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2
Development project such as this is a result of sustained effort of many organizations and people over time.
Studying the gravity water flow system to the level of detail that this document outlines would not have been
possible without the support of Arghyam's partner and implementing NGO Visakha Jilla Navanirman Samiti
(VJNNS). We are thankful to the extensive support from the staff at VJNNS.
We express deep gratitude to the people of the villages that we visited- the Panchayat Sarpanchs, Anganwadi
workers, farmers and families for their time. The treks across the terrain in which these villages are located and
the forests in which the springs are located made us realize the relevance and potential impact that these
interventions can effect. We have enormously benefitted from the technical analysis of pipeline and engineering
3
GWFS Gravity Water Flow Systems
ST Scheduled Tribes
4
5
"All of you are right. The reason every one of you is telling it differently is because each one of you touched the
different part of the elephant. So, actually the elephant has all the features you mentioned."[1] - from The elephant
and the blind men
It appears that the ongoing water crisis of availability and quality is much like the classic story of The Elephant
and the Blind Men. The enormity of the problem often overwhelms the planners who much like the blind men
scope out a part of the problem each time. The picture that develops portrays a wide array of problems. But unlike
this story, the interpretation of water crisis should be done carefully considering both the macro (large scale) and
the micro aspects. Here the macro level refers to the basin level planning and micro refers to the local, community
and household level approach to address the quality and availability issues. Gravity water flow system is an
intervention at the community level where provisioning this system can address a village's drinking water problem
at the local level without the need to wait for the results of centralized planning to reach them. At the same time
such a participatory approach ensures a high degree of adoption of these systems by the community.
This document has been prepared in response to a general need for technical information on gravity flow water
systems that have been implemented in the Eastern Ghats of India. Although detailed design books and manuals on
GWFS have been around since the early 1970s the approach to commissioning such a project in different parts of
the world is being revised continuously. For instance, with the advent of modern technology the topographical
survey is no more done using theodolite, abney level or barometric altimeter. Similarly much of the piping material
is now plastic based (PVC/HDPE) which offer a greater degree of flexibility and cost savings.
Having said this, a caveat is in order. Spring sources have been found servicing the drinking water requirement of
households throughout the year at a minimal cost, in the study area. This does not imply that the spring source is a
comprehensive solution in itself. The areas where GWFS has been supplying water throughout the year to the
families have low population density and therefore low water demand. Spring source in other hilly regions may be
considered only for augmentative use if the water demand exceeds that of the available springs.
6
The Gravity Water Flow System (GWFS) as implemented by VJNNS in Visakhapatnam district was observed and
extensively studied in order to bring together a set of standardized and technically sound practices which can help
the organization as well as many other agencies may be interested in exploring the feasibility of such a system in
their geographies.
We summarize the key findings of the analysis at the onset to make it convenient for the reader to gauge the
relevance of this report vis a vis their requirement.
Hydro geological understanding of the target area is paramount to any intervention approach. Although springs
have been traditionally used in this region, harnessing them as a reliable source of drinking water supply is possible
only if there is a clear understanding of spring catchment systems.
Spring catchment systems can be viable and sustainable sources of domestic water supply. In hilly regions where
springs are a common occurrence emphasis should be given on these resources than going for ground water directly.
In the study area it was observed that borewells have failed repeatedly, whereas a stable and perennial GWFS
successfully served the same area.
Water Quality: Spring catchment systems often are the cleanest source of water occurring naturally. With little or no
treatment this source can be harnessed for drinking water needs.
Energy Efficient System: The geography of hilly terrain offers a tremendous advantage of supplying the water from
the spring source to the point of use at the least or no distribution cost at all. This is by far the strongest factor which
makes GWFS the supply system of choice.
Simple Technology: The system is based on the simple phenomenon of water flow under gravity from a point of
higher elevation (source) to a point situated on a lower elevation. Pipeline design for the entire water supply system
remains the only technically challenging aspect. This too can be addressed with training.
Operation and Maintenance: A lower level of sophistication implies very low operational spending. The system once
put in place runs smoothly requiring only a routine inspection of pipeline and taps. Technical glitches what so ever
are addressed by the villagers themselves. The construction of the system involves concrete tanks and high density
polyethylene (HDPE) piping for transmission as well as distribution. These usually last 6 to 8 years without
undergoing any damage or defect.
Community ownership: Use of natural springs is often a traditional practice in many hilly regions. The people have a
higher degree of familiarity with this source and acknowledge it as a part of their village ecosystem. When such a well
integrated water resource is formalized and developed further with the help of the community itself then it certainly
ensures a much greater sense of ownership among the people.
Traditional Knowledge: GWFS underscores the importance of traditional knowledge of the community and
participatory development in water resource planning.
Benefit Cost Ratio: In times of increasing problems and shrinking budgets, GWFS wherever appropriate offers a high
impact and value for the capital spent.
7
MAP 1: MAP OF INDIA WITH ANDHRA PRADESH
HIGHLIGHTED. GRAVITY WATER FLOW SYSTEMS IN
VISHAKAPATNAM AND EAST GODAVARI DISTRICTS OF THE
STATE HAVE BEEN DOCUMENTED IN THIS REPORT.
