Alternatives for

Efficient and
Sustainable
Production of
Surimi: A Review
A.M. Mart n-Sanchez, C. Navarro,
J.A. Perez-Alvarez, and V. Kuri

ABSTRACT: The links between fish processing and negative environmental impact need to be minimized. The over-
exploitation of white fish stocks has compromised supply, the use of energy contributes to a high-carbon footprint,
and the water resources required are also high. An option is to resort to the use of alternative species and fisheries
by-catch, together with the maximum utilization of fish. In addition, edible proteins from a range of sources could
be converted into added-value products using surimi-like processes. The surimi industry requires large amounts
of freshwater and discharges wastewater with a high organic load. By exploring available options on processing
technologies and management of the environmental impact, this review discusses the potential role of surimi and
opportunities for sustainable fish processing.

Introduction
Surimi is a Japanese term for deboned, minced, and washed
fish flesh, which is then used for the manufacture of seafood
imitation products such as crab legs. These are perceived to
have wholesome and nutritious attributes (Guenneugues and
Morrissey 2005), which, together with an affordable price,
have contributed to the increasing worldwide consumption of
surimi-based products. However, whereas the demand for fish is
increasing, it is clear that its availability is decreasing, particularly
for some fisheries.
The commercial demand for the white-fleshed fish is higher
than for others, and therefore the industry mainly depends on
them (Venugopal 1997; Venugopal and Shahidi 1998). The surimi
industry also demands white fish mainly because of the impor-
tance of the whiteness and textural properties of the resulting
products (Navarro 2007). At the same time, numerous species
are underutilized because they are linked to some technolog-
ical problems. Even conventional processing methods such as
canning, salting, drying, and smoking incur limitations (Perez-
Alvarez and others 2007) with some of the so-called less valu-
ated fish, which include pelagic fish species, for example, when
MS 20090105 Submitted 2/5/2009, Accepted 6/2/2009 . Authors Martn-
Sanchez, Navarro, and Perez-Alvarez are with Industrializacion de Productos
de Origen Animal (IPOA), Grupo 1 UMH, Grupo REVIV, Generalitat Valen-
ciana, Dept. de Tecnologa Agroalimentaria, Escuela Politecnica Superior de
Orihuela, Univ. Miguel Hernandez, Carretera de Beniel, km 3,2, Orihuela,
03312, Alicante, Spain. Authors Martn-Sanchez and Kuri are with Food and
Nutrition, School of Biological Sciences, Univ. of Plymouth, Drake Circus,
Plymouth, PL4 8AA, U.K. Direct inquiries to author Kuri (E-mail: v.kuri@
plymouth.ac.uk).
they are too small (Karayannakidis and others 2008a). However,
according to FAO (2007) the catch of these small species is in-
creasing, whereas some of the most valuable species such as
Alaska pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) are declining. Hence,
the manufacture of surimi can be an alternative to revalue and
make use of these fish that are unwanted or unsuitable for other
processes (Karayannakidis and others 2008a).
Surimi is made from minced meat, providing opportunities to
use different sources of protein in its production, such as under-
utilized species with little or no commercial value, including non-
fish species. The surimi process, parts of it or modified versions,
could be a way of exploiting resources that otherwise would be
neglected by the food industry and consumers. Fortunately, the
use of novel species for the production of surimi is increasing. Be-
sides fish, the potential for other resources, such as cephalopods
(Sanchez-Alonso and others 2007a; Cortes-Ruiz and others 2008)
and crabs (Baxter and Skonberg 2006), is being studied for surimi
production with the incorporation of new methods and technolo-
gies. Even surimi-like products from deboned chicken meat, beef,
pork, and others have been reported in different studies (Min and
Lee 2004; Navarro 2005, 2006; Hah and others 2007; Jin and
others 2007a, 2007b; 2008; 2009; Stangierski and others 2008).
These products are especially useful for making profitable some
residual parts and underutilized animals such as spent lying hens
(Navarro 2005; Jin and others 2009).
