This article was downloaded by: [McGill University Library]

On: 06 December 2012, At: 13:39

Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,
37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Petroleum Science and Technology

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lpet20

Computational Fluid Dynamics Study for Flow of

Natural Gas through High-pressure Supersonic Nozzles:
Part 1. Real Gas Effects and Shockwave
a b a b a
E. Jassim , M. Abedinzadegan Abdi & Y. Muzychka
a
Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St.
John's, Newfoundland, Canada
b
Centre for Marine Compressed Natural Gas Inc., St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
Version of record first published: 08 Oct 2008.

To cite this article: E. Jassim, M. Abedinzadegan Abdi & Y. Muzychka (2008): Computational Fluid Dynamics Study for Flow
of Natural Gas through High-pressure Supersonic Nozzles: Part 1. Real Gas Effects and Shockwave, Petroleum Science and
Technology, 26:15, 1757-1772

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10916460701287847

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to
anyone is expressly forbidden.

The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents
will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should
be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims,
proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in
connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
 Petroleum Science and Technology, 26:17571772, 2008
Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1091-6466 print/1532-2459 online
DOI: 10.1080/10916460701287847

Computational Fluid Dynamics Study for Flow of

Natural Gas through High-pressure Supersonic
Nozzles: Part 1. Real Gas Effects and Shockwave

E. Jassim,1;2 M. Abedinzadegan Abdi,1;2 and Y. Muzychka1

Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 13:39 06 December 2012

1 Facultyof Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial University of

Newfoundland, St. Johns, Newfoundland, Canada
2 Centre for Marine Compressed Natural Gas Inc., St. Johns, Newfoundland, Canada

Abstract: The computational fluid dynamics technique was used to study the behavior
of high-pressure natural gas in supersonic nozzles. Although many applications of gas
flow produce insignificant errors when the gas is assumed ideal, our results indicate
significant variation of gas properties. This article illustrates natural gas behavior
when it is considered to be real and how erroneous the properties may become when
the gas is assumed to be ideal. The article also presents the influences of properties
related to the flow of natural gas through supersonic nozzles. Using a quite accurate
equation of state model, real gas effects are studied and compared with the perfect gas
case. The results show a significant variation in gas properties estimation. Location
of shockwave is also analyzed. The comparison of results for two gases (methane and
nitrogen) indicated that shockwave position can significantly change when the gas is
considered as real rather than perfect.

Keywords: computational fluid dynamics, natural gas flow, real gas flow, shockwave,
supersonic nozzles

1. INTRODUCTION

The demand for natural gas has encouraged the energy industry toward
the discovery of remote offshore reservoirs. Consequently, new technologies
have to be developed to efficiently produce and transport natural gas to
consumption centers. Common design challenges in all gas processing meth-
ods for offshore applications are the compactness and reliability of process
equipment. Supersonic nozzles have been introduced as an alternative to treat
natural gas for offshore applications and to meet the offshore requirements

Address correspondence to Majid Abedinzadegan Abdi, Process and Offshore Oil

and Gas Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial Uni-
versity of Newfoundland, St. Johns, NL, A1B 3X5, Canada. E-mail: mabdi@mun.ca

1757
 1758 E. Jassim et al.

(Hengwei et al., 2005; Alfyorov et al., 2005, Okimoto and Brouwer, 2002;
Karimi and Abedinzadegan Abdi, 2006; Brouwer and Epsom, 2003). In a
supersonic separator, the gas temperature is lowered based on the principle
of gas expansion where no refrigerant is needed. The compact design of
supersonic nozzles is a major advantage over traditional means of natural gas-
treating technologies, particularly for offshore applications. The gas speed in
this device is very high, preventing fouling or deposition of solids and ice.
Refrigeration is self-induced, and, therefore, no heat is transferred through
the walls and, unlike external refrigeration systems, no inhibitor injection and
inhibitor recovery system are necessary. Intensive water dew points down to
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 13:39 06 December 2012