8
PHOTO 1: A KONDAPALLI VILLAGER
PHOTO 2: PEOPLE FROM THESE VILLAGES DEPEND ON THE FORESTS FOR MOST OF THEIR NEEDS
9
It is these ephemeral streams that forms one of the
key natural endowments of this hilly region. While
the most common source of drinking water supply in
Running along a north-east south west direction, these hills has been ground water tapped via
Eastern Ghats cover an area of 75000 sq Km of the borewells, the geoginic contamination( high iron
Indian peninsular. The Mahanadi basin marks the load) makes it unfit for drinking. It is under these
northern boundary for this range while the southern circumstances that the traditional source spring
limit is flanked by Nilgiri hills. While Bastar, catchments have been explored, studied and
Telengana and Karnataka plateaus including the analyzed for their use as reliable source of drinking
Tamil Nadu uplands lie on the west of these ghats, the water.
eastern side is an extensive coastal area.
The landscape has many residual hills (with outcrop 1. Pre-agricultural level of technology
granitic basement) and an extensive pediment with a 2. Very low level of literacy
large number of small (2nd order) sub-basins 3. Declining or stagnant population
drained by ephemeral streams (whose orientation
is often controlled by fault lineaments). [2] Fig 1. The tribes found here are Bhagata, Konda Dora,
shows the study region marked on hydrological map Valmiki, Kondu, Konda Savara (PTGs). Valmikis form
of Andhra Pradesh. a substantial population in Visakhapatnam district.
They live in large villages side by side with Bhagatas
10
and Konda Doras. The way Bhagatas live or dress Orissa and has settled in this region. They largely
isnt very different from the Valmikis. Both these remain unassimilated and maintain a distinct identity
communities are relatively prosperous; their houses of their own. They are now referred to as Kondus.
are well built and primarily agrarian. It is important
to note that at an altitude between 800 m and 900 m A hallmark of these tribes is community ownership of
the difficulties of communication have prevented a the natural resources that they benefit from. Their
massive immigration of non-tribals from other parts. practices are largely in tune with the environments
regenerative capacity.
The Samanta tribe from Orissa migrated to this
region during the early wave of hydel projects in
Visakhapatnam
FIGURE 1: HYDROLOGICAL MAP OF ANDHRA PRADESH (STUDY AREA HIGHLIGHTED IN RED) [2]
11
PHOTO 3: MAN CARRYING CHARCOAL
REGION.
PHOTO 4: A PATCH OF CLEARED FOREST LAND WITH TREES FELLED FOR CHARCOAL PRODUCTION
12
lie underneath a less permeable sheath of rocky bed.
While developing a spring source, the choice of
spring is such that it is distant from the village than in
Comprehensive healthcare data of the study area is its immediate vicinity. This ensures that a clean and
difficult to come by, as the number of surveys done in uncontaminated spring source is chosen for drinking
the region is few and infrequent. A significant water supply.
proportion of the illnesses prevalent in the region are
due to the source of drinking water that is used. A
study titled Illness and Treatment among Khonds of
Visakhapatnam District by Rao et.al [4] of the Andhra Developing gravity fed water supply from the springs
University published in 2006 illustrates the intensity as an alternative to stream and well water for
of the problem. In a survey of sample drawn from drinking offers tremendous advantage in terms of
among the Khond tribe the team found 46% people highly localized solution to the problem.
suffer from various illnesses of the sample size of
2000 people who drink stream water. From a sample At the same time GWFS affects a strong community
size of 657 people who drink well water, 67.5% controlled management and operation of the
suffered from various illnesses. Now these are some instituted water resource. Both these benefits are of
serious numbers considering the small population significance in this region considering the deficient
state of public works and poor state of public utilities.
size of this group.
The intervention as planned by the implementing
As much as the drinking water contamination poses a organization involves a concerted efforts towards
serious threat, an equally big problem is poor state of improving health, sanitation and hygiene in the
sanitation in this area. Almost all the villages practice region by first helping the villages develop an
alternative source of drinking water i.e. springs
open defecation, which obviously is a leading cause of
which ensure clean and potable quality drinking
poor hygiene and health of the people.
water. The intervention approach is shared in the
Amidst these seemingly simple issues of poor quality
scheme below.
drinking water, lack of clean sanitation and hygiene Based on this scheme, a seven step procedure is
VJNNS planned an intervention in this area by adopted to address the issues raised in the
helping people adopt naturally occurring springs as a intervention approach.
source of drinking water. Springs in this region are
abundant and have very good quality of water as they
water hygiene
High occurance of water
Poor Sanitation and Hygine
contamination in proximities.
ground water
Contamination from
open defecation
13
TABLE 1 FREQUENCY OF ILLNESS VERSUS SOURCE OF DRINKING WATER IN KONDH TRIBES [4]
14
15
The primary objective of this study is to document this
rather new source of drinking water system detailing
the design process, explaining water transport across For instance, the villages of Bappannadhara,
the hilly terrain by leveraging the flow of water under Boradakota, Mirtwada and Kondapalli share a
gravitational effect and finally develop a common spring source. The terrain across which the
comprehensive set of information on how this system pipeline runs is quite challenging in terms of design
can be adopted in regions with similar geographical and accessibility. The source lies deep in the forest
features and need. and in the administrative boundary of Kondapalli
Of the 27 GFWS systems commissioned by VJNNS till village. This made water sharing complex due to
date, we visited 8 villages to see the GWFS Kondapalli asserting its ownership of the spring.
implementation. Out of the 8, 4 projects were chosen
The entire list of villages where VJNNS has
for detailed observation considering that they
implemented GWFSs can be found in Appendix A.
represent the entire gamut of issues related to
planning, design and commissioning such a system.