Another area of opportunity is the increase in the yield
from the fish employed in surimi production. Moreover, the re-
peated washes during surimi processing entail elevated require-
ments of freshwater and high contamination of the wastewater
(Guenneugues and Morrissey 2005; Park and Lin 2005). Energy
use and the reduction of food travel is seen as important, however,
the food miles traveled are not necessarily related to carbon


C 2009 Institute of Food Technologists
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Vol. 8, 2009COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY 359
CRFSFS: Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety
emissions. To address sustainability issues in this sector, the fol-
lowing points should be considered: the highest exploitation of
the raw materials, utilization of fisheries by-catch and underuti-
lized species, evaluation of the stock, preservation of the envi-
ronment and natural resources, minimization of pollution, and
reduction of water consumption. Therefore, surimi processors
will benefit from eco-efficiency initiatives to achieve a more sus-
tainable process, and to reduce its ecological impact, but also to
improve the economics of the process (Guenneugues and Mor-
rissey 2005; Park and Lin 2005) and to address the growing con-
cerns for the sectors carbon footprint and demand for social and
environmental accountability.
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to highlight the impor-
tance of a production based on sustainable strategies with the
environment and the raw material resources, and also, to discuss
the opportunities that surimi offers to maximize the use of pro-
tein resources. In addition, for a more eco-efficient production of
surimi it is necessary to address water consumption, wastewater,
and the pollution potential of the processing.
Surimi Processing
Surimi is one of the major fish meat transformations. Basically,
surimi is a wet concentrate of high-quality myofibrillar proteins
from raw minced fish flesh. The proteins are salt-solubilized and
then heated to form a surimi hydrogel (Numakura and others
1990; Navarro 2007; Chen and Huang 2008). It is used as an
intermediate product in the manufacture of a variety of food-
stuffs (CAC 2005a, 2005b), such as the traditional Japanese kam-
aboko or shellfish imitation products which include crabsticks,
crab legs, crab meat, young eel, scallops, and others (Benjakul
and others 2003a; Carvajal and others 2005; Blanco and others
2006). The greatest demand for surimi is in wealthier countries:
United States and Japan, and European countries. Most surimi is
produced in the United States and Japan, but increasingly other
Asian countries are investing in their processing capabilities.
Europe produces significantly less, with yearly imports of raw
material of about 40 to 50000 tons over the last few years, but im-
ports of finished products were over 70000 tons per year. Surimi is
mainly consumed at the Mediterranean countries and the United
Kingdom, and produced in locations over the Mediterranean and
the Baltic region (Catarci 2007; Vidal-Giraud and Chateau 2007).
Thus surimi processing and marketing involves a significant in-
ternational movement of materials, mostly bulk-frozen.
Raw materials
Surimi is obtained from mechanically deboned fresh fish flesh,
usually from white-muscle fish as it is shown in Table 1. Alaska
pollock is the most valuable species because it has good gelation
properties, desirable odor, white color, and good cooking toler-
ance. Thus, it is used for the higher-quality surimi. Pacific whiting
(Merluccius productus) is also one of the main species for surimi
production (Velazquez and others 2008).
It is paramount for surimi producers to find profitable uses of
by-catch fish species or abundant fish that would otherwise not
be suitable to sell in other presentations, and thereby to sup-
ply their needs (Holmes and others 1992). Table 1 summarizes
widely used and the most studied freshwater and marine species
for surimi production. The most common light muscle fish, such
as Alaska pollock and Pacific whiting are included. Also, under-
utilized fish species, such as some fatty dark-fleshed fish species,
are listed with notes on technological problems such as soft mus-
cle, small size, very high content in fat, or the presence of many
bones (Bentis and others 2005).
Some of the species in the table are freshwater fish. Catches
from freshwater fisheries have increased quickly due to the devel-
360 COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETYVol. 8, 2009
opment of aquaculture, accounting for 36% of total production
in 2006 (FAO 2009a). However, the commercial value of these
species is low, and therefore they could be used for surimi pro-
duction (Luo and others 2001). The classification according to the
species water temperature is proposed because the differences
during muscle protein gelation are linked to the environment
temperature.