50 C to 60C can be achieved without any cryogenic cooling or use of

solid adsorption techniques.
In this article, the flow of gas through a supersonic nozzle is studied.
The nozzle is composed of three sections: the convergent (subsonic zone),
throat section (critical zone) with extended constant area part, and divergent
section (supersonic zone). The function of the convergent part is to keep
the flow uniform and parallel as well as to accelerate the gas. Within the
converging section leading to the throat area, the gas is accelerated so that
the sonic velocity is reached at the throat, and the convergent curvature keeps
the velocity of the flow uniform. In practical conditions, in order to get the
sonicpspeed at the throat, it is necessary to keep the inlet diameter is larger
than 5 of the throat diameter (Man et al., 1997), although, in some cases,
the ratio of inlet to throat diameter is less (Arina, 2004). The convergent
length is typically equal to or greater than the throat diameter.
The governing equations are derived from the basic conservation laws,
including mass (continuity), momentum, and the first and second laws of
thermodynamics and the use of a suitable equation of state (EOS).
When the gas reaches the throat, the divergent part of the nozzle can
further accelerate the flow depending on the outlet condition. This results in
a decrease in pressure and temperature as well as increase in gas velocity. It is
likely that, under certain conditions, the flow cannot expand isentropically to
the exit pressure; therefore, an irreversible discontinuity, called a shockwave,
can occur. The shockwave is an abrupt disturbance that causes discontinuous
and irreversible changes in fluid properties, such as speed, which change
from supersonic to subsonic, pressure, temperature, and density. As a result
of the gradients in temperature and velocity that are created by the shock,
heat is transferred and energy is dissipated within the gas. These processes
are thermodynamically irreversible. In an inviscid nonconducting gas, the
thickness of the shockwave is of the order of the molecular mean free path
.10 7 m) (Saad, 1993), and the shock may thus be idealized as a surface of
discontinuity. In real fluids, the thickness of the shock is affected by transport
properties of the fluid (i.e., viscosity, thermal conductivity, and diffusivity),
so that a finite amount of time elapses before the flow reaches equilibrium
again. As the shock thickness is very small, the cross-sectional areas at the
 Supersonic Flow of Natural Gas: 1. Real Gas Effects and Shockwave 1759

upstream and downstream of the shock are equal, and the energy or heat loss
is negligible. The shock can also interact with the boundary layer, and this
can delay the transition from supersonic flow to subsonic flow even further.
The thicker the boundary layer, the longer and more complex is the transition
across a shock (Saad, 1993). The increase of pressure across a shock is an
indication of the shock strength that can lead to a sound wave considered as
a shockwave of minimum strength.
The numerical solutions treating the shockwave region have been re-
ported by several authors; however, most of these methods were developed
mainly for perfect gas, particularly for air (Drikakis and Tsangaris, 1993).
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 13:39 06 December 2012

Even in practical applications, it is quite common to carry out a shock analysis

using the perfect gas model with modified values of the gas constant and
the isentropic coefficient. However, the assumption that the thermodynamic
properties of the fluid do not significantly affect the performance of the system
can be misleading in predicting some basic design parameters. This is quite
important when the supersonic flow of a multi-component natural gas mixture
is under study. Poor evaluation of total pressure and temperature values leads
to the weak prediction of losses, specific work, and heat exchange. Errors
in density estimation also influence computation of momentum components
and, consequently, the predicted flow structure.
A good numerical model to account for real gas effects should satisfy
some basic requirements, including accuracy in predicting thermodynamic
properties of the fluid, capability of dealing with a wide range of state
parameters, and effective and time-efficient implementation for computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) analyses. Six thermodynamic variables are involved
in the analysis of the shockwavenamely pressure, density, temperature,
enthalpy, entropy, and velocity. To determine their values after the nor-
mal shock, six equations are used, to be precise the three conservation
equations (mass, momentum, energy), the enthalpy equation, the entropy
equation, and EOS. For the simple case of a perfect gas, these relations
are explicit and allow straightforward solution of the system of the six
equations; however, in case of real gas flow, they are solved numerically.
Kouremenos (1986) applied these equations to both perfect and real gases
on an isentropic normal shockwave and found that the isentropic exponent
of perfect gas results in incorrect results when used with a real gas, even
if it is considered as a variable. Instead, the numerical values of three real
gas isentropic exponents . p; ; T; ; p;T / must be determined either from
accurate EOS or reliable experiments. However, this approach is not valid
in the vicinity of phase critical region. Arina (2004) numerically simulated
a supercritical fluid flow and used a general EOS. He assessed three state
equationsvan der Waals (VDW), Carnahan-Starling-De Santis (CSD), and
Redlich-Kwong (RK)and found that using real gas EOS models are quite
acceptable and in good agreement with the predictions of the theoretical
model.
 1760 E. Jassim et al.