The list of these 8 villages visited and their details in A set of parameters were listed on which the 4 GWFS
Table 2. were observed. This set was developed based on an
understanding of the necessary elements required
GWFS systems from the following 4 systems were
for a successful implementation of GWFS. The case
observed and documented in detail: Bappannadhara,
study section examines some villages on the set of
Pallada, Gondipakala, Chikkudubatti and Jellurmettu -
questions in the implementation of GWFS in a village.
Boradavedi.
To gather information for the above aspects of a
Villages sharing a spring source were closely GWFS system we conducted the following exercises
examined for water sharing issues and conflicts if
to understand the process adopted by VJNNS:
any. Aspects like shared responsibility (for O &M),
property rights and community participation in those Pipeline Walk
villages were explored for insights on how to run
Interaction with villagers
such a shared system, efficiently.
Discussion with VJNNS
16
TABLE 2 VILLAGES VISITED DURING THE TRIP
Boradakota 1 120 CARE, India Functioning East Godavari / Supplies to three more villages via a
&Kondapalli Prattipadu 2008 balancing tank.
17
Walking along the entire length of the pipeline from alignment, marking the orientation using GPS and
the spring source to distribution tank and further to developing an elevation profile of each transmission
stand post was an important part of the exercise. This pipeline. Finally HGL, head difference, flow rate,
revealed numerous finer details of pipeline layout pressure at the end point were calculated to check
and flow dynamics which could not have otherwise the degree of efficiency of the entire system.
been known. These treks-cum hikes along the
pipeline is termed pipeline walks. A direct This lack of vital scientific data often made it difficult
consequence of the pipeline walk is the elevation for an outsider to understand or even comprehend
profile of each GWFS. The pipeline walk was the process of construction of GWFS. With more
technical data available, it can now be shared with
conducted using a handheld GPS system to note
people not familiar or associated with the project.
elevation of the source and mark points along the
Table 3 shows the data gathered from pipeline walk
pipeline. Noting the elevation of the distribution tank
conducted for Chikkudubatti village.
and then computing the elevation difference between
the source and the distribution tank gave us an
estimate of the pressure heads. This is an important The waypoints were marked using GPS at 30 feet
consideration in the planning of GWFS. Smaller head intervals and elevation noted at all those locations
difference as well as large distance between source where there was a visible change in elevation of the
and distribution tank can make it difficult to terrain, and also at points where there was a change
implement the system. in the diameter of the pipeline. The data thus
obtained was scatter plotted to see the topographic
Pipeline walk was also done because all the 27 profile of the terrain through which the pipeline
projects implemented so far have been based on passed.
approximations and experience based understanding
of VJNNS team. Until this current effort no elevation, GPS data, elevation curve and the pipeline profile of
distance and alignment profiling had been done. two more villages is shared in Appendix B.
We conducted pipeline walks for three sites;
Pallada, Jellurmettu and Kondapalli; examining the
18
PHOTO 6: A SECTION OF PIPELINE OF PALLADA GWFS
19
TABLE 3: A SAMPLE DATA SET FROM CHIKKUDUBATTI VILLAGE
Topographic Profile
Topographic
2735 profile
E
2730
l
e 2725
v
2720
a
t 2715
i
2710
o
n 2705
2700
(
f
2695
t
)
20
PHOTO 8: DISCUSSION WITH GONDIPAKALA VILLAGE MEMBERS
21
The information gather from the above three
processes will be shared through case studies
VJNNS provided necessary information on of these villages and also from the
cost estimation, general considerations for Appendices.
technical decisions and the processes.
22
A spring occurs when the water table is at the
ground surface, often along a hillside or in a low
area. Although water flow may be quite variable
during the year and from
Year-to-year, even a small flow can be worth These springs have little or no aquifer pressure,
developing; for instance a gravity spring/seep being visible only as a wet area or by a difference
spring of one liter/ minute is over a 1000 liters/ of vegetation indicating water is present. They
a day. The usable flow rate, at the time of year usually require a collection system connected to
the water is required, must be determined the distribution pipeline. [6]
before starting development. [6}
In Eastern Ghats, the area where VJNNS has
implemented GWFS has poorly developed granitic
basement aquifer and have abundant gravity
springs.
