obtained to plot graphs of Torque, Brake power and Overall
Efficiency against rotor speed to show the operating characteristics of the Pelton
Turbine.
Equipment
In order to complete the demonstration we need a number of pieces of equipment.
The Fl-10 Hydraulics Bench which allows us to measure flow by timed
volume collection.
The FI-25 Pelton Turbine Apparatus.
A stopwatch to allow us to determine the flow rate of water.
A non-contacting type tachometer to measure the rotor speed.
[1]
Theory
The Pelton turbine (Fig 1 ) is the most visually example of an impulse
machine. A spear valve directs a jet of water at a series of buckets which are
mounted on the periphery of a rotor. As the water exiting the spear valve is at
atmospheric pressure, the force exerted on the rotor is entirely due to changes in
the direction of the flow of water. The Pelton turbine is therefore associated with
considerable changes of kinetic energy. The spear valve allows the jet diameter to
be varied which allows the flow rate to be varied with a constant velocity of jet.
Note that large turbines may include more than one spear valve around the
periphery of the rotor to improve the power available from the turbine.
Fig. 1 Rotor and Spear Valve arrangement of the Pelton turbine.
Rotational Speed (rpm)
Fig. 2 Example characteristics of a turbine at different flow rates
[2]
The operating characteristics of a turbine are normally shown by plotting the

Torque T, the Brake Power Pb, and the Overall Turbine Efficiency o against the
turbine rotational speed N for a series of volume flow rates Qv, as shown in Fig 2. It
is important to note that the Brake Power and the Overall Efficiency of the turbine
rise to a maximum and then fall back to zero, whilst the Torque changes constantly
and linearly with speed.
Because turbines are normally used at fixed speed, e.g. when generating electricity, a
turbine must be carefully designed to ensure that the maximum efficiency coincides
with the normal operating speed. As the load on the turbine changes, the flow of
water is regulated via the spear valve to maintain the turbine at the required
operating speed. Note that the peak efficiency changes slightly with load / flow rate
so the turbine can only be optimized at one condition. If a turbine is optimized for
operation at full load then the efficiency will fall slightly as the load reduces (while
maintaining a constant speed).
The basic parameters that define the turbine performance are :-
1) Volume flow rate (Q)

2) Inlet Head (Hi)
3) Hydraulic Power (Ph)
4) Torque (T)
5) Brake Power (Output Power) (Pb)
6) Overall Turbine Efficiency ( o)
Each of these is considered in term:-

The flow rate of fluid through the turbine is the volume passing through the
system per unit time.
V
Q [m3/s] (1)
t
The term 'Head' refers to the elevation of a free surface of water above or below a
reference datum. In the case of a Pelton Turbine we are interested in the head of the
water entering the spear valve, which of course has a direct effect on the
characteristics of the unit. In this apparatus the head of water is generated by the
[3]
pump on the hydraulics bench rather than an elevated reservoir.
The Bourdon pressure gauge measures the inlet pressure, pi, in relation to
atmospheric pressure. As the runner and the outlet of the turbine are at atmospheric
pressure, it can be assumed that the reading given by the gauge is the pressure
difference across the turbine. For the purpose of calculating the performance of the
turbine the measured
pressure is converted to an equivalent head of water, Hi, as follows:
pi
Hi m H2o where pi, is measured in N/m2 (2)
g
The hydraulic power supplied by the water, Ph, can be calculated as
Ph = gHiQ [ Watt ] (3)
The mechanical power, Pb, produced by the turbine in creating a torque T on the
brake at rotor speed N is given by
2 NT
Pb [ Watt ] (4)
60
The torque itself is given by the equation:

T = Fb * r [N.m] (5)
where r is the radius of the brake pulley and Fb is the Brake force
Where Fb=(W2-W1) and W2 and W1 are the readings on the two spring balances.
The Overall Efficiency of the turbine is determined from several separate
efficiencies as follows:
Fluid friction 'losses' in the turbine itself, require a hydraulic efficiency h that is
defined as:
[4]
Power absorped by the rotor

h *100% (6)
Fluid power sup plied
Mechanical losses in the bearings etc. require a mechanical efficiency m that is

defined as
Power sup plied by the rotor

m *100% (7)
Power absorped by the rotor
The Armfield FI-25 Demonstration Pelton Turbine does not include direct
measurement of mechanical power output Pm, but instead measures brake force
that is applied to the rotor via the band brake. A further efficiency is therefore
required, expressing the friction losses in the brake assembly b that is defined as:
Power absorped by the brake

b *100% (8)
Power sup plied by the rotor
The Overall Efficiency of the Pelton Turbine is the product of these individual
efficiencies Et = Eh Em Eb therefore:
o h. m. b (9)
Power absorped by the brake