2. REAL GAS MODELS

A number of CFD models have been developed for real gas nozzle flows,
which are divided into two categories: models that use analytical EOS and
models based on numerical fitting tables of gas thermodynamic properties
(Wark, 1995). The use of an analytical EOS makes it possible to have a
reasonably accurate and consistent description of gas properties throughout
a large range of temperature, pressure, and density for many substances.
J. D. van der Waals proposed the first analytical trial of real gas in
1873. The formula was the first model to take into account the volume of
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 13:39 06 December 2012

molecules and their interaction, and to describe, qualitatively correctly, the

basic properties of real gas. This equation was used by Ginzburg (1939) in
the investigations of quasi-one-dimensional flows of a single component gas
in nozzles, and later by Bai-Shi-I (1961) and Crocko (1950) in a simple form.
Although the van der Waals (VW) equation was developed in 1873,
no major improvement in cubic EOS occurred until the publication of the
Redlich-Kwong (RK) equation in 1949 (Redlich and Kwong, 1949). It has
proved to be one of the most useful and widely accepted cubic EOS and
is considerably more accurate than the van der Waals equation. The two-
parameter RK EOS is given by:

RT a
P D : (1)
 b T 1=2 . C b/

Unlike the van der Waals equation, both terms on the right-hand side
of the equation contain a temperature function. The RK equation performs
quite well at small to moderate densities and is much better when T > Tc .
Note that the critical compressibility factor based on the critical state criteria
is 1/3. This value is better than the van der Walls value of 3/8, but it is still
somewhat higher than the typical range of experimental values.
A step to raise further the accurate predictions for real gases was taken
by Soave, Redlich, and Kwong (Soave, 1972) and Peng and Robinson (1976).
The addition of a third parameter greatly improves the accuracy of compress-
ibility factor data.
The van der Walls, Soave/Redlich/Kwong, and Peng/Robinson cubic
equations of state are very similar in their analytical format. They are called
cubic EOS, because, if expanded, each would contain volume terms raised
to the first, second, and third powers. These equations and many other cubic
equations of state can be expressed by a general format (Wark, 1995):

RT 
P D ; (2)
 b . C c/. C d /

where b; c; and d are constants and  is a function of temperature and has

dimensions of P  2 . The quantities  and R may be expressed on either a
mass or molar basis.
 Supersonic Flow of Natural Gas: 1. Real Gas Effects and Shockwave 1761

Cubic EOS models are extremely useful for predicting vapor and liquid
P T data, vapor-pressure data, and vapor-liquid equilibrium data. However,
their accuracy is limited by the use of only two or three adjustable parameters.
To obtain greater overall accuracy, it is necessary to use equations of greater
complexity. A few dozen EOS models are available in the literature (Wark,
1995). Some are quite complex, such as the virial equation and the Benedict-
Webb-Rubin (BWR) equation. The Benedict-Webb-Rubin (BWR) equation
and its modification (MBWR) have proven to be quite accurate over wide
ranges of pressure and temperature. Although they are not as accurate as
desired in prediction of P T behavior for polar compounds, these equations
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 13:39 06 December 2012

accurately predict the properties of specified fluid and are capable of repre-
senting P T data in the region where VW and RK EOS fail, particularly
when  < 0:8c . MBWR has the form:
9 15
X an .T /   2 X
c an
P D C exp ; (3)
n   2n 17
nD1 nD10

where the coefficients an are temperature dependent.

MBWR was used as the EOS for this preliminary study; other models,
however, will be adopted in future studies.

3. CFD SIMULATION

CFD techniques are currently used in industry for design purposes in many
different areas (e.g., propulsion, chemistry, combustion, turbo-machinery,
etc.). The importance of such techniques for integration of the Navier-Stokes
equations is steadily growing because of the fact they improve the design
reliability and flexibility. In fact, the same numerical scheme can be applied
to solve different flow systems provided the appropriate sets of boundary
conditions are implemented. Three main methodologies in the CFD modeling
research can be highlighted (Carvero and Satta, 2000): (1) flexible and robust
schemes for steady or unsteady flows for all fluid velocities, (2) turbulence
modeling (k-", k-!, Reynolds stress), and (3) fluid properties modeling (two
phase, real gas, and cryogenics). In the present work, a contribution to the
second and particularly third class of problems is rendered.
At high Reynolds numbers, turbulent fluctuations transport a far greater
amount of momentum than viscous forces throughout most regions of the
flow. Thus, the modeling of the Reynolds stress is a vital part of the flow
prediction. A turbulence model is a means of deriving the Reynolds stresses
(and other turbulent fluxes) in order to close the mean flow equations.
Turbulent flow can be modeled by using several schemes. However, the
k-" model (Pope, 2000) is used here due to its frequent use for industrial ap-
plications, its relative accuracy, and its incorporation in the most commercial
CFD codes. Diverse ranges of problems, therefore, use this model, including
 1762 E. Jassim et al.

