6 Balance Laws

Continuum Mechanics
Chapter 6
Balance Laws
C. Agelet de Saracibar
ETS Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politcnica de Catalua (UPC), Barcelona, Spain
International Center for Numerical Methods in Engineering (CIMNE), Barcelona, Spain
Balance Laws > Contents
Contents
Chapter 6 Balance Laws
1. Introduction
2. Conservation of mass
3. Reynolds transport theorem
4. Linear momentum balance
5. Angular momentum balance
6. Mechanical energy balance
7. Assignments
8. First law of thermodynamics
9. Second law of thermodynamics
10. Thermodynamic processes
11. Governing equations
October 8, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 2
Balance Laws > Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
The fundamental laws of continuum mechanics are given by four
conservation/balance laws plus a restriction law.
The four conservation/balance laws are:

Conservation of mass Mass continuity equation
Linear momentum balance Cauchy first motion equation
Angular momentum balance Symmetry of Cauchy stress
First law of thermodynamics Energy balance equation
The restriction law is given by:

Second law of thermodynamics Clausius-Planck and heat
conduction inequalities
Balance Laws > Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
The mathematical expressions arising from the fundamental
laws will be given in:
Global (or integral) form
o Global (or integral) spatial form
o Global (or integral) material form
Local (or strong) form
o Local (or strong) spatial form
o Local (or strong) material form

Balance Laws > Conservation of Mass
Conservation of Mass
We assume that during a motion there are neither mass sources
(reservoirs that supply mass), nor mass sinks (reservoirs that
absorb mass), so the mass of a continuum body is a conserved
quantity.
m ( 0 ) = m ( ) > 0
Then, the mass is independent of the motion and, hence, the
material time derivative of the mass of a continuum body (or a
material volume) has to be zero,
d
m ( ) = 0
dt

Mass Density
The mass at the material (or reference) configuration may be
characterized by a continuous positive scalar field, denoted as
0 = 0 ( X ) > 0 , which is a material property called material (or
reference) mass density, such that,
dm ( X ) = 0 ( X ) dV > 0
The mass at the spatial (or current) configuration may be
characterized by a continuous positive scalar field, denoted as
= ( x, t ) > 0 , which is called spatial (or current) mass density,
such that,
dm ( x, t ) = ( x, t ) dv > 0
Note that, taking t=0 as reference time,
( x, 0 ) = ( X, 0 ) = 0 ( X ) > 0.
Conservation of Mass: Global Material Form
The mass of a continuum body (or a material volume) is a
conserved quantity,
m ( 0 ) = 0 ( X ) dV = ( x, t ) dv = m ( ) > 0
0
Using,
dv = J ( X, t ) dV > 0
The global material form of the conservation of mass may be
written as,
0
0 ( X ) dV = ( ( X, t ) , t ) J ( X, t ) dV > 0
0

Conservation of Mass: Local Material Form
Let us consider the global material form of the conservation of
mass given by,
0
0 ( X ) dV = ( ( X, t ) , t ) J ( X, t ) dV > 0
0
Localizing the integral expression, the local material form of the

conservation of mass reads,
0 ( X ) = ( ( X, t ) , t ) J ( X, t ) > 0

Conservation of Mass: Global Material Form
The material time derivative of the mass of a continuum body
(or a material volume) has to be zero,
d d
m ( ) = ( x, t ) dv = 0
dt dt
Using,
dv = J ( X, t ) dV > 0
The global material form of the conservation of mass may be
written as,
d

dt 0
( ( X, t ) , t ) J ( X, t ) dV = 0

Conservation of Mass: Local Material Form
Let us consider the global material form of the conservation of
mass given by,
d

dt 0
( ( X, t ) , t ) J ( X, t ) dV = 0
d
(
0 dt ( ( X, t ) , t ) J ( X, t ) dV = 0 )
Localizing the integral expression, the local material form of the
d
dt
(
( ( X, t ) , t ) J ( X, t ) = 0 )
Conservation of Mass: Global Spatial Form
The mass of a continuum body (or a material volume) is a
conserved quantity,
m ( 0 ) = 0 ( X ) dV = ( x, t ) dv = m ( ) > 0
0
Using,
dV = J 1 ( x, t ) dv > 0
The global spatial form of the conservation of mass may be
written as,
0 ( 1 ( x, t ) ) J 1 ( x, t ) dv = ( x, t ) dv > 0


Conservation of Mass: Local Spatial Form
Let us consider the global spatial form of the conservation of
mass given by,
0 ( 1 ( x, t ) ) J 1 ( x, t ) dv = ( x, t ) dv > 0

Localizing the integral expression, the local spatial form of the

0 ( 1 ( x, t ) ) J 1 ( x, t ) = ( x, t ) > 0

Conservation of Mass: Global Spatial Form
The material time derivative of the mass of a continuum body
(or a material volume) has to be zero,
d d
m ( ) = ( x, t ) dv = 0
dt dt
The global spatial form of the conservation of mass may be
written as,
d

dt
( x, t ) dv = 0

Let us consider the global spatial form of the conservation of
mass given by,
d

dt
( x, t ) dv = 0
d d d
dt
dv =
dt 0
JdV = 0 dt ( J ) dV = 0 (
J + ) dV
J
= ( + div v ) JdV = ( + div v ) dv = 0

0
Localizing the integral expression, the local spatial form of the
conservation of mass, or mass continuity equation, reads,
( x, t ) + ( x, t ) div v ( x, t ) = 0
The local spatial form of the conservation of mass, or mass
continuity equation, may be written as,
( x, t ) + ( x, t ) div v ( x, t ) = 0
Using the following expressions,

= + ( grad ) v, div ( v ) = div v + ( grad ) v
t
The local spatial form of the conservation of mass, or mass
continuity equation, may be alternatively written as,
( x, t )
+ div ( ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) ) = 0
t
Material Time Derivative
Global and ofLocal
Giving the spatial description Spatialthe Forms
an arbitrary property, material time derivative of the property can be written as,
d

dt
dv = ( + div v ) dv = 0

+ div v = 0, + div ( v ) = 0
t
Global and Local Material Forms
d d

dt 0
JdV =
0 dt
( J ) dV = 0
d
( J ) = 0, J = 0 > 0
dt
Balance Laws > Reynolds Transport Theorem
Convective Flux
Convective Flux of an Arbitrary Property
Consider an arbitrary property A of a continuum medium and
let us denote as ( x,t ) the spatial description of the amount of
the property per unit of mass, ( x,t ) the spatial density field
and v ( x,t ) the spatial velocity field.
The convective flux of the property A through a fixed spatial
surface with unit normal n ( x,t ) , i.e. the amount of the property
crossing the spatial surface per unit of time due to the
convective flux, is given by,
A ( t ) = ( x, t ) ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) n ( x, t ) ds
s

Convective Flux
Convective Flux of an Arbitrary Property
The net outcoming convective flux of the property A through a
fixed closed spatial surface with unit outward normal n ( x,t ) , i.e.
the net amount of the property A leaving the spatial volume
per unit of time due to the convective flux, i.e. outflow (+) plus
inflow (-), is given by,
A ( t ) = ( x, t ) ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) n ( x, t ) ds
v
inflow
v n 0
outflow
v n 0

Convective Flux
Mass Flux
Given a spatial density field, denoted as ( x,t ) and a spatial
velocity field, denoted as v ( x,t ), the mass flux through a fixed
spatial surface with unit normal n ( x,t ) is given by,
M ( t ) = ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) n ( x, t ) ds
s
Note that the mass flux may be viewed as a particular case of the
convective flux of an arbitrary property A , setting = 1.
The net outcoming mass flux through a closed surface with unit
outward normal n ( x,t ) is given by,
M ( t ) = ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) n ( x, t ) ds
v

Convective Flux
Volume Flux
Given a spatial velocity field, denoted as v ( x,t ), the volume flux
through a fixed spatial surface with unit normal n ( x,t ) is given
by,
V ( t ) = v ( x, t ) n ( x, t ) ds
s
Note that the volume flux may be viewed as a particular case of

the convective flux of an arbitrary property A , setting = 1 .
The net outcoming volume flux through a closed surface with
unit outward normal n ( x,t ) is given by,
V ( t ) = v ( x, t ) n ( x, t ) ds
v