o *100% (10)
Fluid power sup plied
2 NT
o *100% (11)
g H Q
Table of Measured and Calculated variables :-
[5]
Measured variables Calculated variables
Hi Time N W1 W2 Q Fb T Pb
h o
(t) 3
m rpm N N m /s N N.m W
S
Application of Theory
Comment on the shape of the graphs obtained.
At what speed is the maximum Torque obtained?
At what speed is the maximum power output obtained from the turbine?
Is the maximum efficiency at the same speed?
What happens to the power output and the maximum efficiency when
the flow is reduced?
Suggest optimum conditions for operation of a Pelton Turbine.
[6]
Nomenclature
Column Units Nom. Type Description
Heading
Radius of Brake m r Constant Radius of drum on which brake band
Drum operates (r = 0.030 m)
Tachometer RPM Measured Rotor speed measured in RPM.
Reading Convert to Hertz for calculations
(divide reading by 60)
Rotor Speed Hz N Calculated Rotational speed converted to Hz
W1
Spring Balance 1 N Measured Force reading from spring balance 1
W2
Spring Balance 2 N Measured Force reading from spring balance 2
Brake Force N Fb Calculated Difference between readings on two
spring balances i.e. Fb = (W2-W1)
Volume m3 V Measured Volume of water collected in a
Collected known time period (t).
Note: Convert to cubic metres for
calculations (divide litres by 1000)
Time to Collect s t Measured Time taken to collect a known
volume of water (V)
Volume Flow m3/s Qv Calculated Qv =V/t
Rate Volume Collected/ Time to Collect
Inlet Pressure N/m2 Pi Measured Pressure at inlet measured by
Bourdon gauge
Inlet Head Mh 2O Hi Calculated HI=PI/Pg
Hydraulic Power Watts Ph Calculated Available power from the fluid

(kinetic + potential energy)
Ph=PgHiQv
Torque Nm T Calculated T = Fbr
Brake Power Watts Pb Calculated Power absorbed by the brake Pb =
2mT
Overall Turbine % E, Calculated Et =Pb /Ph* 100%
Efficiency =2 /Ph PgH,Qv*100%
[7]
Experiment No. 2
Turbine characteristic at constant head
Objective
To obtain the characteristics curves for a turbine operating at a range of fluid flow
rates in constant head. In order to obtain the characteristics curves (main
characteristic curves ) the tests are performed on the turbine by maintaining a
constant head and a constant gate opening and the speed is varied by changing the
load on the turbine .
Theory
The basic terms used to define, and therefore measure ,turbine performance in
relation to rotational speed include :
Volume flow rate

The volume flow rate of fluid through the turbine ,Q is the volume passing through
the system per unit time . This is expressed in liter per minute (lit/min) but
converted to cubic meters per second (m3/sec) for further calculations.
Head H
The term head refers to the elevation of a free surface of water above or below a
reference datum. In the case of turbine we are interested in the head of water
entering the rotor, which of course has a direct effect on the characteristics of the
unit . The input head to the turbine (H)is the head used by the turbine in performing
work. The inlet pressure sensor in the FM60 measures a gauge pressure. As the out
let of the turbine is at atmospheric pressure, it can be assumed that the reading
given by (Pis) is the pressure difference across the turbine. Therefore ,the inlet head
,H, is given by :
H=P/ g (1)
[8]
Power outlet and efficiencies:

The brake drum on the FM60 is free to rotate but restrained by a torque arm which
is connected to a load cell. The force measure by the load cell is converted to a
torque:
T=F * r (2)
Where r is the length of the torque arm (0.045m).
The brake power ( P b ) produce by the turbine in creating a torque T on the brake at
a rotor speed N is given by :
2 NT
Pb (3)
60
The hydraulic power of the fluid is define by :
Ph= gQH (4)
Therefore an overall efficiency can be defined as :
Power absorbed by brake Pb
h * 100% (5)
Useful fluid power sup plied Ph
Results
In order to obtain the characteristics curves (main characteristic curves ) for a
turbine at constant head draw Qu on (y-axis) v/s Nu on (x-axis) , Pu on (y-axis)
v/s Nu on (x-axis)and o on (y-axis) v/s Nu on (x-axis)
Table of measured and calculated variables
P Q N T H Qu Pu o
Gate opening
N/m2 m3/s rpm N.m m

1
[9]
At which reaction or impulse turbine the flow rate is constant for each value
of turbine speed.
At what speed is the maximum power output obtained from the turbine?
Is the maximum efficiency at the same speed?
What happens to the power output and the maximum efficiency when
the flow is reduced?
Suggest optimum conditions for operation of a Pelton Turbine.
[10]
Experiment No. 3
Turbine characteristic at constant speed
Objectives
To investigate the performance of the turbine at constant speed.
Principle
The turbines are generally designed to work at particular values of H, Q, P, N and
o which are known as the designed conditions. But often the turbines are required
to work at conditions differs from those for which they have been designed.
Therefore, it is essential to determine the exact behavior of the turbines under the
varying conditions by carrying out tests either on the actual turbines or on their
small scale models. The results of these tests are usually graphically represented
and the resulting curves are known as characteristic curves. One of these curves is
the constant speed curves.
[11]
Procedure
In order to draw these curves following procedure is adopted:
1. The constant speed is attained by regulating the gate opening thereby varying
the discharge flowing through the turbine as the load varies . The head may
or may not remain constant
2. The power developed corresponding to each setting of the gate opening is
measured and the corresponding values of o are computed.
3. The total load capacity of the turbine, the percentage of full load may be
computed from the measured power.
Observation
1. For each percentage of load read the following parameters: Q, p, N, T and
developed power P.
2. From the above reading parameters, the following parameters can be
calculated: unit flow rate Qu, unit speed Nu, unit power Pu and overall
efficiency.
Results
1. In order to obtain the characteristics curves at constant speed plot o ( on
y-axis ) v/s percentage of full load ( on x-axis ).
2. Plot an other graphs , output power ( on y-axis ) v/s discharge ( on x-axis
) and o ( on y-axis ) v/s discharge ( on x-axis ). Both these graphs are
plotted from a certain minimum discharge Qo which is required to initiate
the motion of the turbine runner from its state of rest.
P Q N T H Qu Pu
o
Percentage of full
N/m2 m3/s rpm N.m m