problems in heat transfer, combustion, and multiphase flows. Although it

usually produces relatively accurate results for simple flows, it can be quite
inaccurate for complex flowsto the extent that the calculated mean flow
patterns can be qualitatively very incorrect. The inaccuracies stem from the
turbulent-velocity hypothesis and from the " equation. However, for any
particular flow, it is likely that the accuracy of the model calculations can be
improved by adjusting the constants.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 13:39 06 December 2012

Since most published research has been concerned with the Laval nozzle, we
validated our results by applying the numerical technique for such geometry
and compared our results with the most recent available data (Arina, 2004;
Kouremenos, 1986) before proceeding and applying it to our modified nozzle
system.
Molleson and Stasenko (2005) performed their investigation for nozzle
whose geometry is shown in Figure 1a. Their working fluid was methane
at 70 bar inlet stagnation pressure and 250 K inlet stagnation temperature,
while the value of exit Mach number according to their supersonic exit radii
was 1.2. The SRK EOS model was used in their study. We used the same
geometry and conditions in comparison of the sonic condition and in the
studying of the effect of a real gas model on the sonic position. We used the
MBWR as our thermodynamic model.
Figure 2 shows the variation of Mach number with position in real case
and the comparison with results obtained from the work of Molleson and
Stasenko (2005). One can see that choke (sonic velocity, M D 1/ occurs
at the throat regardless of the EOS used. Also, our results are in very good
agreement with their results. The second comparison is performed to validate
our simulation on capturing shockwave position. The comparison is done with
recent available data (Arina, 2004). The geometry used in the comparison,
shown in Figure 1b, is adopted from Arinas work (2004). The working fluid
was CO2 . The dimensions of the assumed Laval-nozzle are:
  2
x x
A.x/ D 2:5 C 3 1:5 for x  xth ; (4)
xth xth
 2 !
x x x
A.x/ D 3:5 6 4:5 C for x  xth ; (5)
xth xth xth

where Athroat D 1 cm2 , length D 10 cm, and the throat placed at xth D 5 cm.
Since Arinas simulation was performed near CO2 condensation condi-
tions, for which T D 1:001Tc and  D c , we compared our results for a
perfect gas case, as the FLUENT real gas basis could not predict multiphase
conditions. The exit pressure was 83% of the inlet pressure. Our numerical
 Supersonic Flow of Natural Gas: 1. Real Gas Effects and Shockwave 1763
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 13:39 06 December 2012

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 1. Nozzle geometry considered in the study. (a) Molleson et al. (2005). (b)
Arina (2004). (c) System configuration for long-neck (long constant area/extended
throat) Laval nozzle.
 1764 E. Jassim et al.
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 13:39 06 December 2012

Figure 2. Comparison of Mach numbers before the choke region in the Laval nozzle.

results displayed the same behavior when similar conditions and working
fluids were applied, as seen in Figure 3. After validation, we can now present
the results of studies related to the effects of a number of parameters as
follows.

4.1. Why Real Gas EOS?

The significance of using the real gas models can be more clearly shown
when comparison of the location of the shockwave within the Laval nozzle
is made for two different gases (methane and nitrogen here).

4.1.1. Shockwave Location

The real gas model predicts shockwave location earlier for both gases. How-
ever, the differential distance between the ideal and real shock positions is
different. In fact, when the ideal gas model is used, shock occurs earlier
for nitrogen, see Figure 4a. On the contrary, the real gas model predicts
 Supersonic Flow of Natural Gas: 1. Real Gas Effects and Shockwave 1765
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 13:39 06 December 2012

Figure 3. Comparison of density ratios in the Laval nozzle under perfect gas
conditions.

an opposite behavior, as shown in Figure 4b. This example proves very

clearly that ignoring the real gas effects can obviously lead to misleading
results.