Reynolds Transport Theorem

Reynolds Lemma
Consider an arbitrary property A of a continuum medium and
let us denote as ( x,t ) the spatial description of the amount of
the property per unit of mass.
The amount of the property A at the current time t can be
written as,
A ( t ) = dv

The material time derivative of the property A can be written

as,
d
A ( t ) = dv

dt

Reynolds Lemma
The material time derivative of the property A may be written
as,
d
A ( t ) = dv

dt
d d
= JdV = ( J ) dV
dt 0 0 dt
d
= ( 0 ) dV = 0 dV
0 dt 0
= dv



Reynolds Lemma
The Reynolds Lemma for an arbitrary property A takes the
form,
d

dt
dv = dv

Note that Reynolds lemma may be directly obtained using mass

conservation, taking into account that,
dm ( x, t ) = ( x, t ) dv > 0


The following key expression holds,
d
= ( )

dt

= ( ) + grad ( ) v

t

= ( ) + grad ( ) v + div v
t

= ( ) + div ( v )
t


The Reynolds transport theorem for an arbitrary property A
may be written as,
d
A ( t ) = dv

dt
= dv

= ( ) dv + div ( v ) dv
t

= ( ) dv + v nds
t


Reynolds Transport Theorem: Mass Conservation
Taking the mass as a particular case of an arbitrary property, the
Reynolds transport theorem yields a global spatial form of the
conservation of mass and take the form,
d

dt
dv = 0

= ( ) dv + div ( v ) dv
t

= ( ) dv + v nds
t


Global Spatial
Giving the spatial description Form
of an arbitrary property, the material time derivative of the property can be written as,
d

dt
dv = dv

= ( ) dv + div ( v ) dv
t

= ( ) dv + v nds
t
Local Spatial Form

= ( ) + div ( v )
t
Assignment 6.1
Assignment 6.1 [Classwork]
Consider the spatial description of a velocity field given by,
vx = yet , v y = y, vz = 0
The reference time is t=0. The mass density at the reference
configuration is constant. Obtain the spatial mass density and
the mass flux through the open cylindrical surface S of the figure.
A
A

Assignment 6.1
Consider the spatial description of a velocity field given by,
vx = yet , v y = y, vz = 0
The reference time is t=0.
The mass density may be obtained from either the local spatial
or material forms of the mass continuity equation.
Using the local spatial form of the mass continuity reads,
+ div v = 0
where the spatial divergence of the velocity is given by,
div v = v = 1

Assignment 6.1
Integrating the scalar differential equation for the density yields,
+ = 0 ( t ) = Cet
The integration constant takes the value,
( t ) t =0 = C = 0
The spatial density is given by,

( t ) = 0 e t
The mass flux through the open cylindrical surface S of the figure
may be written as,
M = v n dS
S

Assignment 6.1
As the equation of the surface is unknown, we cannot directly
use this expression to compute the mass flux through S.
Let us consider a volume V with boundaries defined by: (S) the
open cylindrical surface S; (S1) the plane y=0; (S2) the plane x=-a;
(S3) the plane z=0 and (S4) the plane z=h.
A
A

Assignment 6.1
Using the conservation of mass and making use of the Reynolds
transport theorem yields,
d

dt V
dV = dV + v n dS
t V V

= dV + v n dS + i =1 v n dS = 0
4
t V S Si
Then the mass flux through the open cylindrical surface S can be
computed as,

M = v n dS = dV i =1 v n dS
4
S t V Si

Assignment 6.1
The volume flux per unit of volume through S1 surface (y=0) is,
T
v n y =0 = [ v ] y =0 [ 0 1 0] = v y =0
y =0
The volume flux per unit of volume through S2 surface (x=-a) is,
T
v n x = a = [ v ] x = a [ 1 0 0] = vx x = a
= yet
The volume flux per unit of volume through S3 surface (z=0) is,
T
v n z =0 = [ v ] z =0 [ 0 0 1] = vz z =0
=0
The volume flux per unit of volume through S4 surface (z=h) is,
T
v n z = h = [ v ] z = h [ 0 0 1] = vz z =h
=0
Assignment 6.1
The spatial time derivative of the mass takes the form,

t t
dV = dV = 0 e dV = 0 e Ah
t V V t V
The mass flux through S1 (y=0) takes the form,
S1
v n dS = v y
S1 y =0
dS = 0
The mass flux through S2 (x=-a) takes the form,

2
a
S2 S2 0 x x=a S2 0
t 2t 2t
v n dS = e v dS = ye dS = 0 e h
2

Assignment 6.1
The mass flux through S3 (z=0) takes the form,

S3
v n dS = 0et vz
S1 z =0
dS = 0
The mass flux through S4 (z=h) takes the form,
S4
v n dS = 0et vz
S4 z =h
dS = 0
Substituting , the flux of mass through the surface S is given by,

M = v n dS = dV i =1 v n dS
4
S t V Si
t 2t a 2
t a 2

= 0e Ah + 0e h = h A + e
2 2
Balance Laws > Linear Momentum Balance
Linear Momentum Balance

Linear Momentum
The linear momentum of a material volume, denoted as M L ( t ),
is defined as a vector-valued function given by,
M L ( t ) = ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) dv

= 0 ( X ) V ( X, t ) dV
0


Linear Momentum
Using Reynolds Lemma, i.e. conservation of mass, the material
time derivative of the linear momentum takes the form,
d
M L ( t ) = ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) dv = ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) dv

dt
d
= 0 ( X ) V ( X, t ) dV = 0 ( X ) V ( X, t ) dV
dt 0 0


Resultant Force
The resultant force acting on a material volume, denoted as F ( t ) ,
is defined as a vector-valued function given by,
F ( t ) = ( x, t ) b ( x, t ) dv + t ( x, t ) ds

= 0 ( X ) B ( X, t ) dV + T ( X, t ) dS
0 0


Linear Momentum Balance Law
The linear momentum balance law states that the time-
variation of the linear momentum of a material volume is equal
to the resultant force acting on that material volume.
d
ML (t ) = ML (t ) = F (t )

dt
If the continuum body is in equilibrium, the resultant force is

zero and the linear momentum is a conserved quantity,
d
ML (t ) = ML (t ) = 0

dt


Linear Momentum Balance Law: Global Spatial Form
The global spatial form of the linear momentum balance law
can be written as,
d

dt
( x, t ) v ( x, t ) dv = ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) dv

= ( x, t ) b ( x, t ) dv + t ( x, t ) ds



Linear Momentum Balance Law: Global Spatial Form
The surface forces can be written in spatial form as,

t ds = n ds = div dv

Substituting into the global spatial form yields,

d

dt
( x, t ) v ( x, t ) dv = ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) dv

= ( x, t ) b ( x, t ) dv + div ( x, t )dv

= ( ( x, t ) b ( x, t ) + div ( x, t ) )dv



Linear Momentum Balance Law: Local Spatial Form
Localizing, the local spatial form of the linear momentum
balance law, known as Cauchys first equation of motion, can be
written as,
( x, t ) v ( x, t ) = ( x, t ) b ( x, t ) + div ( x, t )
If the resultant force is zero, the local spatial form of the linear
momentum balance law can be written as,
0 = ( x, t ) b ( x, t ) + div ( x, t )


Linear Momentum Balance Law: Global Material Form
The global material form of the linear momentum balance law
can be written as,
d
dt 0 0 0
0 ( X ) V ( X, t ) dV = ( X ) ( X, t ) dV
V
= 0 ( X ) B ( X, t ) dV + T ( X, t ) dS
0 0


Linear Momentum Balance Law: Global Material Form
The surface forces can be written in material form as,

0
TdS =
0
PN dS = DIV P dV
0
Substituting into the global material form yields,

d
dt 0 0
0 ( X ) V ( X, t ) dV = 0 ( X ) ( X, t ) dV
V
= 0 ( X ) B ( X, t ) dV + DIV P ( X, t )dV
0 0
= ( ( X ) B ( X, t ) + DIV P ( X, t ) ) dV
0
0