Raw Materials Preparation
The raw fish is filleted, including heading, gutting, and removal
of the backbone to eliminate viscera and impurities. This step in-
fluences the quality and yield, because endogenous and micro-
bial proteases from guts and skins, which could be carried into
the flesh and contaminate the mince, will affect the gel-forming
ability of the surimi if they are present in high quantities. Re-
searchers in Thailand (Benjakul and others 2002b, 2003c) have
shown that the use of headed and gutted fish as raw material for
surimi slows down proteolytic deterioration, and that even white-
ness of the resulting surimi may be higher than that of surimi from
whole fish. The use of air pressurization (4 to 5.4 atm) to remove
adhering residues could reduce the fresh water needs and max-
imize the yield, when this process has been properly adjusted
(Toyoda and others 1992).
After that, belt-drum type meat separators are used to eliminate
bones, fins, or skin. To increase the yield of this operation the
holes should be as large as possible according to the process
conditions (Toyoda and others 1992).
Once the raw fish flesh has been obtained, it is washed sev-
eral times with fresh water to remove sarcoplasmic proteins such
as enzymes and heme proteins, other nitrogenous compounds,
fat, blood, pigments, odorous compounds, and other impurities
that would reduce surimi quality; but washing also improves the
quality of the myofibrils (Vilhelmsson 1997; Carvajal and others
2005; CAC 2005b; Hultin and others 2005). Thus, the number of
washes depends on the fish species, fish conditions, type of wash,
and the desirable quality of the surimi (Carvajal and others 2005).
As a result, a better texture, color, and odor are obtained in the
final product (Park and Lin 2005). After each wash, a dewatering
step takes place. This involves screening, the use of dehydrators,
or the use of centrifuges, which is more efficient to recover the
fine particles lost from the screens (Toyoda and others 1992; Park
and Lin 2005). However, all these washing steps require large
quantities of freshwater and produce the corresponding volume
of wastewater rich in organic matter, besides high protein losses.
(Park and Lin 1996). Lin and Park (1997) evaluated the effect of
water reduction during leaching in Pacific whiting (Merluccius
productus) and found that using a reduced water/meat ratio, and
increasing the wash cycles to 4 and the wash time to 10 min,
also removed sarcoplasmic proteins, although the moisture con-
tent increased. Alternative washing techniques that have been
studied to improve the removal of the undesirable compounds
include:
(1) Air-flotation washing (AFW) to achieve a deeper removal
by air infused into the cold water where bubbles facilitate
stirring, and bring the mince to the surface (Chen 2002).
(2) The improvement of color and texture by means of alkaline
washing is also possible, since it increases the solubility of
the sarcoplasmic proteins and the muscle pH, which in turn
reduces the rate of denaturation. Also, salt can be added to
improve the removal of heme pigments in a saltalkaline
washing (SAW) (Hultin and others 2005; Balange and
Benjakul 2009b). The yield resulting from the SAW is lower
than that from AFW (Chen 2002), and the SAW surimi
showed a gel forming ability only slightly higher than that
of the surimi prepared with AFW. Because AFW can be
 Table 1 --- Potential and current use of most representative marine and freshwater species as raw material for surimi production, including the fat content (LF, MF, HF)A
and source climate.B
Marine or freshwater species Source climate Fat content Potential/useC Comments References (use/comments)

Alaska pollock (Theragra CWa LFd +++ The most preferred fish specie Guenneugues and Morrissey
chalcogramma) (2005)
Antartic krill (Euphausia superba) CWb MF/HFe,f + Low recovery yield, highly hydrolytic Chen and Jaczynski (2007a)
enzymes
Arrowtooth flounder (Atheresthes CWa MFd ++ High protease content. Problems with Guenneugues and Morrissey
stomias) cutting machinery due to flatfish shape (2005)
Atka mackerel (Pleurogrammus TWa / TrWa HFg + Dark muscle, high lipid content, Guenneugues and Morrissey
azounus) and Japanese jack mackerel myoglobin. Potential for low-priced (2005)
(Trachurus japonicus) surimi products
Barracuda (Sphyraena spp.) STW/TrWa MFh ++ Low gel-forming ability. Guenneugues and Morrissey
Used sometimes, when in season. (2005)
Bigeye snapper (Priacanthus spp.) TrWa LF1 Available and suitable Guenneugues and Morrissey
Sustainable and efficient surimi . . .