4.1.2. Real Gas Effects for a Different Configuration

To study the real gas effects, a different configuration is considered here; we

assume that the nozzle system consists of three different parts: a compres-
sion/inlet nozzle (converging part ending to a throat and a slight expansion),
diffuser (diverging part, gas final expansion, and exit), and a conduit with
constant area between these two parts. This latter part does not exist in
conventional Laval nozzles, and the diffuser or diverging part starts right after
the throat and continues uniformly right up to the exit point. The description
of the system is shown in Figure 1c. Boundary conditions are chosen in such a
way that the inlet pressure is predicted. Hence, we choose mass flow rate and
temperature as the inlet boundary conditions while pressure and temperature
are chosen for outlet boundary conditions. The working fluid is pure methane,
mass flow rate is 430 kg/min, stagnation temperature at the inlet and outlet
is 293 and 280 K, respectively, and the stagnation pressure at the outlet is
 1766 E. Jassim et al.
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 13:39 06 December 2012

Figure 4. Comparison of shock position for nitrogen and methane under (a) ideal
and (b) real gas conditions.
 Supersonic Flow of Natural Gas: 1. Real Gas Effects and Shockwave 1767

assumed 7 MPa and at the inlet is predicted. The results of simulation are
discussed as follows:

4.1.2.1. Density. By looking at any fluid textbook, one can see that the
conservation of momentum equation directly or indirectly contains density
terms in each component. Thus, flow structure is severely affected by any
deviation in density calculation. To realize how this deviation will affect the
predictions in the nozzle, a graph of the density ratio (real/ideal) along the
nozzle system is plotted (see Figure 5). It is evident how erroneous the results
might get if the perfect gas model is used, particularly in the vicinity of the
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 13:39 06 December 2012

shockwave. A large spike of density variations is seen close to the shockwave.

4.1.2.2. Inlet Pressure. As mentioned earlier, our numerical solution predicts

the inlet pressure for the given mass flow rates, outlet pressure, and temper-
atures. Figure 6 represents static pressure distribution at the center. One can
see that a significant difference between the real and perfect gas at the inlet
pressure is obtained. The real gas model predicts lower required inlet pressure
for a given mass flow rate. Thus, better pressure recovery may be obtained.

Figure 5. Centerline density ratio for real gas (methane) simulation in an extended
throat nozzle.
 1768 E. Jassim et al.
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 13:39 06 December 2012

Figure 6. Centerline static pressure for real gas (methane) simulation in an extended
throat nozzle.

The real gas simulation predicts pressure recoveries in excess of 10% over
those predicted by the perfect gas model. Also, the difference between real
and ideal static pressures forces the calculation of total pressure to diverge.
The errors in evaluating the total pressure and temperature can lead to
incorrect predictions for friction loss, work, and heat transfer. The differences
between the predictions of ideal and real gas models for total pressure and
total temperature are considerable. These discrepancies can result in incorrect
values for friction losses and other calculated parameters.

4.1.2.3. Temperature. Static temperature decreases during the isentropic ex-

pansion process. Figure 7 illustrates the longitudinal variation of static tem-
perature along the insulated wall. It is clearly shown that the temperature
reduction in the real gas case is larger than the ideal case. Thus, ideal gas
simulation can lead to erroneous results in predicting the potential phase
change.
Theoretically, stagnation temperature should retain its value across the
shock when the nozzle is insulated. Such conclusion is true when perfect
 Supersonic Flow of Natural Gas: 1. Real Gas Effects and Shockwave 1769
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 13:39 06 December 2012

Figure 7. Wall static temperature distribution for real gas (methane) simulation in an
extended throat nozzle.

gas law is used as the thermodynamic model. However, the real gas model
predicts different conditions in which the stagnation temperature may vary.
Stagnation temperature in the real gas case varies across the shock because
the specific heat is now varied across the shock as well. Thus, for adiabatic
process,
Z T02
Cp.T0 /:d T0 D 0: (6)
T01

This means that T02 T01 across the shockwave.

5. CONCLUSION

Shockwave has been studied in this article by using the CFD approach. The
effects of real gas properties on the flow behavior were also addressed. It
is crucial to beware of the real gas fluid behavior when analyzing high
pressure natural gas flow systems. The assumption of a perfect gas may
give rise to significant errors. Comparison between perfect and real gas
 1770 E. Jassim et al.

models was implemented to present the errors involved when real properties
in calculating heat, work, and other thermal processes are ignored. The results
of CFD simulation runs conducted for different gases showed that the ideal
gas assumption would lead to serious misrepresentation of the flow field,
including the position of shockwave and severe miscalculations in the design
of supersonic devices.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 13:39 06 December 2012

Financial support provided by the Centre for Marine Compressed Natural Gas
(CMCNG) Inc., Unconventional Gas Supply Program of the Natural Resource
Canada (NRCAN), and Atlantic Canada Opportunity Agency (ACOA) to
finance various process engineering projects within the CMCNG as well as
the presented work in this article is appreciated.