Linear Momentum Balance Law: Local Material Form
Localizing, the local material form of the linear momentum
balance law can be written as,
0 ( X ) V ( X, t ) = 0 ( X ) B ( X, t ) + DIV P ( X, t )
If the resultant force is zero, the local material form of the linear
momentum balance law can be written as,
0 = 0 ( X ) B ( X, t ) + DIV P ( X, t )


Global and ofLocal
d

dt
v dv = v dv = b dv + t ds

v = b + div
d

dt 0

0 v dV = 0 v dV = 0b dV + T dS
0 0 0
0 v = 0b + DIV P

Balance Laws > Angular Momentum Balance
Angular Momentum Balance

Angular Momentum
The angular momentum of a material volume about a fixed
spatial point x0 , denoted as M A ( t ) , is defined as a vector-valued
function given by,
M A ( t ) = r ( x, t ) ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) dv

= R ( X, t ) 0 ( X ) V ( X, t ) dV
0
where the vector position r = r ( x, t ) = R ( X, t ) is defined as,

r = r ( x, t ) = x x0 = ( X, t ) x0 = R ( X, t )


Angular Momentum
Using Reynolds Lemma, i.e. conservation of mass, the material
time derivative of the angular momentum takes the form,
d
M A ( t ) = r ( x, t ) ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) dv

dt
= r ( x, t ) ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) dv

d
= R ( X, t ) 0 ( X ) V ( X, t ) dV
dt 0

= R ( X, t ) ( X ) V
0
( X, t ) dV
0


Resultant Moment
The resultant moment about a fixed spatial point x0 , denoted as
M ( t ) , is defined as a vector-valued function given by,
M ( t ) = r ( x, t ) ( x, t ) b ( x, t ) dv + r ( x, t ) t ( x, t ) ds

= R ( X, t ) 0 ( X ) B ( X, t ) dV + R ( X, t ) T ( X, t ) dS
0 0


Reference Configuration Current Configuration
time t = 0 time t
F dv
0
dV P
P
dA r = x x0 b
da
r = x x0
0 B dA X 0B
X 3 , x3 x da
N x0 x
e 3
n
T e 2 X 2 , x2 t
e1
T
X 1 , x1

Angular Momentum Balance Law
The angular momentum balance law states that the time-
variation of the angular momentum of a material volume about
a fixed spatial point, is equal to the resultant moment about this
fixed spatial point, acting on that material volume.
d
M A (t ) = M A (t ) = M (t )

dt
If the resultant moment about the fixed spatial point is zero,
then the angular momentum about this spatial point is a
conserved quantity,
d
M A (t ) = M A (t ) = 0

dt

Angular Momentum Balance: Global Spatial Form
The global spatial form of the angular momentum balance law
can be written as,
d

dt
r ( x, t ) ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) dV = r ( x, t ) ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) dv

= r ( x, t ) ( x, t ) b ( x, t ) dv

+ r ( x, t ) t ( x, t ) ds



The moment of the surface forces can be written in spatial form
as,

r t ds = r n ds = r div dv + abc cbea dv

abc rbtcea ds = abc rb cd nd ea ds

= abc ( rb cd ),d ea dv

= abc rb cd ,d ea dv + abc rb,d cd ea dv

= abc rb ( )c ea dv + abc cbea dv



Substituting into the global spatial form yields,
d

dt
r ( x, t ) ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) dV = r ( x, t ) ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) dv

= r ( x, t ) ( x, t ) b ( x, t ) dv

+ r ( x, t ) div ( x, t ) dv

+ abc cb ( x, t ) ea dv



Angular Momentum Balance: Local Spatial Form
Localizing, the local spatial form of the angular momentum
balance law yields,
r v = r ( b + div ) + abc cbea
Using the Cauchys first motion equation yields,
abc cbea = 0
and the local spatial form of the angular momentum balance
law can be written as,
( x, t ) = T ( x, t )


Angular Momentum Balance: Global Material Form
The global material form of the angular momentum balance law
can be written as,
d
dt 0 0
R ( X, t ) 0 ( X ) V ( X, t ) dV = R ( X, t ) 0 ( X ) ( X, t ) dV
V
= R ( X, t ) 0 ( X ) B ( X, t ) dV
0
+ R ( X, t ) T ( X, t ) dS
0


The moment of the surface forces can be written in material
form as,
r TdS = r PNdS = r DIV PdV + abc( PFT ) ea dV
0 0 0 0 cb

0
abc rbTcea dS = abc rb PcD N Dea dS
0
= abc ( rb PcD ), D ea dV
0
= abc rb PcD , Dea dV + abc rb , D PcDea dV

0 0
= abc rb ( P )c ea dV + abc FbD PcDea dV

0 0
= r DIV PdV + abc( PFT ) ea dV

October 8, 2013 0 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 0 cb 57

Substituting into the global material form yields,
d

dt 0
r 0 vdV = r 0 v dV
0
= r 0 bdV + r DIV PdV

0 0
+ abc( PFT ) ea dV
0 cb


Angular Momentum Balance: Local Material Form
Localizing, the local material form of the angular momentum
balance law can be written as,
r 0 v = r 0 b + r DIV P + abc( PFT ) ea
cb
Using the Cauchys first motion equation yields,
abc( PFT )cbea = 0
and the local material form of the angular momentum balance
law can be written as,
P ( X, t ) FT ( X, t ) = F ( X, t ) PT ( X, t )


Global and ofLocal
d

dt
r vdV = r v dv

= r b dv + r t ds

=T
d

dt 0
r 0 vdV = r 0 v dV
0
= r 0b dV + r T dS
0 0
PFT = FPT
Balance Laws > Mechanical Energy Balance
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic Energy
The global spatial form of the kinetic energy of a continuum
body, denoted as K ( t ) , takes the form,
1 2 1
K ( t ) = ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) dv = ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) dv
2 2
The global material form of the kinetic energy of a continuum

body, denoted as K ( t ) , takes the form,
1 2 1
K (t ) =
2
0
0 ( X ) V ( X, t ) dV =
2
0
0 ( X ) V ( X, t ) V ( X, t ) dV

Internal Mechanical Power

The internal mechanical power per unit of spatial volume, is the
work done by the stresses per unit of time and unit of spatial
volume, and can be written as,
: d = J 1 : d
= J 1 ( PFT ) : d = J 1PFT : l = J 1P : ( lF ) = J 1P : F
= J 1 ( FSFT ) : d = J 1S : ( FT dF ) = J 1S : E

ab d ab = J 1 ab d ab
= J 1 ( PaA FAb
T
) ab
d = J 1
( aA Ab ) ab
P F T
l = J 1
P ( l F
aA ab bA ) = J 1
PaA FaA
= J 1 ( FaA S AB FBbT ) d ab = J 1S AB ( FAa
T
d ab FbB ) = J 1S AB E AB

The internal mechanical power in the continuum body, denoted
as Pint ( t ) , i.e. work done per unit of time by the stresses, can be
written as,
Pint ( t ) = : d dv

= J 1 : d dv = : d dV
0
= J 1P : F dv = P : F dV
0
= J 1S : E
dv = S : E
dV
0


Global Spatial
Giving the spatial description Form
of an arbitrary property, the material time derivative of the property can be written as,
Pint ( t ) = : d dv

Global Material Forms
Pint ( t ) = : d dV
0
= P : F dV
0
= S:E
dV
0

External Mechanical Power

External Mechanical Power
The external mechanical power, denoted as Pext ( t ) , is the work
done per unit of time by the body forces and surface forces, and
can be written in global spatial and material forms, respectively,
as,
Pext ( t ) = ( x, t ) b ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) dv + t ( x, t ) v ( x, t ) ds

= 0 ( X ) B ( X, t ) V ( X, t ) dV + T ( X, t ) V ( X, t ) dS
0 0

Mechanical Energy Balance

The external mechanical power, denoted as Pext ( t ) , i.e. work
done per unit of time by the body forces and surface forces, can
be written in global spatial form as,
Pext ( t ) = b v dv + t v ds

The external mechanical power of the surface forces can be

written in global spatial form as,

t v ds = v n ds

= div ( v ) dv = v div dv + : grad v dv



Then, using the local spatial form of the linear momentum
balance equation, the external mechanical power can be written
in global spatial form as,