+++
(2005)
Blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus) and TT/TrWa MFj ++ Abundant. High content of pigments and Rawdkuen and others (2009)
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fishy odour
Common carp (Cyprinus carpio); Grass TTa MFk ++ High postharvest losses Jafarpour and Gorczyca (2008);
carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus); Luo and others (2001); Yuan
Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys and others (2005)
molitrix )
Croaker (Sciaenidae) STWa MFj +++ Produce a high-quality surimi Guenneugues and Morrissey
(2005)
Hairtal (Trichiurus lepturus) STWa MFl ++ Low gel-forming ability, but a good taste Guenneugues and Morrissey
(2005)
Hoki (Macruronus novaezelandiae) STWa LFm ++ Produce a high-quality gel, but is used Guenneugues and Morrissey
for other product forms. (2005)
Jonah crab (Cancer borealis) CWc LFn + Baxter and Skonberg (2008)
Lizardfish (Saurida spp.) STW/TrWa LFo ++ Low quality surimi, freshness decrease Benjakul and others (2008)
quickly
Northern blue whiting (Micromesistius TWa LFp +++ Lower quality than Alaska pollock surimi Guenneugues and Morrissey
poutassou ) and Southern blue whiting (2005); Trondsen (1998)
(Micromesistius australis)
Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii ) TWa HFo ++ Dark color Reppond and others (1995)
Pacific whiting (Merluccius productus) TWa LFn +++ One of the most used. Presence of Guenneugues and Morrissey
protease from Myxosporidia (2005)
Pike-conger eel (Muraenesocidae) TrWa HFm ++ Preferred for fishballs Guenneugues and Morrissey
(2005)
Pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) STWa MFm ++ Coloured meat Park and Morrisey (2000)
Sardine (Sardina pilchardus) STWa HFm + Dark muscle, high lipid content, Bentis and others (2005)
myoglobin, and so on.
Striped mullet (Mugil cephalus) STWa HFn ++ Dark fleshed fish Ramrez and others (2000)
Threadfin bream (Nemipterus spp.) STW/TrWa MFq +++ Produce a high quality surimi when it is Guenneugues and Morrissey
fresh (2005)
Trout (Cynoscion nothus) and Rainbow STWa MFn ++ Daz-Vela and others (2008)
trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
A LF = low fat content (0.5% to 2%), MF = moderate-fat content (2% to 5%), HF = high-fat content (>5%), based on sources below.D
B Based on average season values; CW = cold water, TW = temperate water, SW = subtropical water, TrW = tropical water, TT = temperature tolerant.

Vol. 8, 2009COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY

C (+++) = choice material/ widely used/ most desirable, (++) = A good option/ use could be developed / some potential, (+) = challenges for application, low quality.
D Data sources = a Anonymous (2009); b FAO (2009b); c FAO (2002); d Oliveira and Bechtel (2006); e Sidhu and others (1970); f Ju and Harvey (2004); g Holland and others (1993); h Wada and others (1976); i Benjakul and others (2002a);
j Corser and others (1999); k Ackman (1995); l Iriarte-Rota and Romero-Gonzalez (2006); m Sirot and others (2008); n Krzynowek and Murphy (1987); o Kucukgulmez and others (2008); p Yoshie-Stark and others (2009); q Benjakul and
others (2005b).