load
1
[12]
1. Discuss the plotted graphs.
2. At which percent of full load the efficiency is a maximum?
Experiment No. 4
Turbine characteristic at constant efficiency
Objectives
To investigate the performance of the turbine at constant efficiency.
Principle
The turbines are generally designed to work at particular values of H, Q, P, N and
o which are known as the designed conditions. But often the turbines are required
to work at conditions differs from those for which they have been designed.
Therefore, it is essential to determine the exact behavior of the turbines under the
varying conditions by carrying out tests either on the actual turbines or on their
small scale models. The results of these tests are usually graphically represented
[13]
and the resulting curves are known as characteristic curves. One of these curves is
the constant efficiency curves.
Procedure
In order to draw these curves following procedure is adopted:
4. Operating the turbine at about 8 to 10 gate openings.

5. The corresponding number of o v/s Nu and Nu v/s Qu ( or Pu) curves are
plotted as described in the constant head test.
6. On the o v/s Nu curves set of horizontal lines ( each line representing the
same efficiency ) are drawn which will cut the curves corresponding to each
gate opening at different points.
7. These points are projected on the corresponding Nu v/s Qu ( or Pu) curves for
each gate opening and the points of the same efficiency are joined by smooth
curves which are the iso-efficiency curves.
Observation
3. For each gate opening read the following parameters: Q, H, N and developed
power P.
4. From the above reading parameters, the following parameters can be
calculated: unit flow rate Qu, unit speed Nu, unit power Pu and overall
efficiency.
Full G.O
0.75 G.O
0.5 G.O
0.25 G.O
H=constant
Iso-efficiency
[14]
P Q N T H Qu Pu o
N/m2 m3/s rpm N.m m

1
Gate opening
[15]
At which inner or outer iso-efficency curves the efficiency is maximum.
At given unit flow rate , explain the way to find maximum efficiency.
What is the meaning of pest performance curve and how can be obtained?
[16]
Experiments No. 5,6 and 7
Characteristics of centrifugal pump

Objective
To determine the head/flow rate characteristics of a centrifugal pump for a number
of different configurations
Method
By measurement of pressure at pump inlet and outlet and discharge flow rate.
Equipment
In order to complete the demonstration we need a number of pieces of equipment.
The Hydraulics Bench, which provides- one of the two pumps used during this
experiment, and allows the volume flow rate to be measured by timed volume
collection
The Fl-26 Test Accessory.
A stopwatch to allow us to determine the flow rate of water .
Technical Data
The following dimensions from the equipment are used in the appropriate
calculations. If required these values may be checked as part of the experimental
procedure and replaced with your own measurements.
Head Correction Values:
Datum to manifold gauge: hd = 0.960m
Datum to FI-26 outlet gauge: ha = 0.170m
Datum to FI-26 inlet gauge: ha = 0.020m
Datum to Bench pump inlet: hd = 0.240m
Theory
In this type of pump (Fig. 1), the fluid is drawn into the centre of a rotating impeller
and is thrown outwards by centrifugal action. As a result of the high speed of
rotation, the liquid acquires a high kinetic energy. The pressure difference between
[17]
the suction and delivery sides arises from the conversion of this kinetic energy into
pressure energy.
The centrifugal pump is a radial flow rotodynamic machine, wherein fluid