= b v dv + v div dv + : grad v dv

= ( b + div ) v dv + : grad v dv

dv 1 d
= v dv + : l dv = v dv + : d dv
2
dt 2 dt
d 1 d
= v dv + :d dv = K ( t ) + Pint ( t )
2
dt 2 dt

The mechanical energy balance states that the external
mechanical power supplied to the continuum body is spent in
changing its kinetic energy and doing an internal mechanical
power.
d
Pext ( t ) = K ( t ) + Pint ( t )
dt


Mechanical Energy Balance: Global Spatial Form
The global spatial form of the mechanical energy balance can be
written as,

d 1
= v dv + :d dv
2
dt 2


Mechanical Energy Balance: Global Material Form
The global material form of the mechanical energy balance can
be written as,
Pext ( t ) = 0 b v dV + T v dS
0 0
d 1
= 0 v dV + :d dV
2
dt 0 2 0
d 1
= 0 v dV + P : F dV
2
dt 0 2 0
d 1
= 0 v dV + S : E dV
2
dt 0 2 0


Quasistatic Problem
If the material time derivative of the kinetic energy is zero (or
negligible), the problem is called quasistatic and the mechanical
energy balance reads,
Pext ( t ) = Pint ( t )


Free Vibration Problem
If the external mechanical power is zero (or negligible), the
problem is called free vibration problem and the mechanical
d
0 = K ( t ) + Pint ( t )
dt


Conservative Mechanical System
If both the external and internal mechanical power derive from a
potential, i.e. a potential energy for the external loading and a
strain energy, such that,
d d
Pext ( t ) = ext ( t ) , Pint ( t ) = int ( t )
dt dt
the problem is said to be conservative and the mechanical
d d d
ext ( t ) = K ( t ) + int ( t )
dt dt dt
d
dt
( K ( t ) + int ( t ) + ext ( t ) ) = 0

Conservative Mechanical System
The total potential energy, denoted as ( t ) , is defined as the
sum of the potential energy of the external loading, denoted as
ext ( t ) and the strain energy, denoted as int ( t ) , yielding,
d d
dt
( K ( t ) + int ( t ) + ext ( t ) ) = ( K ( t ) + ( t ) ) = 0
dt
In a conservative mechanical system the sum of the kinetic

energy and the total potential energy is a conserved quantity,
K ( t ) + ( t ) = constant

Balance Laws > Assignments
Assignment 6.2
Assignment 6.2
A volume flux Q of an incompressible fluid flows in stationary
conditions through the pipeline of the figure. Velocity and
pressure distributions at the sections A and B are uniform. The
pipeline is fixed through a rigid bar OP. The weights of the
pipeline, rigid bar and fluid are neglected.
SB
eB vB
pB
R
pA vA
eA
P O
F M
SA

Assignment 6.2
1) Obtain the velocities at the sections A and B in terms of Q.
2) Obtain the reaction force F and moment M at the point O.
3) Obtain the values of the angle that maximize and minimize
the reaction at the point O.
4) Obtain the external power needed to keep the volume flux Q
if the fluid is an incompressible ideal fluid with a spherical
stress state given byen by = p1.
SB
eB vB
pB
R
pA vA
eA
P O
F M
SA

Assignment 6.2
The local spatial form of the conservation of mass or mass
continuity equation, plus the incompressibility condition yields,
+ div v = 0, = 0 div v = 0
The global spatial form of the conservation of mass for an
incompressible medium reads,
V
div v dV = v n dS
V
= v n dS + v n dS
SA SB
= vA S A + vB S B = 0
Then the velocities at the sections A and B are given by,
vA S A = vB S B = Q vA = Q S A , vB = Q S B
Assignment 6.2
The global spatial form of the linear momentum balance for a
stationary motion reads,
d
R/ f = vdV
dt V

= vdV + v ( v n ) dS = v ( v n ) dS
t V V V
= v ( v n ) dS + v ( v n ) dS
SA SB
2 2
Q Q
= vA2 S Ae A + vB2 S Be B = eA + eB
SA SB

Assignment 6.2
The resultant force acting on the volume V of fluid, taking into
account that the weight of the fluid is negligible, reads,

R/ f =
V
bdV + tdS = tdS
V V
= tdS + tdS + tdS

wall SA SB
= R wall / f + R pA + R pB
= R wall / f + pA S Ae A pB S Be B
Q2 Q2
= eA + eB
SA SB

Assignment 6.2
The resultant force of the wall of the pipeline acting on the
volume V of fluid, reads,
R wall / f = R / f pA S Ae A + pB S Be B
Q2 Q2
= + pA S A e A + + pB S B e B
SA SB
Using the action-reaction principle, the resultant force of the
fluid acting on the wall of the pipeline, reads,
R f / wall = R wall / f
Q2 Q2
= + pA S A e A + pB S B e B
SA SB
Assignment 6.2
The global spatial form of the angular momentum balance about
the point O, for a stationary motion, reads,
d
M O
/f = r vdV
dt V

= r vdV + r v ( v n ) dS = r v ( v n ) dS
t V V V
=
SA
r v ( v n ) dS + r v ( v n ) dS
SB
2
Q
= vB2 S B Re z = Re z
SB

Assignment 6.2
The resultant moment about the point O acting on the volume V
of fluid, taking into account that the weight of the fluid is
negligible, reads,
MO/ f = r bdV + r tdS = r tdS

V V V
= r tdS + r tdS + r tdS

wall SA SB
= MOwall / f + MOpA + MOpB

= MOwall / f + pB S B Re z
Q2
= Re z
SB
Assignment 6.2
The resultant moment of the wall of the pipeline acting on the
volume V of fluid about the point O, reads,
Q 2

MOwall / f O
= M / f pB S B Re z = + pB S B Re z
SB
Using the action-reaction principle, the resultant moment of the
fluid acting on the wall of the pipeline about the point O, reads,
MOf / wall = M Owall / f
Q2
= + pB S B Re z
SB

Assignment 6.2
Equilibrium of forces and moments at point O
Q2
Rb , f / wall = + pB S B
SB M
Q2
O Ra , f / wall = + pA S A
SA
Fa
Fb
O Q 2

M f / wall = + pB S B R
SB

Assignment 6.2
The equilibrium of forces and moments about the point O on the
pipeline, taking into account that the weight of the pipeline and
the rigid bar are negligible, reads,
R f / wall + W + F = 0
MOf / wall + MWO + M = 0
The reaction force F and moment M, at the point O, read,
F = R f / wall = ( Q 2 S A + pA S A ) e A + ( Q 2 S B + pB S B ) e B
Q2
M = MOf / wall = + pB S B Re z
SB

Assignment 6.2
The reactions force F at the point O, reads,
F = ( Q 2 S A + p A S A ) e A + ( Q 2 S B + pB S B ) e B

>0 >0
The norm of the reaction force F will take a maximum for an

angle such that,
3
e B = e A =
2
The norm of the reaction force F will take a minimum for an
angle such that,

eB = e A =
2
Assignment 6.2
The external mechanical power needed to keep the volume flux
Q, taking into account that the fluid is incompressible, stationary
and the stress state is spherical, is given by,
d d 1
Pext = K + Pint = v dV + : d dV
2
dt dt V 2 V
1 1
= v dV + v v n dS + p tr d dV
2 2
t V 2 V 2 V
1 1
= v v n dS + v v n dS
2 2
SA 2 SB 2
1 3 1 1
= Q 2 2
2 SB S A
Assignment 6.3
An incompressible fluid flows in stationary conditions through
the pipeline of the figure. Velocities and pressures distributions
are uniform at the sections AE and CD. Pressure on the walls is
assumed to be uniform. There is a basculant barrier BC with a
hinge on B. An horizontal force F, acting on the point C, is
keeping the barrier in vertical position. Body forces in the fluid
are neglected. The weight of the barrier is also neglected.
A B
C F h/2
v1 v2 h/2
y
E D p = patm 0
x
h
z
h