361
CRFSFS: Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety
completed in a shorter time (10 to 15 min) in compari-
son with the 60 min required by SAW to achieve some
discoloration and gel-forming properties, it would be the
preferred method, but the real advantage is that only around
50% of the water is required, in comparison with alkaline
washing (Chen 2002).
(3) Washing with ozone produces decoloration due to its strong
oxidant ability, because the structure of the heme pigment is
attacked (Buckley and others 1975). Nonetheless, washing
with other oxidizing agents, such as hydrogen peroxide
and sodium hypochlorite have shown to improve texture
in bigeye snapper (Priacanthus tayenus) by the formation
of disulfide bonds, since they oxidate the sulfhydryl groups
(Phatcharat and others 2006).
The fish meat is then refined to remove the last impurities and
pressed in a screw-press to eliminate the moisture excess, thus
concentrating myofibrillar proteins, and improving gelation as the
surimi paste is formed (Mendes and Nunes 1992; Toyoda and oth-
ers 1992). Frequently a 0.1% to 0.3% mixture of NaCl and CaCl 2
is used in the final wash water to increase the removal of water
(Park and Lin 2005). This highly labile product is normally frozen
with cryoprotectants (sucrose, polyalcohols, and polyphosphates
among others) to preserve the capacity to form a gel after thawing
(Reynolds and others 2002; CAC 2005a, 2005b).
Mechanism of gelation
A gel is configured by a continuous matrix of intercon-
nected proteins holding water and low-molecular-weight parti-
cles (Aguilera 1992). During the surimi gelation process, the my-
ofibrillar proteins (myosin and actin mainly) are solubilized by the
added salt and actomyosin is formed. Thereby, heating the previ-
ously obtained fish mince paste, the network is formed when suffi-
cient intermolecular bonds occur and it is stabilized by ionic link-
ages, hydrophobic interactions, covalent bonds (disulfide bonds
and covalent cross-linking), and hydrogen bonds (Aguilera and
Rademacher 2004; Lanier and others 2005).
Generally, a thermal gel is formed in a 2-step heating process to
improve gelling characteristics (Lee 1984). The 1st step, known as
setting or suwari, enhances the protein network and strengthens
the texture of the gel at low temperature as it changes from sol to
gel (Montejano and others 1984; Kamath and others 1992). In this
step the gel is thawed if it has been previously frozen, chopped,
and mixed with water and salt to solubilize the myofibrillar pro-
teins, prior to incubation below 40 C. Suwari can take place
within a short period (2 to 4 h) near 40 C (high-temperature set-
ting) or a longer period (12 to 24 h) at lower temperatures, 0 to
40 C (low-temperature setting) (Wu and others 1985). After set-
ting, the suwari gel is cooked at 80 to 90 C in a 2nd step, be-
coming a rigid and irreversible gel (Montejano and others 1984;
Kimura and others 1991).
Once the surimi paste is prepared, seafood analogous products
can be made with different forms, textures, and flavors, reproduc-
ing attributes of natural equivalents, such as crabmeat or lobster
tails (Park 2005a). Among those attributes a paramount quality
factor is texture; that is why the gel strength, as it is used to grade
surimi, will directly influence quality and price (Hu and others
2007).
Factors affecting the gel quality
Freshness of the raw material is the most important prerequisite
in surimi processing; and to obtain a high quality product it is
required to minimize postmortem deterioration (Wasson 1992;
Seymour and others 1994; Choi and others 2005). The loss of
freshness depends on factors such as denaturation of the my-
ofribrillar proteins, the level of proteolysis, and the muscle pH
362 COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETYVol. 8, 2009
(Hamann and MacDonald 1992). Freshness will determine the
gelation properties of the surimi and the water holding ability
(Hall and Ahmad 1997; Carvajal and others 2005). Moreover,
fresher fish will need less amount of water during leaching. There-
fore, processing fish within 12 h after harvesting would be ideal.
For extended periods, fish should be kept at 5 C, but gel strength
will drop quickly in just a few days (Toyoda and others 1992).