enters the rotor or impeller at one radius and leaves at a larger radius. In so
doing, changes in kinetic, potential and pressure energy occur, and any
understanding of pump behavior and performance assessment requires
measurement or calculation of these quantities.
The general relationship between the various forms of energy, based on the 1st Law
of Thermodynamics applied to a unit mass of fluid flowing through a 'control
volume' (such as the pump itself) is expressed as:
v2 dP
Ws d g .dz F (1)
2
where -Ws is the mechanical shaft work performed on the fluid, d(v2/2) is the
change in kinetic energy of the fluid, g.dz is the change in potential energy of the
fluid, F is the frictional energy loss as heat to the surroundings or in heating the
fluid itself as it travels from inlet to outlet and (dP/ ) is the change in pressure
energy.
[18]
The first three terms of the right hand side represent the useful work, W0, i.e.
v 22 v1 P2 P1
Wo g z2 z1 (2)
2
Where subscript 2 refers to the pump outlet and subscript 1 to the inlet.
The term W0 represents the actual work performed in changing the energy stages of
a unit mass of the fluid. This may alternatively be expressed as the total dynamic
head, H of the pump, by converting the units from work per unit mass to head
expressed as a length, which involves dividing by the acceleration per unit mass, g
v 22 v12 P2 P1
H z2 z1 (3)
2g g
On this apparatus the pipe diameters are similar, and so we can assume that the (v22
- v12)/2g term is insignificant, hence:
P2 P1
H 0 z2 z1 (4)
g
The gauges measure the inlet and outlet pressures in terms of a head, h, where h =
p/pg, giving:
H 0 z2 z1 h2 h1 (5)
The relative vertical positions of the inlet and the outlet are represented by the (z2
z1) term. Each head measurement is at a different relative vertical position. The
positions are therefore taken relative to a datum position, the horizontal plane
running through the centre of the FI-26 pump impeller. Each position is given a
datum head correction factor, hd , as the examples shown on the diagram below:
[19]
The relative vertical positions of a pump inlet and outlet will therefore be:
hd ( outlet ) hd ( inlet ) (6)
The relative vertical distance between the inlet and outlet may then be expressed as
a head difference, Hd
Hd z2 z1 hd ( outlet ) hd ( inlet ) (7)
Substituting this into equation (5) finally gives the head generated across the pump
H Hd h2 h1 (8)
The datum head correction factor for each measurement position can be found in
the Technical Data section of this experiment. If the pump support is not positioned
on the same base level as the hydraulics bench, these figures will need adjusting
accordingly.
The basic terms used to define, and therefore measure, pump performance include:
i. discharge
ii. head
i. Discharge ( Qt )
The discharge (or flow rate, or capacity) of a pump is the volume of fluid pumped
per unit time.
ii. Head ( H )
The term 'head' refers to the elevation of a free surface of water above or below a
reference datum. The useful work generated by the pump may be given in terms of
a head, as shown earlier in this section.
Single Pump Operation

The best way to describe the characteristics of a Centrifugal Pump is through the
use of a head / flow characteristic curve (Fig.2)
[20]
Qt
Series Pump Operation
Should the head of a single pump not be sufficient for an application, pumps can be
combined in series to obtain an increase in head at the same flowrate as the single
pump.
Figure 3: Series pumps operation
As shown in figure 3, when two pumps having similar head-flowrate characteristics

are operated in series the combined pump head-flowrate curve is obtained by
adding the heads of the single pump curves at the same flowrate. In practice the
theoretical combined head is not quite achieved because of additional losses in the
fittings between the two pumps.
Parallel Pump Operation

Should the flowrate of a single pump not be sufficient for an application, pumps
can be combined in parallel to obtain an increase in flowrate at the same head as
[21]
the single pump.
Qt
Figure 4: Parallel pumps operation
As shown in figure 4, when two pumps having similar head-flow rate

characteristics are operated in parallel the combined pump head-flow rate curve is
obtained by adding the flow rates of the single pump curves at the same head. In
practice the theoretical combined flow rate is not quite achieved because of
additional losses in the fittings between the two pumps.
Procedure - Equipment Set Up
Three test configurations are available; single pump operation (fixed speed), two
pumps in series (fixed speed) and two pumps in parallel (fixed speed).
To set up these demonstrations we need to modify the configurations of the flexible

tubing as shown below.
[22]
Experiment No. 5
Single Pump Operation
For single pump operation the inlet of the FI-26 (side connection on pump) should
be connected to the sump drain valve on the FI-10 hydraulics bench, which must be
fully opened while performing the experiment. The outlet on top of the pump
should be connected to the discharge manifold.
The gauges used for measurement of inlet and outlet heads for this experiment are
the FI-26 inlet gauge, hi, and the FI-26 outlet gauge. Ho.
Experiment No. 6
Series Pump Operation
For series pump operation the inlet of the FI-26 (side connection on pump) should
be connected to the water outlet on the hydraulics bench, using the screw on
[23]
adapter supplied. The outlet on top of the pump should be connected to the
discharge manifold.
The gauge used for measurement of outlet head is the FI-26 outlet gauge, h0. The
inlet to the hydraulics bench pump is assumed to be at atmospheric pressure,
modified by the datum head correction factor given in the Technical Data section.
Experiment No. 7
Parallel Pump Operation
Qt
For parallel pump operation the inlet of the FI-26 (side connection on pump) should
be connected to the sump drain valve on the hydraulics bench, which must be fully
opened while performing the experiment. The outlet on top of the pump should be
connected to the supplied Tee connector. The outlet from the hydraulics bench
pump should also be connected to the Tee connector using the screw on adapter
supplied. Finally the remaining outlet on the Tee connector should be connected to
the discharge manifold.
The gauges used for measurement of inlet and outlet heads for this experiment are
the FI-26 inlet gauge, hi (both pumps are assumed to be at similar inlet heads), and
the discharge manifold gauge, hm.
Volume Time to Inlet Inlet hm (m Outlet Datum Pump Q Total

of water collect t head 0 head water) head head power head H
V(m 3) (s) or hj (m correcti correcti correcti input (m)
water) on on on
[24]
Comment on the graphs obtained. Do we get double the head for two pumps
in series? Do we get double the flow rate for two pumps in parallel? Give
reasons for any differences observed between the theoretical head and the
head obtained.
What is the effect of inlet (suction) head on the performance of the pump?
What is the effect of change in kinetic energy of the fluid if the inlet and
outlet pipe diameters change from 25mm to 32mm?
Experiment No. 8
Fan Constant Speed Characteristics