Assignment 6.3
1) Obtain the velocity v2 at the section CD in terms of the
velocity v1 at the section AE.
2) Obtain the resultant force and moment acting on the fluid at
the point B.
3) Obtain the resultant force and moment of the fluid on the
barrier at the point B.
4) Obtain the force F and the reaction at the point B.
5) Obtain the external mechanical power needed, assuming the
stress tensor in the fluid is spherical,
A
given by = p1 . C
B
F h/2
v1 v2 h/2
y
E D p = patm 0
x h
z
h

Assignment 6.3
+ div v = 0, = 0 div v = 0
V
div v dV = v n dS
V
=
wall + barrier
v n dS + v n dS + v n dS
S1 S2
2
h
= v1S1 + v2 S2 = v1h 2 + v2 =0
2
v2 = 2v1
Assignment 6.3
d
R/ f = vdV
dt V

= vdV + v ( v n ) dS = v ( v n ) dS
t V V V
= wal +barrier
v ( v n ) dS + v ( v n ) dS + v ( v n ) dS
S1 S2
= v12 S1e x + v22 S2e x

= v12 h2e x

Assignment 6.3
account that the weight of the fluid is negligible, the pressure on
the walls of the pipeline is uniform and the pressure at the
section CD is the atmospheric, which is negligible, reads,

R/ f =
V
b dV + t dS = t dS
V V
= t dS + t dS + t dS + t dS
wall barrier S1 S2
= R wall / f + R barrier / f + R p1 + R p2
= R wall / f + R barrier / f + p1S1e x patm S2e x
= v12 h2e x
Assignment 6.3
The resultant force of the barrier acting on the fluid, reads,
R barrier / f = R / f p1S1e x
= ( v12 p1 ) h 2e x
fluid acting on the barrier, reads,
R f / barrier = R barrier / f
= ( p1 v12 ) h 2e x

Assignment 6.3
the point B, for a stationary motion, reads,
d
M B
/f = r vdV
dt V

= r vdV + r v ( v n ) dS
t V V
=
wall +barrier
r v ( v n ) dS +
S1 + S2
r v ( v n ) dS
2 h 2 3h
= v S e z + v2 S2 e z
1 1
2 4
= v12 h 3 e z
Assignment 6.3
The resultant moment about the point B acting on the volume V
negligible, the pressure at the walls of the pipeline is uniform
and the atmospheric pressure can be neglected, reads,
M /Bf = r bdV +
V V
r tdS = r tdS
V
= r tdS + r tdS + r tdS + r tdS

wall barrier S1 S2
B B B B
= M wall /f + M barrier / f + M p1 + M p2
B B h 3h
=M wall / f +M barrier / f + p1S1 e z + patm S2 e z
2 2
= v12 h 3 e z
Assignment 6.3
The resultant moment of the barrier acting on the volume V of
fluid, about the point B, reads,
B B h 2 1 3
M barrier / f = M p1S1 e z = v1 p1 h e z
/f
2 2

fluid acting on the barrier, about the point B, reads,
M Bf / barrier = Mbarrier
B
/f
1 2 3
= p1 v1 h e z
2
Assignment 6.3
Equilibrium at the barrier
B 1 2 3
M f / barrier = p1 v1 h
2
R R f / barrier = ( p1 v12 ) h 2
W =0
F
Assignment 6.3
The equilibrium of forces and moments about the point B on the
barrier, taking into account that the weight of the barrier is
negligible, reads,
R f / barrier + W + R + F = 0
M Bf / barrier + MWB + M + r F = 0
where R is the reaction force at B, M = 0 is the reaction
moment at B (zero because there is a hinge) and the force F
may be written as,
F = Fe x
h h
r F = e y ( F )e x = Fe z
2 2
Assignment 6.3
The equilibrium of moments about the point B on the barrier
yields,
B 1 2 3 h
M f / barrier + r F = p1 v1 h e z Fe z = 0
2 2
Then, the force F takes the value,
F = ( p1 2 v12 ) h 2
F = Fe x = ( p1 2 v12 ) h 2 e x

Assignment 6.3
The equilibrium of forces on the barrier yields,
R f / barrier + R + F = 0
( 1 1) x
p v 2
h 2
e + R (1
p 2 v1 )
2
h 2
ex = 0
Then, the reaction R takes the value,

R = v12 h 2 e x

Assignment 6.3
B 1 2 3
M f / barrier = p1 v1 h
2
R = v12 h 2 R f / barrier = ( p1 v12 ) h 2
W =0
F = ( p1 2 v12 ) h 2
Assignment 6.3
2 2 1 2
R = v h
1 p
1 v1 h
d=
2
( 1 1)
p v 2
W =0
R f / barrier = ( p1 v12 ) h 2
F = ( p1 2 v12 ) h 2
Assignment 6.3
The external mechanical power needed to keep the flux, taking
into account that the fluid is incompressible, stationary and the
stress state is spherical, = p1, is given by,
d d 1
Pext = K + Pint = v dV + : d dV
2
dt dt V 2 V
1 1
= v dV + v v n dS + p div v dV
2 2
t V 2 V 2 V
1 1
= v v n dS + v v n dS
2 2
S1 2 S2 2
1 3 2 1 3 h2 3 3 2
= v1 h + v2 = v1 h
2 2 2 2
Assignment 6.4
Assignment 6.4 [Homework]
The figure shows the longitudinal section of a pump with a valve
OA of weight W per unit of width (normal to the plane of the
figure). There is a hinge on O. The velocity of the pump is V.
The fluid is incompressible b a
A
and the motion stationary. P a
O 2
Uniform pressure distribu- B

a/2 a/2
P
tions on the sections OB
2
P W A
1
and AB are p1 and p2=0, O

v
v
2 a
respectively. Velocity dis- B
tributions at the sections P 1
OB and AB are uniform. Detail
Body forces in the fluid are V

negligible.
Assignment 6.4
Assignment 6.4 [Homework]
1) Obtain the uniform velocities v1 and v2 at the sections OB
and AB, respectively, in terms of the velocity v of the
pumping tool
2) Obtain the resultant of the forces per unit of width given by
the fluid on the valve OA
3) Obtain the moment per unit of width at the point O of the
forces given by the fluid on the valve OA
4) Obtain the weight W of the valve OA per unit of width.
Environmental pressure p2 is neglected.

Assignment 6.4
+ div v = 0, = 0 div v = 0
V
div v dV = v n dS
V
=
walls
v n dS +
pump
v n dS + v n dS
OB
= v ( a + b ) + v1a = 0
a+b
v1 = v
a
Assignment 6.4
V
div v dV = v n dS
V
=
valve
v n dS + v n dS + v n dS
OB AB
= v1a + v2 a = 0
1 1 a+b
v2 = v1 = v
a

Assignment 6.4
d
R/ f = vdV
dt V

= vdV + v ( v n ) dS = v ( v n ) dS
t V V V
= valve
v ( v n ) dS + v ( v n ) dS + v ( v n ) dS
OB AB
= a ( v12e y + v22 e x )
2
= v
( a + b)
2 1
ex e y
a
Assignment 6.4
account that the weight of the fluid is negligible and the pressure
at the section AB is negligible, reads,

R/ f =
V
b dV + t dS = t dS
V V
= t dS + t dS + t dS
valve OB AB
= R valve / f + R p1 + R p2
= R valve / f + p1ae y patm ae x
2
= v
( a + b)
2 1
ex e y
a
Assignment 6.4
The resultant force of the valve OA acting on the fluid, reads,
R valve / f = R / f p1ae y
2
= v
( a + b)
2 1
e x e y p1ae y
a
fluid acting on the valve OA, reads,
R f / valve = R valve / f
2
= v
( a + b)
2 1

e x e y + p1ae y
a

Assignment 6.4
the point O, for a stationary motion, reads,
d
M O
/f = r vdV
dt V

= r vdV + r v ( v n ) dS
t V V
= r v ( v n ) dS + r v ( v n ) dS
OB AB
= v12r e y dS + v22r e x dS
OB AB
a a 2
2 2
= v a e z v2 a
1 ez = v ( a + b) ez
2
2 2
Assignment 6.4
The resultant moment about the point O acting on the volume V
negligible and the atmospheric pressure can be neglected, reads,
r bdV +
MO/ f =
V V
r tdS
= r tdS + r tdS + r tdS

valve / f OB AB
= MOvalve / f + MOp1 + MOp2
O a a
=M valve / f + p1a e z + patm a ez
2 2
2
= v ( a + b) ez
2