The environmental temperature, particularly in tropical fish
species, will also have an effect on the rate of denaturation.
Higher water temperatures increase the thermostability of my-
ofibrillar proteins, varying even in the same specie during the
different seasons (Yuan and others 2005). Therefore, optimal con-
ditions for setting vary according to the species; cold-water fish
species show a lower thermostability and consequently the set-
ting temperature is lower for these fish than for those from warm
waters (Ramrez and others 2000). Also, seasonal changes such
as those observed during the spawning season, can affect the pro-
teolytic activity in the muscle (Hamann and MacDonald 1992).
Surimi gels made from frozen fish undergo a loss of cohesive-
ness during storage time, because the myofibrillar proteins expe-
rience denaturation and aggregation. If formaldehyde is formed
from trimethylamine oxide, which is accumulated in most marine
species, although it variable between species, the gels become
rigid, since formaldehyde can form cross-links between myofibril-
lar proteins. Thus, lower storage temperatures would slow down
the rate of these reactions (Hamann and MacDonald 1992). Also,
oxidation of myofibrillar proteins during frozen storage causes the
formation of some covalent bonds, which consequently alters
protein networks even after grinding. This, together with a de-
crease in Ca2+ -ATPase and other changes, affects the gel-forming
ability of fish muscle (Benjakul and others 2005a, 2005b, Moreno
and others 2008, 2009a). Borderias team at Inst. del Fro (Moreno
and others 2009b) have studied the changes of surimi gels dur-
ing frozen storage (Moreno and others 2009a) and measured the
detrimental effect of freezingthawing cycles on the quality of
hake surimi gels, and established the usefulness of caseinate ad-
dition, particularly when the muscle was not homogenized to
obtain small particle sizes. To improve the gel quality of surimi
from frozen fish, ingredients such as reducing agents have been
studied by Benjakul and others (2005a), who found that cysteine
was suitable to increase the gel-forming ability.
Role of endogenous enzymes
Some species, such as several tropical fishes, and of particular
importance, Pacific whiting, have endogenous proteases or con-
tain exogenous proteases from parasites. High protease activity
reduces yield and quality in surimi production (Morrissey and
Sylvia 2004; Rawdkuen and Benjakul 2008). Even in some areas,
this fish has become an underutilized resource because it is prone
to be parasitized (Mazorra-Manzano and others 2008). When
the gel is heated at 50 to 60 C for long periods, in a process
referred to as modori, an irreversible proteolytic degradation
of myofibrillar proteins occurs, resulting in the disintegration of
the gel structure (An and others 1996; Benjakul and others 2001;
Hultin and others 2005). Modori is mainly due to the autolysis by
these sarcoplasmic enzymes when activated at postmortem pH,
which include heat-stable proteases such as cathepsins, alkaline
proteases, and calpains. Therefore, the quality, gel strength, and
myofibrillar protein functionality are compromised, limiting its
use by the industry (An and others 1996). Another cause of qual-
ity loss is the incidence of parasites because they also contain
protease enzymes (Seymour and others 1994; Moran and others
1999; CAC 2005b).
Although sarcoplasmic proteins are water-soluble, some of
them may remain after washing. However, some techniques
can reduce their proteolytic activity, including the addition of
Sustainable and efficient surimi . . .
food-grade protease inhibitors (Morrissey and others 1993), high
hydrostatic pressure (HHP) (Ashie and others 1996), or rapid heat-
ing (Carvajal and others 2005).