Objective
To obtain the fan characteristic curves for an axial fan operating at constant speed.
Method
[25]
By taking sensor readings over a range of flow rates at constant fan speed setting,
for a series of constant fan speeds.
Equipment Required
Armfield FM41 Axial Fan Demonstration Unit
Armfield IFD7 Interface Device
Compatible PC running Armfield FM41-304 software
Theory
Pump manufacturers and fan system designers require a method for indicating fan
performance, to allow the correct fan to be selected for any given system and
performance requirement. Designers will wish to select a fan that will be able to
produce the required flow rate and pressure differential under typical system
conditions, and also to select a fan that will operate efficiently under normal use.
A common method of presenting the sort of information required is to plot the fan
power, efficiency, and total pressure produced against the flow rate across the full
range of the fan for a constant fan speed:
[26]
Typical axial fan characteristics at constant speed
When lines of constant efficiency are superimposed on such a graph for a range of
fan rotational speeds, a comprehensive illustration of pump performance is
obtained:
Equipment Setup
Check that the outlet aperture is fully open.
Check that the sensor and power leads from the FM41 are connected to
the sockets on the front of the IFD7.
[27]
Check that the IFD7 is connected to a suitable mains supply, and that the
USB socket on the front is connected using the lead provided to a suitable
PC. Check that trie red and green indicator lights on the front of the IFD7
are illuminated.
Run the Armfield FM41-304 software on the PC, and check that the
software ndicates IFD: OK in the bottom right-hand corner of the
window.
Switch on the mains supply to the IFD7, and switch on the IFD7 using the
power switches on the front. Check that the power switch on the IFD7 is
illuminated.
On the software mimic diagram screen, select the Fan On button to
switch on the FM41. Check that the green watchdog indicator on the
mimic screen is illuminated.
Check that the sensor readings on the software screen give sensible
values. The air velocity and the pressure readings should be zero when the
fan is not moving. Zero the pressure readings if required using the Zero
buttons. The temperature should be sensible given the ambient conditions
in the room (typically between 15 and 30 C).
Procedure
Read through the experiment before starting, to familiarise yourself with the
procedure.
[28]
Set the fan speed to maximum (100%) and note the rotational speed of the
fan.
Take readings for air temperature, orifice differential pressure, fan
differential pressure, and motor power by selecting the icon on the
software toolbar.
Using the maximum air velocity as a guide, select incremental values for air
velocity that will give 10-15 individual steps between minimum and
maximum velocity.
Close the aperture to increase the air velocity by approximately one step.
Select the icon.
Repeat for the next flow velocity increment, adjusting the aperture and fan
setting to give the required values and selecting the icon to record the data
once the settings are correct.
Continue in steps until the aperture is fully closed, recording the data each
time.
NOTE: There will always be a small indicated discharge even when the
aperture is fully closed, as a result of the fan blades acting on the air within
the inlet and outlet ducts. Always monitor the aperture visually at low
discharge rates, and do not twist the aperture beyond the point at which it is
fully closed. Over-twisting the aperture device will damage the aperture.
Create a new results table using the icon on the software toolbar.
Select a new fan rotational speed, for example half the value for the first set
of data. Adjust the fan speed to give this new rotational speed, and note the
maximum flow velocity. Select the icon.
Open the aperture in steps as before, recording each set of data with the icon.
Fully open the outlet aperture after recording the last set of data.
If time permits, additional rotational speed settings may be investigated to
give a full series of performance data. Remember to create a new results
sheet for each set of data. Alternatively, each student or set of students may
take data for different rotational speeds, and the results can then be
combined.
[29]
Results
The software logs the following variables:
Inlet Temperature T c
Orifice Pressure Pi Pa
Fan Diff. Pressure P2 Pa
Fan Setting - %
Fan Speed n Hz
Mechanical Power Pm W
(input)
From these the software calculates the following values:

Air Density kg/m:
Inlet Velocity Vi m/s
Outlet Velocity V2 m/s
Discharge Qv m3/s
Experiment No. 9
Dimensional Analysis
Introduction to Scaling
Objective
To predict the performance of a fan at a given speed from data obtained at a
different speed.
Method
By using equations obtained from dimensional analysis to calculate the
performance characteristics for the fan at the required speed, using data obtained at
[30]
a different speed.
Equipment Required
Compatible PC running Armfield FM41-304 software
Theory
It is not practicable to test the performance of every size of fan in a manufacturers
range at all speeds at which it may be designed to run. Hence a mathematical
solution is required whereby assumptions can be made as to the operating
characteristics of a fan running at one speed, impeller size, etc from experimental
results taken at another.
The use of dimensional analysis reduces the large number of variables involved in
describing the performance characteristics of rotodynamic machines to a number of
manageable dimensionless groups. The methods used for forming these
dimensionless groups will not be entered into here, but the groups themselves are
known by the following names:
P
P The power coefficient
N 3D5
Q
The flow coefficient
3
ND
gH
The head coefficient
2 2
N D
Use of these affinity laws allows performance of geometrically similar fans of

different sizes or speeds to be predicted accurately enough for practical purposes.
Exact accuracy would require that effects of surface roughness of the fan, the
viscosity of the gas, etc. to be taken into account. Any two fans may be considered
geometrically similar when:-
They have the same number of blades or vanes