23
FIGURE 3: ARTESIAN SPRINGS OCCUR WHEN WATER IS TRAPPED BETWEEN IMPERVIOUS LAYERS AND IS
FORCED TO THE SURFACE
FIGURE 4: GRAVTIY SPRINGS FLOW ON A NATURAL UNDERGROUND SLOPE TO THE SURFACE. THE WATER
FLOWS MORE OR LESS HORIZONTALLY OUT OF THE GROUND.
24
Expression of interest by the
community
VJNNS is working in the region since the early 1970s. Formation of a committee
Their focus has been health and education between Training Community
the 1970s and 1980s. During this period the
Selection of a suitable spring-
Government started numerous programs to improve
health and literacy in this region. Spring flow (perennial/seasonal)
and yield
Due to Government intervention, VJNNS moved on to
other unmet needs like drinking water. As VJNNS also
worked in healthcare related issues it found that the Ascertaining property rights
occurrences of water borne diseases were very high Altitude measuring
in this region. Thus VJNNS began to explore solutions Water quality testing
to provide clean drinking water to the villages. Planning matching yield with
Early interventions were borewells and open dug demand, peak demand, spring
wells as a source of drinking water. But these were yield variance
not adopted by the villagers due to difference in taste, Construction- collection tank,
which occurred because of high iron levels in ground
pipeline, distribution tank,
water of this region. The spring box system
developed by the government also fell into disuse distribution network
because of similar issues. Due to very low water
levels in the summer season, people broke open
these spring boxes to gain access to the water. They water could be piped from the spring to the villages.
also carried out their washing and cleaning activities He intuitively implemented this system in the first
here, thus contaminating it. And so the quality of the village, Damanapalli with the Panchayati Raj
water remained poor. Institution (PRI) Funds. It was the first GWFS
constructed by VJNNS. It was constructed largely on
As an experimental one of the enterprising team his approximations. The experiment worked.
members from VJNNS, Mr.Parthasarathy observed
the springs and peoples preferences. He then Since then VJNNS has implemented around 27 of such
developed a solution i.e. GWFS which had a good systems on their own, they have advised the
chance of adoption by people. Chintapalli block administration; Visakhapatnam
district, to implement such systems in 2 of their
Seeing the farmers in hilly region use bamboo to villages and 15 other NGOs in the region.
transport water from streams lead to an idea that
25
Drawing on their experience over a period of time
they have developed a process to implement the
GWFS in a village. Elder people in the village usually aware of
springs that have been alive since their
childhood, and such springs could be a potential
source
If in the vicinity of the spring is a pasture where
the animals go grazing during the most dry
season, that spring is a probable source
Localized green vegetation in otherwise dry
areas may also indicate the presence of a spring
It is often necessary to follow the streams and
rivulets, walking and hiking for hours to find the
rising point of a potentially good source.[7]
Measuring the yield during the source
identification over a period of month to see the
Typically the villagers approach VJNNS with an variation will reduce the probability of getting
application requesting GWFS system in their village. the source wrong
Spring has a consistent yield with little variation
during rainy season and dry season.
If the identification process is carried out during
Following the application, a study of existing water the summer (in this case march may)the
sources and water practices of people is undertaken margin of error is reduced significantly, as all the
to understand the needs clearly. A baseline survey of other sources that are fed from aquifer recharge
the village is carried out to explore the following will dry up.
The springs eye or the source origin when
excavated more or increased in size should alter
the yield of the spring.
Technical survey of the source is a crucial parts of Any spring with a consistent yield during the
GWFS system. The process of engaging with non lean period with yields between 1 lps to 3
community to get desirable results will be discussed lps and with yields of 0.5 lps in lean periods have
in detail. been observed to be a reliable source.
The more distance a source is from the village, a
Water- Source of water spring with better yield will be more reliable.
sanitation defecation practice
To get a distant source on a undulating terrain to
practices personal hygiene practices
supply to a village, diameter of the pipe is
Source Investigating already existing
decreased to use the siphon effect to help more
Identification source of water
the water.
and estimation Identification of springs in the area
of the viability : Historical knowledge of villagers To break pressure of the water in the pipes they
of sources in identifying potential spring do not use break pressure tanks but vary the
sources diameters to use the pressure.
Local community to Sometimes, underground sources may emerge
identify the springs that directly into a stream or rivulet. It may be
dont dry up during the necessary to check for changes in the flow of
summer season water along the stream or rivulet to be
Measuring the yield over a investigated in order to locate a spring with
period of few months to potential for development.
see if any change in yields
Assessing the habitation in
the catchment of the spring
26
to understand the water First build a collection pit by damming the flow.
quality of the spring. Make sure that the basin collects all of the
Calculate the yield of the available flow. Then place a pipe through the top
spring using the Bucket of the dam so that all of the collected water now
method flows freely through the pipe. Allow the spring to
run for some time after the dam construction
Viability Survey of elevation of source and has been completed, and measure when the flow
distribution tank ( approximation) becomes steady. If the flow of the spring is such
How viable will it be to supply the that the measuring bucket gets filled up too
water to the village quickly (in less than 5 seconds), the flow should
What will be the possible be channelled through several pipes, each of
expenditure for te supply line to
which is measured separately. In this case, the
the village is again estimated.