REFERENCES

Alfyorov, V., Bagirov, L., Dmitriev, L., Feygin, V., Imayev S., and Lacey, J. R.
(2005). Supersonic nozzle efficiently separates natural gas components.
Oil Gas J. 103:5358.
Arina, R. (2004). Numerical simulation of near-critical fluids. Appl. Numl.
Math. 51:409426.
Bai Sh. I. (1961). An Introduction into Theory of Compressible Liquid Flow,
Moscow: IZD. Inostrannoi Literatury (Russ. Transl.).
Brouwer, J. M., and Epsom, H. D. (2003). Twister supersonic gas conditioning
for unmanned platforms and subsea gas processing source. Proceedings
of Offshore Europe Conference, Aberdeen, UK, Sept. 25, pp. 219225.
Carvero, C., and Satta, A. (2000). A CFD model for real gas flow. ASME
paper GT-518.
Crocko, L. (1950). One-Dimensional Consideration of the Gas Dynamics of
Time-Independent Flows in Fundamentals of Gas Dynamics. Emmons,
H. W. (Ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Drikakis, D., and Tsangaris, S. (1993). Real gas effect for compressible nozzle
flows. J. Fluid Eng. 115:115120.
Ginzburg, I. P. (1939). Uch. Zap. Leningr. Gos. University, No. 42, p. 5.
Hengwei, L., Zhonggliang, L., Yongxun, F., Keyu, G., and Tingmin,Y. (2005).
Characteristic of a supersonic swirling dehydration system of natural gas.
Chinese J. Chem. Eng. 13:912.
Karimi, A., and Abedinzadegan Abdi, M. (2006). Selective removal of water
from supercritical natural gas. SPE 100442, Proceedings of the SPE Gas
Technology Symposium, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, May 1518, pp. 259
265.
 Supersonic Flow of Natural Gas: 1. Real Gas Effects and Shockwave 1771

Kouremenos, D. A. (1986). Normal shockwaves of real gases and the gener-

alized isentropic exponent. Forschung im Ingenieurwesen 52:2331.
Man, H. C., Duan, J., and Yue, T. M. (1997). Design and characteristic
analysis of supersonic nozzle for high pressure laser cutting. J. Mater.
Process. Technol. 63:217222.
Molleson, G. V., and Stasenko, A. L. (2005). An axisymmetric flow of a
mixture of real gases with a condensing component. High Temp. 43:422
430.
Okimoto, F., and Brouwer, J. M. (2002). Supersonic gas conditioning. World
Oil 223:8991.
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 13:39 06 December 2012

Peng, D. Y., and Robinson, D. B. (1976). A new two-constant equation of

state. Ind. Eng. Chem. Fundam. 15:5964.
Pope, S. B. (2000). Turbulent Flows. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Redlich, O., and Kwong, J. N. S. (1949). On the thermodynamics of solutions.
V. An equation of state. Fugacities of gaseous solutions. Chem. Rev.
44:233244.
Saad, M. A. (1993). Compressible Fluid Flow. 2nd ed., New Jersey: Prentice-
Hall.
Soave, G. (1972). Equilibrium constants from a modified Redlich-Kwong
equation of state. Chem. Eng. Sci. 27:11971203.
Wark, K. (1995). Advanced Thermodynamics for Engineers. New York:
McGraw-Hill.

NOMENCLATURE

A area
Cp constant pressure specific heat
M Mach number
P static pressure
R gas constant
T static temperature
isentropic exponent; heat ratio
x distance from nozzle inlet
x* distance to throat
To stagnation temperature
Po stagnation pressure
L conduit length
LN nozzle length
Ld diffuser length
Lt system length
k turbulence kinetic energy
" rate of dissipation
dt conduit diameter
 specific volume
 1772 E. Jassim et al.

 density
 function of temperature
! turbulence frequency ("= k)

Subscripts
p pressure
 volume
T temperature
c critical point
I ideal
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 13:39 06 December 2012

r real