Their angular dimensions are the same
Their linear dimensions are proportional
For this exercise the same fan will be used throughout, which ensures geometric
similarity.
[31]
The affinity laws are most often used to calculate changes in flow rate, pressure
and power of a fan when the size, rotational speed or gas density is changed.
Therefore, in the following affinity laws the suffix 1 has been used for initial
known values and the suffix 2 for the changed values and the resulting calculated
table:
where Qv is the volume flow rate,

PiF is the fan total pressure,
is the density,
n is the fan rotational speed,
D is the impeller diameter, and
Pu .is the fan power.
These laws can be simplified when variables remain unchanged, e.g. when only
the
fan speed is varied:
[32]
More generally, the relationship between two geometrically similar machines with
characteristic diameters D1 and D2 operating at rotational speeds N1and N2 is
shown in the following diagram.
are termed corresponding points), it follows that:
PIF2=PIF1 )
and:
[33]
Qv2=Qv1 n2/n1(
It also follows that the power coefficient (P/ n3D5) and the efficiency gr must
also have the same values at corresponding points.
Equipment Setup
If results from Experiment No.8 are available then it is possible to use these for
manual calculations in order to investigate scaling. If results are not available, or if
computer analysis is required, set up the equipment as follows:
Check that the sensor and power leads from the FM41 are connected to the
sockets on the front of the IFD7.
PC. Check that the red and green indicator lights on the front of the IFD7 are
illuminated.
software indicates; IFD: OK in the bottom right hand corner of the window.
power switch on the front .check that the power switch on the IFD7 is
illuminated.
On the software mimic diagram screen, select the 'Fan On button to switch
on the FM41.Check that the green watchdog indicator on the mimic screen is
illuminated.
Check that the sensor reading on the software screen give sensible values.
The air velocity and the pressure readings should be zero when the fan is not
moving. Use the zero buttons to zero the pressure sensor readings if
required. The temperature should be sensible given the ambient conditions in
the room (typically between 15and 30 C).
Procedure
If results from Experiment No.8 are available then it is possible to use these for
manual calculations in order to investigate scaling. If data has been recorded and
saved for The required fan rotational speeds (1050rpm and 2100rpm) it is also
[34]
possible to load these saved results into the software without taking further
measurements. If results are not available. or if a new set of results is preferred,
then proceed as follows:
procedure . To allow the software to perform the required calculations
correctly, it is -:: ~3Ti to follow the procedure exactly and in the order given.
Two constant fan rotational speeds will be investigated, n = l000rpm and n =
2000rpm .In the first part of the exercise, data will be taken at n = l000rpm
and the .are wi i use this data to predict the fan performance at n = 2000rpm.
In the second part of the experiment, real data will be taken at 2000rpm so
that this can then be compared to the predicted performance data.
Check that the outlet aperture is fully open, then set the fan to 100%. Check
that the fan operates and that the sensor readings indicated on the mimic
diagram change accordingly.
Reduce the fan setting until the rotational speed indicated on the mimic
diagram is approximately l000rpm (The actual setting will probably be one
or two rpm different; this is such a slight error that it should make no
difference to the results. Allow a few moments for the fan speed to stabilise
after making adjustments). Note the air velocity then fully close the outlet
aperture.
differential pressure and motor power by selecting the icon on the software
toolbar.
The aperture will be opened to give increments in the air velocity until the
aperture is fully open. Select a flow velocity increment that will give 10-15
separate readings. Open the outlet aperture to give a flow increase
approximately equal to the increment
chosen, and select the icon again.
Continue to open the aperture to give step changes in the flow velocity,
recording the sensor data at each increment.
[35]
Increase the fan setting until the indicated rotational speed is approximately
2000rpm (allow a few moments for the fan speed to stabilize after making
adjustments). Note the air velocity then fully close the outlet aperture.
differential pressure, and motor power by selecting the icon on the software
toolbar.
The aperture will be opened to give increments in the air velocity until the
aperture is fully open. Select a flow velocity increment that will give 10-15
separate readings. Open the outlet aperture to give a flow increase
approximately equal to the increment chosen, and select the icon again.
Continue to open the aperture to give step changes in the flow velocity,
recording the sensor data at each increment, with a final set of readings taken
with the aperture fully open.
Set the fan back to 0% and switch it off using the Fan On switch on the
mimic diagram.
Save the results sheets using Save As... from the File menu, using a
suitable filename for later retrieval such as the equipment code, exercise
letter and date.
Results
If using results from Experiment No.8 and results at 1000rpm and 2000rpm are
available then the predicted discharge, predicted fan total head and predicted power
will be useable. Follow the procedure as described below for using a new set of
data.
If using results from Experiment No.8 that do not include both suggested fan
speeds then the predicted results calculations given will not be useable. Instead
select two sets of data for two different fan rotational speeds. From the first set of
data, use the affinity laws to predict the values for fan total pressure and discharge
at the second fan rotational speed. Plot these predicted values on the same graph as
the measured values at the second fan speed.
[36]
If using a new set of data then the software logs the following variables:
Inlet Temperature T C
Orifice Pressure P1 Pa
Fan Setting - %
Fan Speed n Hz
Mechanical Power Pm W
(input)