total flow is the sum of these separate
Using Bucket method the yield of
measurements. For the flow measurement, place
the source is measured.
a bucket of a known volume under the pipe to
catch the water. For springs with very low flow,
a 1 litre bucket will suffice . For a bigger flow,
Socio-cultural Number of families, children, one might use a ten or twenty litre bucket;
background Festivals and celebrations, eating alternatively, the flow can be divided into
habits several channels which are then measured
Education Number of schools, education separately (see photo on cover page). With a
qualification of people watch, measure the amount of time taken (in
Occupation If they are farmers who engage in seconds) to fill the bucket. Divide the volume of
Podu cultivation then what type of
water collected by the time of collection to find
crops do they grow? ( maize,
the rate of flow in litres per second. Make at
turmeric, corn)
least 4 to 5 readings in this way. If the amount of
People who make charcoal from
the trees felled in the forest. time taken to fill the bucket varies by more than
Number of people who are 10% to 20% between measurements, you know
employed in other occupations. that the collecting basin is either being drained
Pensioners or is still filling up. Repeat the measurements
Institutions Number of CBOs, committees and until a stable reading is achieved.
unions in the village
Health Survey Healthcare information of the training of the villagers on various aspects of the
village is collected from the GWFS construction and maintenance.
community health worker .
Water Testing is carried out at the spring source
After the Socio-technical survey and study of the using field level water quality testing kits to ascertain
water source a plan to construct and implement a potable quality of the water from that source.
GWFS for the village is submitted to the Panchayat.
On approval by the Panchayat, a village committee is
formed that is responsible for the activities, like
FIGURE 5: YIELD
MEASUREMENT BY BUCKET
METHOD [7]
27
A local staff / animator from the implementation
organization supports the committee members in the
process. This peer learning process is very effective.
PHOTO 9: MICRO PLANNINF MAP OF PIPELINE AND VILLAGE ASSETS SHOWN ALONG WITH VARIOUS STANDPOST
LOCATIONS
28
Trainings were conducted on the following four construction of the scheme. Hygiene education
subjects: must be a community activity so that everyone
goes forward together without any group being
Water Source Management left behind. It is usual for the women to be the
Household Water Management
ones who are primarily concerned with the
Personal Hygiene
health of the family, and education will normally
concentrate on them. However, it is often the
Whether it is a water supply and/or a sanitation
children who are the easiest to educate
scheme that is proposed, the ultimate aim is to
regarding the benefits of hygiene education, and
improve the health and quality of life of the
then they insist on changes being made within
community. Technical developments or
the family unit.
improvements will give maximum benefit only if Training on personal hygiene, water handling
they are part of a wider hygiene education practices and management of household waste is
program. This may involve the changing of long provided before the commencement of construction
held attitudes and practices and may well take of GWFS.
considerably longer to achieve than the actual
PHOTO 10: VILLAGE LEVEL TRAINING ON WATER AND SANITATION ISSUES, SOURCE: VJNNS
29
PHOTO 11: USE OF FLASH CARDS TO EXPLAIN GOOD HYGIENE PRACTICES, SOURCE: VJNNS
30
Construction expenditure incurred for:
The procurement of hardware is done by VJNNS after Base material Rubbles, gravels, chipped stones
discussing it with village committee. A written Plastering Side walls : Cement plastering (
approval is given by the village to procure provided material 1:4 ratio of cement: sand)
required material. An inventory list is maintained by Bottom floor: Cement plastering
the animator (community worker) who usually (1:3 ratio of cement: sand)
belongs to the same village and is employed by Cover RCC Blocks ( 1:2:4) of (gravel
VJNNS. The animator in turn is then monitored by the chip: cement: sand)
village committee.
31
FIGURE 6: CROSS-SECTION
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
PALLADA
32
Unplastered wall of a soft
spring
PHOTO 13: EYE OF THE SPRING, POINT WHERE THE PEN IS PLACED IN THE TANK
33
Spring outlet
34
FIGURE 8: CROSS-SECTION DIAGRAM OF DISTRIBUTION TANK
35
Inlet hole
Filter chamber
Outlet chamber
Screening plate
Outlet valve
36
Distribution tank is composed of three main
chambers, namely: Length= 5 meters
Inlet chamber Width= 2 meters
Filtration chamber (made up of two slow
sand filters in series) filters Height= 2.7 meters
Distribution chamber
Length = 1 m
The water from the source tank is fed to the inlet Width =2 m
tank. The inlet is kept at the upper end of the tank.
This reduces the energy and velocity of water before Height 2.7 m
it enters the tank. If the velocity of the water is high,
Volume =5.4 m3
the filtration process through the slow sand filter will
not be efficiently. The pipe bringing the water is
taken all the way down to the inlet chamber rather
than letting it fall from the top. At the bottom of the
inlet chamber there is a hole through which water
passes to the filter chamber. Letting the water at the
bottom of the inlet chamber also helps in the process Length = 2.5 m
of sedimentation of the particles carried by the water
from the source tank. Width =2 m
The water from the inlet chamber goes to the filter Height =2.7 m
chamber from a hole at the bottom of the wall
separating the inlet chamber from the filter.