Assignment 6.4
The resultant moment of the valve acting on the volume V of
fluid about the point O, reads,
a 2 1
M O
valve / f = M p1a e z = v ( a + b ) e z p1a 2e z
O
/f
2
2 2

fluid acting on the valve about the point O, reads,
MOf / valve = MOvalve / f

1 2
= v ( a + b ) e z + p1a 2e z
2

Assignment 6.4
Equilibrium of the valve
Ry
Rx
2
2 ( a + b) 1 a2
Rx , f / valve = v M O 2 2
= v ( a + b ) + p1
a z , f / valve
2
2
Ry , f / valve = v 2
( a + b) + p1a
a
Assignment 6.4
The equilibrium of forces and moments about the point O on the
valve, reads
R f / valve + W + R = 0
MOf / valve + MWO + M = 0
where R is the reaction force at O and M = 0 is the reaction
moment at O (zero because there is a hinge).
The equilibrium of moments yields,

2 2 a2 a
v ( a + b ) + p1 e z W e z = 0
2 2

Assignment 6.4
The equilibrium of moments about the point O on the valve
yields,
2 a 2
a
M f / valve + MW = v ( a + b ) + p1 e z W e z = 0
O O 2
2 2
And the weight W per unit of width of the valve reads,

2
2 ( a + b)
2
W = v + p1a
a
2 2 ( a + b )2
W = We y = v + p1a e y
a

Assignment 6.4
The equilibrium of forces at the valve yields,
2
R f / valve + W + R = v
(
2 a + b) 1
e x e y + p1ae y
a
2
2 ( a + b)
2
v e y p1ae y
a
+ R = 0
And the reaction R at the point O reads,
2
R = v
(
2 a + b) 1
e y + ex
a

Assignment 6.4
Equilibrium of the valve
2
2 ( a + b)
2
W = v + p1a
a
2
2 ( a + b)
Ry = v 2
a 2 ( a + b) 1

R = v
x
a
2
2 ( a + b) 1 a2
Rx , f / valve = v M O 2 2
= v ( a + b ) + p1
a z , f / valve
2
2
Ry , f / valve = v 2
( a + b) + p1a
a
Balance Laws > First Law of Thermodynamics
External Thermal Power

External Thermal Power: Global Spatial Form
The external thermal power is defined as the amount of heat
that enters into a material volume per unit of time.
We will assume that heat may enter into a material volume due
to:
Internal heat sources characterized by a scalar-valued
function, given in spatial description by r ( x, t ), representing
the heat source per unit of mass.
Non-convective heat flux through the boundary, characterized
by a vector-valued function, given in spatial description by
q ( x,t ) , representing the non-convective outward heat flux
per unit of spatial surface.


External Thermal Power: Global Spatial Form
The global spatial form of the external thermal power is defined
as,
Qext ( t ) = ( x, t ) r ( x, t ) dv q ( x, t ) n ds

= ( x, t ) r ( x, t ) dv div q ( x, t ) dv

where r ( x, t ) is the heat source per unit of mass and q ( x, t ) is

the non-convective outward heat flux per unit of spatial surface,
both of them given in spatial description.


External Thermal Power: Global Material Form
Using the conservation of mass yields,
( x, t ) r ( x, t ) dv =
0
0 ( X ) R ( X, t ) dV
Using Nansons formula, the heat flux through the spatial

boundary of the continuum body may be written as,

q n ds =
0
q J F T N dS :=
0
Q N dS
where Q is the nominal heat flux, i.e. heat flux per unit of
material surface, given by,
Q = J F 1q, QA = JFAa1qa


External Thermal Power: Global Material Form
The global material form of the external thermal power takes
the form,
Qext ( t ) = 0 ( X ) R ( X, t ) dV Q ( X, t ) N dS
0 0
= 0 ( X ) R ( X, t ) dV DIV Q ( X, t ) dV
0 0
where R ( X, t ) is the heat source per unit of mass and Q ( X, t ) is

the nominal heat flux or heat flux per unit of material surface,
both of them given in material description.

Total External Power

Total External Power: Global Spatial Form
The global material form of the total external power, i.e.
mechanical plus thermal external power, can be written as,
Pext ( t ) + Qext ( t ) = b v dv + t v ds

+ r dv q n ds

d 1
= v dv + :d dv
2
dt 2
+ rdv q n ds



Total External Power: Global Material Form (I)
The global material form of the total thermal power, i.e.
Pext ( t ) + Qext ( t ) = 0 b v dV + T v dS
0 0
+ 0 r dV Q N dS
0 0
d 1
= 0 v dV + :d dV
2
dt 0 2
0
+ 0 rdV Q N dS
0 0


Total External Power: Global Material Form (II)
0 0
+ 0 r dV Q N dS
0 0
d 1
= 0 v dV + P : F dV
2
dt 0 2 0
+ 0 rdV Q N dS
0 0


Total External Power: Global Material Form (III)
0 0
+ 0 r dV Q N dS
0 0
d 1
= 0 v dV + S : E dV
2
dt 0 2 0
+ 0 rdV Q N dS
0 0

First Law of Thermodynamics

First Postulate. There exist a state function called total energy,
denoted as E ( t ) , such that its material time derivative is equal
to the total external power supplied to the system, i.e. the
external mechanical plus thermal power,
d
E ( t ) := Pext ( t ) + Qext ( t )
dt


Second Postulate. There exist a state function called internal
energy, denoted as U ( t ), which is an extensive property, i.e.
there exist a specific internal energy or internal energy per unit
of mass, denoted as e = e ( x, t ) = E ( X, t ) , such that,
U ( t ) := ( x, t ) e ( x, t ) dv = 0 ( X ) E ( X, t ) dV
0


Ther first law of thermodynamics states that the material time
derivative of the total energy is equal to sum of the material
time derivative of the kinetic energy and the material time
derivative of the internal energy,
d d d
E (t ) = K (t ) + U (t )
dt dt dt


Using the first postulate and the mechanical energy balance, the
first law of thermodynamics reads,
d d d
E (t ) = K (t ) + U (t )
dt dt dt
= Pext ( t ) + Qext ( t )
d
= K ( t ) + Pint ( t ) + Qext ( t )
dt
yielding the following internal energy balance law,
d
U ( t ) = Pint ( t ) + Qext ( t )
dt

Energy Balance
Energy Balance Law: Global Spatial Form
The internal energy balance law in global spatial form can be
written as,
d
U ( t ) = Pint ( t ) + Qext ( t )
dt
d

dt
e dv = e dv

= : d dv + r dv q n ds


Energy Balance
Energy Balance Law: Local Spatial Form
Using the divergence theorem, the internal energy balance law
in global spatial form can be written as,
d

dt
e dv = e dv

= : d dv + r dv q n ds

= : d dv + r dv div q dv

Localizing, the local spatial form of the energy balance law

reads,
e = : d + r div q
Energy Balance
Energy Balance Law: Global Material Form
The internal energy balance law in global material form can be
written as,
d
U ( t ) = Pint ( t ) + Qext ( t )
dt
d

dt 0
0 e dV = 0 e dV
0
= : d dV + 0 r dV Q N dS
0 0 0
= P : F dV + 0 r dV Q N dS
0 0 0
= S:E 0
dV + r dV
Q N dS
0 0 0
Energy Balance
Energy Balance Law: Global Material Form
Using the divergence theorem, the internal energy balance law
in global material form can be written as,
d

dt 0
0 e dV = 0 e dV
0
= : d dV + 0 r dV DIV Q dV
0 0 0
= P : F dV + 0 r dV DIV Q dV
0 0 0
= S:E 0
dV + r dV DIV Q dV
0 0 0

Energy Balance
Energy Balance Law: Local Material Form
Localizing, the internal energy balance law in local material form
can be written as,
0 e = : d + 0 r DIV Q
= P : F + 0 r DIV Q
= S:E + r DIV Q
0
Note that the local material form of the energy balance equation
could have been also obtained from the local spatial form using,
0 = J , DIV Q = J div q, : d = P : F = S : E = J : d