Air Density kg/m:
Inlet Velocity Vi m/s
Outlet Velocity V2 m/s
Discharge Qv m3/s
Fan total Ptf Pa

pressure
Fan power Pu W
output
The software assume s the following constants:
Acceleration due to gravity g m/s 2

From the first set of results, plot a graph of predicted fan pressure, and predicted
Power against predicted discharge.
From the second set of results, on a new graph plot the measured fan pressure,
measured power and measured efficiency against measured discharge.
Conclusion
Compare the predicted results with the measured results. How well do the two
graph compare? Do the predicted values match across the full performance range
[37]
of the fan? If not, then where in the range does the greatest deviation occur? How
significant is any deviation compared to other sources of error, such as typical
sensor accuracy? If time permits then it is possible to calculate the accuracy of the
predicted results using standard statistical formulae.
Discuss the use of the affinity laws for predicting fan performance. What factors
could potentially affect the accuracy of the results? Would these sources of error be
present in every possible application? Suggest situations in which the use of the
affinity laws would be particularly relevant. Give examples of applications in
which the affinity laws should not be used, and give reasons for your choices.
[38]
[39]
Experiment No. 10
Fan System Characteristics
Objective
To obtain the fan characteristic curves for a centrifugal fan operating at constant
speed.
Method
By taking sensor readings over a range of flow rates at constant fan speed
setting, for a series of constant fan speeds.
Equipment Required
Compatible PC (not supplied) running Armfield FM41-304 software
Theory
System analysis for a fan installation is conducted to select the most suitable fan
units and to define their operating points. System analysis involves calculating
pressure-capacity curves for the system (including all valves, pipes, fittings etc),
and the use of these curves with those of available fans. These system curves are
a graphic representation of all possible duty points: the fan total pressure is
plotted against discharge from zero fan speed to the expected maximum speed.
[40]
Totai Static Pressure
A typical set of results is shown below.
Volume
Flow rata Qv
System capacity curves showing the effect of systems of increasing resistance
Fan characteristic curves illustrate the relationship between pressure, discharge,

efficiency and power over a wide range of possible operating conditions, but they
do not indicate at which point on the curves the fan will operate. The operating
point (or duty point) is found by plotting the fan pressure-discharge curve with
system pressure-discharge curve, as in the example below. The intersection of the
two curves represents the pressure and discharge that the fan will produce if
operated in the given piping system. It will be seen that the optimum operating
condition is achieved if this operating point coincides with the maximum point in
the efficiency- discharge curve of the fan.
[41]
Fan Pressure
Capacity Curve
Determining fan operational point (duty point)
Equipment Setup
Check that the sensor and power leads from the FM41 are connected to the
sockets or the front of the IFD7.
PC. Check that ne red and green indicator lights on the front of the IFD7 are
illuminated.
software indicates IFD: OK in the bottom right-hand corner of the window.
power switch the front. Check that the power switch on the IFD7 is
illuminated.
On the software mimic diagram screen, select the Fan On button to switch
[42]
on the FM41.Check that the green watchdog indicator on the mimic screen is
illuminated.
Check that the sensor readings on the software screen give sensible values.
The air velocity and the pressure readings (which are relative to atmosphere)
should be zero when the fan is not moving. Use the Zero buttons to zero
the pressure sensor reading if required. The temperature should be sensible
given the ambient conditions in the room (typically between 15 and 30 C).
Procedure
procedure. Note that for this experiment the aperture will remain in a fixed
position and the fan setting will be used to vary the air velocity. This differs
from previous experiments.
Set the fan speed to maximum (100%).
Close the outlet aperture to give significant system resistance, for example %
closed. Rename the current results sheet to match the aperture setting.
differential pressure, and motor power by selecting the icon on the software
toolbar.
Using the discharge as a guide, select incremental values for discharge that
will give 10-15 individual steps between minimum and maximum velocity.
In the software, reduce the fan setting gradually to reduce the discharge by
approximately the increment chosen- the objective is to collect sufficient
individual data points across the full range, not to obtain readings at specific
values, so it does not matter if the exact discharge increment can be
achieved. Allow the flow to stabilise then select the icon.
Repeat for the next flow velocity increment, adjusting the fan setting to give
the required discharge and selecting the icon to record the data once the
settings are correct.
Continue in steps until 0 m3/s discharge is reached. Note that this may not
coincide with a fan setting of 0% due to the resistance within the system.
[43]
Select a new aperture setting, for example 1/2 closed. Rename the results
sheet to match the setting.
Repeat as before, starting with the fan set to 100% and reducing this in steps,
and recording each set of data with the icon.
Additional aperture settings may be investigated if time permits. Sufficient
time must be allowed to complete the last part of this procedure, however,
and note that it is very difficult to obtain meaningful results with the aperture
more than3/4 closed. Remember to create a new results sheet for each set of
data, and to rename each sheet to match the setting used before taking any
readings at that setting
Now a fan performance curve is required. Create a new results sheet and
rename this Fan Performance.
Fully open the outlet aperture.
Set the fan to 100%. Select the icon. Note this maximum discharge and
select a discharge increment that will give 10-15 separate readings between
this maximum discharge and minimum (0 m3/s) discharge.
Close the aperture slightly to give approximately the first discharge
increment. Allow the system to stabilise then select the icon.
Continue to close the aperture in steps to give a full set of data. Note that
there will always be a small discharge reading when reducing the discharge
using the aperture, and take care not to twist the aperture beyond the point at
which it is fully closed.
After taking the last set of readings, fully open the outlet aperture and switch
the fan to standby using the Fan On switch on the software. Save the
results by selecting
Save As... from the File menu. Give the results a representative name,
such as the equipment code, exercise letter and date.
Results
The software logs the following variables:
Inlet Temperature T C
[44]
Orifice Pressure P1 Pa
Fan Setting - %
Fan Speed n Hz
Mechanical Power (input) pm W
Air Density pair kg/m3
inlet Velocity (V1) m/s
Outlet Velocity (V2) m/s
Discharge (Qv ) m3/s
Fan Total Pressure (ptf ) Pa
Fan Power, output (Pu) W