37
Screening plate is made of 5 cm thick perforated
concrete slab. The perforations are 1cm-2 cm in
Slow sand filter is based on the sieve like
diameter. This screen plate is placed 70 cm from the
action of a fine layer of biological organisms
bottom of the filter chamber. The purpose of this
screen filter is to screen leaves, dry twigs and other (called biofilm) which forms in the
undesirable floating particles from the water. interstices of the sand and gravel layers.
This biofilm cleans the water of its
impurities and biological contamination.
38
Outlet chamber
Reverse slow
sand Filter
Inlet
chamber
39
pipe and also frictional losses due to the length of
pipe.
Paths which people use to walk are avoided to
Teflon coated (inner walls) HDPE pipe with
reduce possibility of damages.
diameters ranging from 2.5 inches to 1.25 inches is
Peoples convenience and agreement among
used in the design of GWFS. Most of the pipes used
people will be taken by drawing village maps to
spread out open or with very little protection from
the sun and human activity. The material of the pipe decide the path of transmission line from
distribution tank to stand post
is therefore an important consideration.
Commons land with community ownership is To understand the technical parameters, some
preferred. fundamentals of the flow dynamics and basic
The path chosen should have minimum concepts of pipeline flow should be understood. Refer
disturbance from human activity. to the box below for an outline of concepts involved.
As far as possible cultivated land is avoided. If a These concepts have been from earlier works on
pipe is taken through a cultivated land, there is a GWFS by Thomas D Jordan (Jr) at Practical Action
possibility that pipeline is damaged during manual from SKAT consulting and others.
ploughing, harvesting etc.
Shortest distance is preferred after considering
the above. This is necessary to reduce the cost of
40
The main pipeline which transmits the water is referred to as transmission main and the branch line that distributes
the water is service main. The distribution network may have different configurations which are planned in
accordance with the village layout. All the projects studied have a branched configuration. It is important to note that
the cost of water distribution network depends upon the proper selection of the geometry of the network. Since most
of the implementations studied, cater to not more a relatively smaller number of households (maximum of 450
households) the distribution network doesnt appear to have much impact. But when planned for a larger number
distribution network planning is critical.
A set of basic physical principles govern the behavior of water and the dynamics of flow. An understanding of these
principles is necessary to design and successful engineer a GWFS in any hilly region.
The energy due to gravity at a site is equal to the elevation difference between points. This elevation difference is
termed head with units of feet (for water, more accurately, as feet of head of water).
In the case of water, this energy is equal to:
1 foot of elevation drop = 0.433 psi of pressure head
or, for every 2.31 feet of elevation drop = 1 psi of pressure head
Pipe size and flow rate must be matched to this energy using the following steps:
the elevation drop or elevation head is measured
a flow rate is chosen
the end-of-pipe pressure is
then a pipe size can be chosen- different pipe sizes and pipe materials will have different flows for a given elevation
drop (i.e., they have different friction losses) (friction losses are only lost to the water system as energy is converted
into heat)
This states that for constant water flow in a pipe, flow in one part of a pipe is equal to flow at any other part of the pipe,
as shown by:
As flow is velocity multiplied by pipe area, changing the pipe cross sectional area (a larger or smaller pipe) will cause a
change in velocity. This becomes useful when selecting a pipe size or in negative pressure conditions.
When no water is flowing in a gravity-pressured pipe (as when a trough float valve is closed) it is in static equilibrium.
Water levels are at static level and pressures in the pipe are termed static heads. As no water is flowing there is no
energy loss to friction and the pressures in the pipe are their highest at all points (equal to their elevation below the
inlet), highest pressure being at the lowest point.
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When water is flowing in the pipe friction loss occurs that reduces the pressure energy at all points along the pipe.
With a constant flow a system is said to be in dynamic equilibrium and pressures are termed dynamic heads.
To fully illustrate the conditions along a pipe, static and dynamic equilibrium conditions can be plotted on a drawing
of the profile of the system. When the points of static or dynamic equilibrium are connected they form a line that is
termed the hydraulic grade line (HGL). This line represents the energy level at each point along the pipe (refer to
Figure 1, below).
The HGL for static equilibrium is a horizontal line at the level of the water source, as in static conditions the pipe has
an energy level equal to its elevation below this water source elevation (no friction loss is occurring).
The HGL for dynamic equilibrium is a line sloped downwards from the water inlet to either the pressure at the trough
float valve or to zero if the outlet flow is to atmosphere. This line always slopes downward, indicating a loss of energy
as water flows downhill and energy is lost due to friction.
Siphons are a unique gravity flow situation where the pipeline goes over a point that is higher than the supply water
elevation before falling to the delivery elevation. A siphon uses the differences in elevation and atmospheric pressure
to flow water. If the both ends of the pipe are submerged and air is removed at the high point (primed), atmospheric
pressure on the supply water surface will move water up the pipe to the high point (if this point is set at an
appropriate elevation) and gravity will move the water from there down to the delivery point. Alternatively, with a
check valve (foot valve) on the intake and a control valve on the outlet, closing the outlet valve, filling up the siphon
pipe with water, then opening the outlet valve will start the siphon flow.