Energy Balance
Local Spatial
Giving the spatial Form
description of an arbitrary property, the material time derivative of the property can be written as,
e = : d + r div q
Local Material Forms

0 e = : d + 0 r DIV Q
= P : F + 0 r DIV Q
= S:E + r DIV Q
0

Balance Laws > Second Law of Thermodynamics
Second Law of Thermodynamics

First Postulate. There exist a state function called absolute
temperature, denoted as = ( x, t ) = ( X, t ), which is always a
positive scalar-valued function.
= ( x, t ) = ( X, t ) > 0
Second Postulate. There exist a state function called entropy,

denoted as H ( t ) , which is an extensive property, i.e. there exist
a specific entropy or entropy per unit of mass, denoted as
= ( x, t ) = ( X, t ) , such that,
H ( t ) = ( x, t ) ( x, t ) dv = 0 ( X ) ( X, t ) dV
0


The second law of thermodynamics states that any admissible
thermodynamic process has to satisfy the following inequality,
written in global spatial form as,
d 1 1
H ( t ) rdv q n ds
dt
or in global material form as,

d 1 1
H (t ) 0 rdV Q N dS
dt 0 0


Admissible thermodynamic processes can be classified as
reversible and irreversible processes.
A thermodynamic process is said to be reversible if the following
condition holds,
d 1 1 1 1
H ( t ) = rdv q n ds = 0 rdV Q N dS
dt 0 0
A thermodynamic process is said to be irreversible if the

following condition holds,
d 1 1 1 1
H ( t ) > rdv q n ds = 0 rdV Q N dS
dt 0 0


Second Law of Thermodynamics: Global Spatial Form
The global spatial form of the second law of thermodynamics
can be written as,
d d
H ( t ) = dv = dv
dt dt
1 1
rdv q n ds



Second Law of Thermodynamics: Global Spatial Form
Using the divergence theorem, the global spatial form of the
second law of thermodynamics can be written as,
d

dt
dv = dv

1 1
rdv q n ds

1 1
= rdv div q dv

1 1 1
= rdv div q dv + 2 q grad dv


Second Law of Thermodynamics: Local Spatial Form
Localizing, the local spatial form of the second law of
thermodynamics can be written as,
1 1 1
r div q + 2 q grad

Multiplying by the absolute temperature yields,
1
r div q + q grad



Clausius-Duhem Inequality: Local Spatial Form
The local spatial form of the Clausius-Duhem inequality states
that the dissipation rate per unit of spatial volume is a non-
negative scalar-valued quantity and it can be written as,
1
D := r + div q q grad 0

A stronger assumption is usually introduced, yielding,
1
r + div q q grad 0
D := Dint + Dcond =
D 0

int
Dcond 0
1
Dint := r + div q 0, Dcond := q grad 0


Heat Conduction Inequality: Local Spatial Form
The local spatial form of the heat conduction inequality states
that the projection of the heat flux per unit of spatial surface on
the direction of the spatial gradient of the temperature is a non-
positive scalar-valued quantity, i.e. heat flux takes place from the
hot to the cold and not the other way around,
1
Dcond := q grad 0 q grad 0



Heat Conduction Inequality: Local Spatial Form
Using Fourier law for heat conduction for an isotropic continuum
medium, the second law of thermodynamics yields the following
restriction on the admissible values of the spatial thermal
conductivity parameter,
1
Dcond := q grad 0 k grad grad 0 k 0



Clausius-Planck Inequality: Local Spatial Form (I)
The local spatial form of the Clausius-Planck inequality states
that the internal dissipation rate per unit of spatial volume is a
non-negative scalar-valued quantity and it can be written as,
Dint := r + div q 0
The local spatial form of the Clausius-Planck inequality for a

reversible process takes the form,
Dint := r + div q = 0
The local spatial form Clausius-Planck inequality for an
irreversible process takes the form,
Dint := r + div q > 0

Clausius-Planck Inequality: Local Spatial Form (II)
Using the local spatial form of the internal energy balance
equation and the Clausius-Planck inequality given by,
e = : d + r div q

Dint := r + div q 0

r div q = e : d
the local spatial form of the Clausius-Planck inequality can be
written in terms of the internal energy per unit of mass as,
Dint := : d ( e ) 0


Clausius-Planck Inequality: Local Spatial Form (III)
Introducing the free energy per unit of mass, denoted as ,
defined as,
:= e
the local spatial form of the Clausius-Planck inequality can be
written in terms of the free energy per unit of mass as,
Dint := : d ( + ) 0


Second Law of Thermodynamics: Global Material Form
The global material form of the second law of thermodynamics
states that,
d d
H ( t ) = 0 dV = 0dV
dt dt 0
1 1
0 r dV Q N dS
0 0


Second Law of Thermodynamics: Global Material Form
Using the divergence theorem, the global material form of the
second law of thermodynamics can be written as,
d

dt 0
0 dV = 0dV

1 1
0 rdV Q N dS
0 0
1 1
= 0 rdV DIV Q dV
0 0

1 1 1
= 0 rdV DIV QdV + 2
Q GRAD dV
0 0 0

Second Law of Thermodynamics: Local Material Form
Localizing, the local material form of the second law of
thermodynamics can be written as,
1 1 1
0 0 r DIV Q + 2 Q GRAD

Multiplying by the absolute temperature yields,
1
0 0 r DIV Q + Q GRAD



Clausius-Duhem Inequality: Local Material Form
The local material form of the Clausius-Duhem inequality states
that the dissipation rate per unit of material volume is a non-
negative scalar-valued quantity and it can be written as,
1
D0 := 0 0 r + DIV Q Q GRAD 0

A stronger assumption is usually considered, yielding,
1
D0 := D0 + D0 = 0 0 r + DIV Q Q GRAD 0
int cond
D0int 0
D0cond 0
1
D0 := 0 0 r + DIV Q 0, D0 := Q GRAD 0
int cond


Clausius-Planck Inequality: Local Material Form (I)
The local material form of the Clausius-Planck inequality states
that the internal dissipation rate per unit of material volume is a
non-negative scalar-valued quantity and it can be written as,
D0 := 0 0 r + DIV Q 0
int
The local material form Clausius-Planck inequality for a

reversible process takes the form,
D0 := 0 0 r + DIV Q = 0
int
The local material form Clausius-Planck inequality for an

irreversible process takes the form,
D0 := 0 0 r + DIV Q > 0
int

Clausius-Planck Inequality: Local Material Form (II)
Using the local material form of the internal energy balance
equation and the Clausius-Planck inequality yields,
0 e = : d + 0 r DIV Q

= P : F + 0 r DIV Q

= S : E + 0 r DIV Q
D0int
:= 0 0 r + DIV Q 0
0 r DIV Q = 0 e : d
= 0 e P : F
= e S : E
0

Clausius-Planck Inequality: Local Material Form (II)
The local material form of the Clausius-Planck inequality can be
written in terms of the internal energy per unit of mass as,
D0 := : d 0 ( e )
int
= P : F 0 ( e )
= S:E ( e ) 0
0


Clausius-Planck Inequality: Local Material Form (III)
Introducing the free energy per unit of mass, denoted as ,
defined as,
:= e
the local material form of the Clausius-Planck inequality can be
written in terms of the free energy per unit of mass as,
D0 := : d 0 ( + )
int
(
= P : F 0 + )

= S:E 0 ( + ) 0
Clausius-Planck Inequality
Local Spatial
Giving the spatial Forms
description of an arbitrary property, the material time derivative of the property can be written as,
Dint := r + div q 0
Dint := : d ( e ) = : d ( + ) 0
Local Material Forms

D0 := 0 0 r + DIV Q 0
int
D0 := : d 0 ( e ) = : d 0 ( + )
int
= P : F 0 ( e ) = P : F 0 + ( )
( e ) = S : E
= S:E 0

0 ( + ) 0
Balance Laws > Thermodynamic Processes
Adiabatic Process
Adiabatic Process: Local Spatial Form
A thermodynamic process is said to be adiabatic if the net heat
transfer to or from the continuum body is zero.
The internal dissipation rate per unit of spatial volume for an
adiabatic process can be written as,
r = 0, div q = 0 Dint := r + div q = 0
The stress power per unit of spatial volume for an adiabatic

process is equal to the material time derivative of the internal
energy per unit of spatial volume,
Dint := = : d ( e ) 0 : d = e