Food-grade protease inhibitors, which are capable of limiting
the modori phenomenon and enhance gelling properties, have
made possible the use of Pacific whiting among other species
for surimi production (Benjakul and others 2004c; Guenneugues
and Morrissey 2005). The most frequently used inhibitors are egg
white and whey protein concentrates, while beef plasma protein
is the most effective protease inhibitor, although it was forbidden
after the occurrence of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (Choi
and others 2005). Other protein additives have been proposed
(Kang and Lanier 1999; Benjakul and others 2004c; Park 2005b),
but in all cases some disadvantages arise. Recently, Li and others
(2008) found that the addition of rainbow trout plasma protein
improved whiteness, gel texture, and even water-holding capacity
of Alaska pollock surimi, which would allow one to reutilize fish
blood, a waste product with high disposal costs. Piyadhammavi-
boon and Yongsawatdigul (2009) have also investigated the ability
of threadfin bream sarcoplasmic proteins from surimi wash-water
to enhance gelation of the lizardfish surimi; they suggested that
these proteins protect the myosin heavy chains from proteolysis.
Nevertheless, formulation and the process involving the addition
of these compounds during surimi gelation and the development
of new food-grade inhibitors need to be optimized (Rawdkuen
and others 2004; Rawdkuen and Benjakul 2008).
New heating technologies could overcome the proteolytic
degradation of myofibrillar proteins. Considering that from 50 to
70 C these proteases are activated, a rapid heating through this
temperature range would minimize their activity (Choi and others
2005). These temperature profiles cannot be achieved with con-
ventional methods, but microwave heating (Greene and Babbitt
1990) and ohmic heating (Yongsawatdigul and others 1995) are
rapid heating methods that show good potential for commercial
application (Choi and others 2005).
Also, HHP is very promising in surimi industry, not only to
attack proteases but also for the gelation process. It consists of
the application of HHP for a specified time. It causes chemi-
cal changes without heating, what affects myofibrillar proteins,
because it is solubilized more easily (Cheftel 1995; Cheftel and
Culioli 1997; Jimenez-Colmenero 2002). In addition, the trans-
mission of the pressure is uniform and almost immediate resulting
in processing times, which are less dependent on sample size and
geometry (Jimenez-Colmenero 2002). Another advantage of new
technologies such as HHP and ohmic heating, considering that
consumer attitudes are a key factor in the successful applica-
tion of new technologies, is that they do not generate negative
reactions among health professionals who must appraise nutri-
tional benefits and product safety (Delgado-Gutierrez and Bruhn
2008).
Not all the sarcoplasmic enzymes have negative effects on
surimi gelation. Calcium-dependent endogenous transglutami-
nase (TGase) is responsible for enhancing the textural prop-
erties of surimi during suwari (Carvajal and others 2005).
Covalent -( -glutamyl) lysine cross-linking between myosin
heavy chains is catalyzed by TGase at low temperatures (Kimura
and others 1991; Choi and others 2005). For that reason, setting
at low temperatures improves the gel strength of surimi products
(Moreno and others 2008), and a 2nd quick-heating process at
high-temperature aims to inactivate heat-stable proteases to avoid
modori and to shorten setting time (Benjakul and others 2004a).
Because differences in the optimal temperature of TGase ac-
cording to the environmental temperature of the fish, it is neces-
sary to take into account that setting temperature may vary among
species. For example, Benjakul and others (2003a, 2004a) stud-
ied the setting temperature, medium (25 C) and high (40 C) of
Vol. 8, 2009COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY
several tropical fish species. Good quality gels were obtained,
but longer times were required to increase the gel quality in
the medium-temperature setting by endogenous TGase, whereas
at high-temperature setting an extended setting would decrease
surimi gel strength.
Use of additives to improve quality of surimi
The gel strength of surimi can be enhanced by the addition
of several ingredients. Protease inhibitors are commonly used
to avoid the modori phenomenon, such as plasma proteins, egg
white, potato extract, and whey protein concentrate; although
color and flavor may be altered (An and others 1996; Ben-
jakul and others 2004b). Other additives are added to increase
the water-holding capacity (phosphates) (Park 2005b), to act as
fillers, thickeners or gelling agents (hydrocolloids and polysac-
charides) (Montero and others 2000; Perez-Mateos and Mon-
tero 2000), while others such as calcium compounds (Lee and
Park 1998), chitosan (Benjakul and others 2003b), and oxidiz-
ing agents (Phatcharat and others 2006) seem to act by forming
stronger protein gel networks.