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FIGURE 14: HGL FOR A TYPICAL GWFS [5]
FIGURE 15: HGL FOR A GWFS SYSTEM WITH UNDULATING TERRAIN [5]
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The only fitting required in the entire GWFS pipeline
network is joining the pipes using joints. A joint is
required in two cases:
The pipeline fitting is done by a plumber hired for
laying the transmission pipeline between the source When diameter of the pipe changes
and distribution. Prefabricated joints made of GI To join pieces of pipes in a regular run of the
pipes (Galvanized Iron Pipes) are used to join HDPE pipeline. The standard lengths of pipes
pipes. It is recommended to reduce the number of provided by the manufacturer:
joints as much as possible to reduce the frictional
losses. The diameter of the pipes used in GWFS
Diameter Length of pipes in
ranges from 2.5 inches to 1.25 inches. (in inches) roles (in meters)
2.5 50
2.0 150
1.5 200
1.25 250
TABLE 4 TABULATION OF THE CHANGE IN DIAMETER OF PIPELINE OBSERVED DURING THE PIPELINE WALKS
Sr Village Name /Source Distance Diameters changed through the pipeline ( in inches)
No Name from Source
to
Starting Change 1 Change 2 Change Change 4
Distribution
Dia 3
tank (km)
1 Bappannadhara/Kondapalli 2.7 km 2.5 2 1.5 1.25 1.5
Source
2 Kondapalli / Kondapalli 0.965 2.5 2 1.5 1.25 -
Source
3 Pallada 1.45 2 1.5 1.25 - -
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Peak demand in the village ranges from 2 to 3 hours For an average of 10 taps, at consumption rate of 3
in the morning. On an average there are 10 taps in a - 4 l/min.
village of 0.5 inch diameter. During the peak hour,
assuming that all the taps are kept open (at the Total need = 30 to 40 l / min.
maximum flow rate of 4 liter/minute) the total flow
Taps (0.5 inch taps minimum 3 liter - maximum
from 10 taps will be is 40 liters/minute.
4 liters/min output while functioning in parallel)
The distribution chamber of the distribution tanks
Demand/ hour = 2400 liter/hour discharge (10
are built for a capacity of around 6000 liters. Now
taps x 3 liter/min x 60 min)
Since the total demand is 2400l/hr the tank can
easily supply for this demand. Therefore the GWFS Tank capacity = 6000 liters (maximum)
has the ability to supply at a stretch for around 3
hours of peak demand. Gondipakala, Kondapalli (high yield at source)
46
Water usage committee collects the user fee for
maintenance of the system. A fee ranging from Rs 5
10 per home /month is levied to cover the costs of
After a successful trial run of the system it is
O&M.
transferred to the villagers i.e. the villagers take
charge of operating the system and its upkeep from The financial details of the total funding, expenses
here on. This is a relatively smooth process as most incurred and the villagers contribution is stated
of them are familiar and trained on all the aspects of clearly on a display board which is usually erected at
GWFS. the entrance of the village. This is a rudimentary
method to make all the project details public and
often found to be highly effective.
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48
PHOTO 17: GONDIPAKALA VILLAGE
49
CASE STUDIES
Village
50
channelized to the farms and kitchen gardens around
the households. This is remarkable because farming
An Anganwadi worker shared her experience saying, I here was either rain fed or from irrigation channels
used to open the centre late and close it early in the fed from streams. This limited the cropping period as
evening because of our water problems. Now that I well as the scope of farming. With the development of
have water supplied right at my door step. I am able to the new source, farming is gradually extending over
take care of the children well and also manage to pack the entire year than being limited to rainy season.
a lot of other activities in the time gained. The farmers are also experimenting with newer
crops and horticultural varieties than being limited to
coffee which was grown traditionally. For instance, a
progressive farmer from the village is experimenting
with strawberry cultivation for over a year now,
which is the first in this region.
The village underwent many obvious and also subtle A progressive farmer from the village is experimenting
changes in the years since GWFS implementation. with strawberry cultivation for over a year now, which
is a first in this region.
The piped water supply round the clock has almost
had a liberating effect on the women. It means sure The coffee which these farmers harvested was sold to
and certain water availability. The 2 hour hike to the coffee board without any value addition and these
stream and back is totally eliminated. Quite fetched lower margins. When the coffee board
obviously, there is more water available now due to observed the improved water availability in the
proximity of the tap and 24 hour nature of the supply. village, it helped the villagers with coffee beans
There is also a remarked change in hygiene practices washing equipment and also supported with funds to
of the families in this village. Activities like hand build a cemented platforms to dry the beans. The
washing and bathing are more frequent now. farmers of this village have been identified as
progressive ones. The farmers in the village have
Since the source harvested for this village has a high
been experimenting with different variety of crops
yield there is a significant amount of water left even
after household demand is met. This excess water is and fruits since the water supply have been fixed.