Adiabatic Process
Adiabatic Process: Local Material Form (I)
The internal dissipation rate per unit of material volume for an
r = 0, DIV Q = 0 D0int := 0 0 r + DIV Q = 0 0
The stress power per unit of material volume for an adiabatic

energy per unit of material volume,
D0 := 0 = : d 0 ( e ) 0 : d = 0e
int

Adiabatic Process
Adiabatic Process: Local Material Form (II)
r = 0, DIV Q = 0 D0int := 0 0 r + DIV Q = 0 0

D0 := 0 = P : F 0 ( e ) 0 P : F = 0e
int

Adiabatic Process
Adiabatic Process: Local Material Form (III)
r = 0, DIV Q = 0 D0int := 0 0 r + DIV Q = 0 0

D0 := 0 = S : E 0 ( e ) 0 S : E = 0e
int

Isentropic Process
Isentropic Process: Local Spatial Form
A thermodynamic process is said to be isentropic if it takes place
at constant entropy.
isentropic process can be written as,
= 0 Dint := r + div q = r + div q 0
The stress power per unit of spatial volume for an isentropic
process can be written as,
Dint := r + div q = : d ( e ) 0
: d = e r + div q
Isentropic Process
Isentropic Process: Local Material Form (I)
= 0 D0 := 0 0 r + DIV Q = 0 r + DIV Q 0
int
The stress power per unit of material volume for an isentropic

D0 := 0 r + DIV Q = : d 0 ( e ) 0
int
: d = 0 e 0 r + DIV Q
Isentropic Process
Isentropic Process: Local Material Form (II)
= 0 D0 := 0 0 r + DIV Q = 0 r + DIV Q 0
int

D0 := 0 r + DIV Q = P : F 0 ( e ) 0
int
P : F = 0e 0 r + DIV Q
Isentropic Process
Isentropic Process: Local Material Form (III)
= 0 D0 := 0 0 r + DIV Q = 0 r + DIV Q 0
int

D0 := 0 r + DIV Q = S : E 0 ( e ) 0
int
= e r + DIV Q
S:E 0 0

Isentropic and Adiabatic Process

Isentropic + Adiabatic Process: Local Spatial Form
A thermodynamic process is said to be isentropic and adiabatic
if it takes place at constant entropy and the net heat flux to or
from the continuum body is zero.
isentropic and adiabatic process is zero and, then, the process is
reversible.
= 0, r = 0, div q = 0 Dint := r + div q = 0
The stress power per unit of spatial volume for an isentropic and
adiabatic process is equal to the material time derivative of the
internal energy per unit of spatial volume,
Dint := : d ( e ) = 0 : d = e
Isentropic/Adiabatic Reversible Process

Isentropic/Adiabatic Reversible Process
If a thermodynamic process is adiabatic and reversible, then the
process is also isentropic,
Dint = 0, r = 0, div q = 0 Dint := r + div q = 0
If a thermodynamic process is isentropic and reversible, then the
process is also adiabatic,
= 0, Dint = 0 Dint := r + div q = 0
For reversible thermodynamic processes, any adiabatic process

is also isentropic, and any isentropic process is also adiabatic .

Isothermal Process
Isothermal Process: Local Spatial Form
A thermodynamic process is said to be isothermal if it takes
place at constant temperature.
isothermal process is given by,
(
= 0 Dint := : d + = : d 0)

Balance Laws > Governing Equations
Governing Equations: Coupled TM Problem

Governing Equations: Spatial Form
Conservation of mass. Mass continuity
+ div v = 0
Balance of linear momentum. Cauchy first motion
div + b = v
Balance of angular momentum. Symmetry of Cauchy stress
=T
Balance of energy
e = : d + r div q
Clausius-Planck and heat conduction inequalities
Dint := r + div q 0, Dcon := q grad 0


Constitutive Equations: Spatial Form
Thermo-mechanical constitutive equations
= ( v, , )
= ( v, , )
Thermal constitutive equation. Fourier law
q = q ( v, ) = k ( v, ) grad
State equations
e = e ( v, )
= ( , )


Governing Equations: Material Form (I)
J = 0
DIV P + 0 b = 0 v
Balance of angular momentum. Symmetry restriction 1st P-K
PFT = FPT
Balance of energy
0 e = P : F + 0 r DIV Q
D0 := 0 0 r + DIV Q 0, D0
int cond
:= Q GRAD 0


Constitutive Equations: Material Form (I)
PF T
= ( v, , )
= ( v, , )
Thermal constitutive equation. Material Fourier law
Q = Q ( v, ) = K ( v, ) GRAD
State equations
e = e ( v, )
= ( , )


Governing Equations: Material Form (II)
J = 0
( )
DIV F T + 0 b = 0 v
Balance of angular momentum. Symmetry of Kirchhoff stress
= T
Balance of energy
0 e = : d + 0 r DIV Q
D0 := 0 0 r + DIV Q 0, D0
int cond
:= Q GRAD 0


Constitutive Equations: Material Form (II)
= ( v, , )
= ( v, , )
Q = Q ( v, ) = K ( v, ) GRAD
State equations
e = e ( v, )
= ( , )


Governing Equations: Material Form (III)
J = 0
DIV ( FS ) + 0 b = 0 v
Balance of angular momentum. Symmetry of 2nd P-K stress
S = ST
Balance of energy
0 e = S : E + 0 r DIV Q
D0 := 0 0 r + DIV Q 0, D0
int cond
:= Q GRAD 0


Constitutive Equations: Material Form (III)
= ( v, , )
= ( v, , )
Q = Q ( v, ) = K ( v, ) GRAD
State equations
e = e ( v, )
= ( , )

Governing Equations: Mechanical Problem

Mechanical Problem: Spatial Form
+ div v = 0
div + b = v
Balance of angular momentum. Symmetry of Cauchy stress
=T
Mechanical constitutive equation
= ( v)


Mechanical Problem: Spatial Form
+ div v = 0
div + b = v
= ( v)


Mechanical Problem: Material Form (I)
J = 0
DIV P + 0 b = 0 v
PFT = FPT
PFT = ( v )


Mechanical Problem: Material Form (II)
J = 0
( )
DIV F T + 0 b = 0 v
= T
= ( v)


Mechanical Problem: Material Form (II)
J = 0
( )
DIV F T + 0 b = 0 v
= ( v)


Mechanical Problem: Material Form (III)
J = 0
DIV ( FS ) + 0 b = 0 v
Balance of angular momentum. Symmetry of 2nd P-K stress
S = ST
S = S ( v)


Mechanical Problem: Material Form (III)
J = 0
DIV ( FS ) + 0 b = 0 v
S = S ( v)

6 Balance Laws

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6 Balance Laws

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Continuum Mechanics

The four conservation/balance laws are:

The restriction law is given by:

October 8, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 4

October 8, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 5

October 8, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 7

Localizing the integral expression, the local material form of the

October 8, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 8

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October 8, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 11

Localizing the integral expression, the local spatial form of the

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= ( + div v ) JdV = ( + div v ) dv = 0

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Note that the volume flux may be viewed as a particular case of

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Reynolds Transport Theorem

The material time derivative of the property A can be written

Reynolds Transport Theorem

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Reynolds Transport Theorem

Note that Reynolds lemma may be directly obtained using mass

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Reynolds Transport Theorem

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Reynolds Transport Theorem

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Reynolds Transport Theorem

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Reynolds Transport Theorem

Local Spatial Form

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The spatial density is given by,

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The mass flux through S1 (y=0) takes the form,

The mass flux through S2 (x=-a) takes the form,

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The mass flux through S4 (z=h) takes the form,

Substituting , the flux of mass through the surface S is given by,

Linear Momentum Balance

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Linear Momentum Balance

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Linear Momentum Balance

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Linear Momentum Balance

If the continuum body is in equilibrium, the resultant force is

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Linear Momentum Balance

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Linear Momentum Balance

Substituting into the global spatial form yields,

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Linear Momentum Balance

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Linear Momentum Balance

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Linear Momentum Balance