Fan Efficiency ( gr )
%

The software assumes the following constants:
Acc. due to gravity g m/s2
On the same set of axes, for each set of system characteristic results, plot the fan
total pressure ptF against the discharge to produce a set of system curves. On the
same axes, for the fan characteristic curve taken in the final part of the experiment,
plot the p =. On the second y-axis plot the fan efficiency.
[45]
Conclusion
The system characteristic will vary depending on a range of factors such as cross-
section. length, diameter and construction material of piping or ducting, bends and
curves, valves and vents, and any additional obstructions such as rough joints,
control vanes, grills or gratings, and debris. Each aperture setting investigated
represents a different system resistance which could have resulted from these kinds
of factors.
Examine and describe the graph obtained. What was the effect of increased system
resistance (system resistance increases as the aperture is closed) on the shape of the
curve obtained?
Note the points at which the system and fan characteristic curves cross, and
determine the duty point for each aperture setting investigated. How does this duty
point change with increasing system resistance? Using the efficiency curve,
determine the aperture setting for which the duty point of the fan best suits the
system characteristic.
[46]

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Republic of Iraq

Ministry of Higher Education

Title Page No.

Experiment No. (1): Characteristics of Pelton turbine

Experiment No. (2): Turbine characteristic at constant head

Experiment No. (3): Turbine characteristic at constant speed

Experiment No. (4): Turbine characteristic at constant efficiency

Experiment No. (5): Single Pump Operation

Experiment No. (6): Series Pump Operation

Experiment No. (7): Parallel Pump Operation

Experiment No. (8): Fan Constant Speed Characteristics

Experiment No. (9): Dimensional Analysis

Experiment No. (10): Fan System Characteristics

To determine the operating characteristics of a Pelton Turbine.

Fig. 1 Rotor and Spear Valve arrangement of the Pelton turbine.

Rotational Speed (rpm)

Fig. 2 Example characteristics of a turbine at different flow rates

The operating characteristics of a turbine are normally shown by plotting the

The basic parameters that define the turbine performance are :-

1) Volume flow rate (Q)

Each of these is considered in term:-

pump on the hydraulics bench rather than an elevated reservoir.

pressure is converted to an equivalent head of water, Hi, as follows:

The hydraulic power supplied by the water, Ph, can be calculated as

Ph = gHiQ [ Watt ] (3)

The torque itself is given by the equation:

Power absorped by the rotor

Mechanical losses in the bearings etc. require a mechanical efficiency m that is

Power sup plied by the rotor

Power absorped by the brake

Power absorped by the brake

Table of Measured and Calculated variables :-

Measured variables Calculated variables

At what speed is the maximum Torque obtained?

Is the maximum efficiency at the same speed?

Suggest optimum conditions for operation of a Pelton Turbine.

Hydraulic Power Watts Ph Calculated Available power from the fluid

Turbine characteristic at constant head

Volume flow rate

Power outlet and efficiencies:

Table of measured and calculated variables

Measured variables Calculated variables

N/m2 m3/s rpm N.m m

Is the maximum efficiency at the same speed?

Suggest optimum conditions for operation of a Pelton Turbine.

Turbine characteristic at constant speed

Table of measured and calculated variables

Measured variables Calculated variables

N/m2 m3/s rpm N.m m

Turbine characteristic at constant efficiency

4. Operating the turbine at about 8 to 10 gate openings.

Table of measured and calculated variables

Measured variables Calculated variables

N/m2 m3/s rpm N.m m

At which inner or outer iso-efficency curves the efficiency is maximum.

Experiments No. 5,6 and 7

Characteristics of centrifugal pump

The centrifugal pump is a radial flow rotodynamic machine, wherein fluid

Single Pump Operation

Figure 3: Series pumps operation

As shown in figure 3, when two pumps having similar head-flowrate characteristics

Parallel Pump Operation

the single pump.

Figure 4: Parallel pumps operation