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PHOTO 19: STRAWBERRIES GROWING IN A NURSERY
52
ridges. It is noteworthy that this was accomplished
by VJNNS and the people of this village with a
Elevation of source:
53
PHOTO 21: A VIEW OF KONDAPALLI VILLAGE
54
Diversion tank for
Bappannadhara
Spring Source
Balancing tank
Boradakota
The above figure illustrates the orientation of the The pipeline lies on a flat land for over a
GWFS system of Kondapalli source. As stated earlier, kilometer, where maintaining flow pressure is
it is shared by Kondapalli, Bappannadhara, scientifically difficult.
Boradakota and Mirtwada. The water in the red
coloured transmission line first reaches the The elevation profile of the pipeline illustrates the
Kondapalli distribution tank from where the excess terrain and the flow challenges that the design had to
water overflows into the Balancing tank which encounter. This profile was plotted using a GPS
supplies to Boradakota and Mirtwada. device during a pipeline walk from the Kondapalli
The second transmission line in violet colour supplies source to Bappannadhara distribution tank.
to Bappannadhara.
To analyze if the water can flow through this
elevation profile under the various flow conditions
Hazen-William's equation was used. This also gives
the Hydrographic Gradient Lines (HGL). Considering
a pipeline diameter of 2 inches:
This GWFS implementation was difficult to build
because: Hazen-William's Equation,
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PHOTO23: BALANCING TANK 0F KONDAPALLI GWFS WHICH SUPPLIES WATER TO THREE ADDITIONAL VILLAGES
56
Although the calculation here is done considering a varying pipe diameters. Blue, green and red coloured
pipe diameter of 2 inches, in the actual field lines represent HGLs for yields of 2 l/sec, 1 l/sec and
observation it was found that the diameter of the 0.5 l/sec respectively with a constant pipe diameter
pipe changed at 5 places. The orange line represents of 2 inches.
an HGL with a yield of 2 l/sec and considering the
Village Name /Source Distance Diameters changed through the pipeline ( in inches)
Name from Source
to
Starting Change 1 Change 2 Change Change 4
Distribution
Dia 3
tank (km)
Bappannadhara/Kondapalli 2.7 km 2.5 2 1.5 1.25 1.5
Source
The point on the pipeline where the pipe diameter is increases then it becomes difficult for the water
changed is illustrated on the elevation plot. to flow upwards.
Changes 1 and 2 were made to facilitate flow Change 3 is to increase the velocity of the water,
from lower elevation to higher elevation. The as the distance it has to flow ahead is flat. Change
first change in diameter is important because at 4 is done to ensure that enough force is generated
this point water has not yet gained sufficient so that the water flows upwards to the
momentum and if at this point the elevation distribution tank.
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Bappannadhara -Elevation Plot from Source to Distribution Tank
1570
1420 1424
Elevation in ft
1320
1270
1220
1207
1187
1170
0.00 1000.00 2000.00 3000.00 4000.00 5000.00 6000.00 7000.00 8000.00 9000.00 10000.00
Distance from the source in ft
58
REFERENCES
1. ^ a b "Elephant and the blind men". Jain Stories. JainWorld.com. Retrieved 2006-08-29.
2. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWAT/Resources/GWMATE_CP_19AndhraPradesh.pdf
3. http://164.100.24.208/ls/CommitteeR/Labour&Wel/33.pdf
4. Rao ,V.L.N., Rao,S., Bharathi ,K. and BusiIllness ,B.R. Illness and Treatment among Khonds of
Visakhapatnam District,Andhra Pradesh. J. Hum. Ecol., 20(2): 83-86 (2006)
5. Government Order, British Columbia., UNDERSTANDING GRAVITY-FLOW PIPELINES Water Flow, Air
Locks and Siphons (Jan 2006)
6. Government Order, British Columbia.,ACCESSING SURFACE WATER SOURCES: Dugouts, Springs,
Creeks, Rivers and Lakes in Technology and Management
7. Meuli,C.,Wehrle,K.,Spring Catchment. SKAT, Swiss Centre for Development Cooperation (2001)
59
Design and Planning: How is the demand for GWFS from the community estimated?
What parameters and approaches were adopted to identify a reliable
spring source?
How is the community engaged in the design and planning phase?
What methods were adopted to ensure ownership of a GWFS of the
community?
Network sizing For what demand is the system designed?
How many years can the system serve the community without any
additional capital investment
What is the per capita water consumption assumed while building the
system?
What is the peak flow factors considered?
Construction What measures were taken to ascertain source protection?
What was the size of the distribution tank arrived at and how?
What is the filtering mechanism adopted to make it fit for potable use?
What is the material used for pipeline construction?
What is the period of reliability of tanks and the pipeline?
What is the role and contribution of the community in the construction
process?
Costing and What is the breakup of cost involved for building a GWFS (source,
budgeting distribution tank, pipeline, distribution points, labor?
What is the contribution from the village?
What mechanism is adopted to fund the O&M expenses?
Operation and Who oversees the O&M issues?
Maintenance How is the expenditure for O&M issues met?
GWFS and What was the process adopted to get the community to participate?
Community What are the direct and indirect benefits that have accrued since the
commissioning of the system?
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