Likewise, cross-linking enzymes such as a non-calcium-
dependent microbial TGase (MTGase) can be added to improve
the mechanical properties. Furthermore, this MTGase is more
stable, catalyzes the reaction at higher temperatures than the en-
dogenous TGase (Lee and others 1997; Gomez-Guillen and oth-
ers 2005), and shows a greater activity than fish TGase (Hemung
and others 2008). Furthermore, MTGase has demostrated to en-
hance the gel quality of lizardfish surimi even after 10 d of
storage in ice (Benjakul and others 2008), and was also effec-
tive in dark and fatty fish, such as sardines (Sardina pilchardus)
(Karayannakidis and others 2008b), in white shrimp (Tammatinna
and others 2007), and in other muscle products, such as beef gels
(Castro-Briones and others 2009).
Improvements of Surimi Yield
The availability of new technologies allows higher extraction
of fish proteins and the exploitation of novel fish species. The
most significant developments include:
(1) Application of new equipment, such as deboning machines
to obtain a fish paste by mechanical separation (Ramrez
and others 2007a), and new cutting machines may increase
the recovery of fish meat (Guenneugues and Morrissey
2005). Conventional filleting machines are not designed
to handle small fish, giving a low yield and fillets of infe-
rior quality, with impurities from viscera, such as proteases.
Smaller fish filleting machines are available, at a higher cost,
however, more suitable equipment for eviscerating fish of
varying size to obtain a higher yield has been patented
by Nicklason (2000). Also, a variation of the surimi fabrica-
tion process suggests a mincecrushing step before washing
and/or crushing the refiner waste mince to increase surface
area (Kanda and others 1993). Thereby, fresh water require-
ments are reduced, and the quality and yield of surimi are
improved.
(2) Maximization of whole fish utilization by means of meat
recovered from materials such as frames and collar cuts
which can be used in low-quality surimi (Guenneugues and
Morrissey 2005; Velazquez and others 2008). Equipment
for a greater extraction of meat, and also for extraction
from waste body parts, has been patented (Kragh 2002).
(3) Decanters are available to improve the yield, and some are
also suitable to deal with problematic species, and to op-
erate producing a constant residual water content in the
solids, with reduced power consumption and power loss,
thus allowing a more optimized process regardless of the
363
CRFSFS: Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety
raw materials. Therefore, the use of decanters to replace the
screw presses reduce several process stages and increase
the yield of the surimi processing, from 55% to approxi-
mately 70% of the mince, according to equipment suppli-
ers (Alfa Laval 2003, 2008; Flottweg AG 2009; Westfalia
Separator Industry 2009).
(4) A significant proportion of fish proteins are lost in the wash-
ing steps and in the screw presses, but the recovery of small
meat particles from the wash water using new decanter
technology is possible (Hultin and others 2005). Water is
mixed with minced meat from fish frames in a washing
module, then refined and dewatered in a decanter cen-
trifuge. These proteins can be mixed with the main dewa-
tered surimi, in the fabrication of a secondary grade surimi
line, such as for crabstick manufacturing, increasing the
yield up to 20%, and obtaining a better-quality surimi, when
compared to the exclusive use of pelagic fish (Guenneugues
and Morrissey 2005; Alfa Laval 2008). With the use of de-
canters for both steps, the overall yield may increase up to
50% (Alfa Laval 2008).
(5) Analysis, assessment, and optimization of the factors that
influence process yield, such as temperatures, times, and
washing ratios (Guenneugues and Morrissey 2005).
(6) Use of novel extraction techniques that increase protein
yield. Hultin and Kelleher (1999, 2000) developed a pro-
Homogenized mince/water mixture
Solubilization in Acid (pH 2.5 - 3.5) or
Alkali (pH 10.8 - 11.5)
Centrifugation
SEDIMENT SUPERNATANT
Skin, bones, Soluble protein
membranes, insoluble
proteins, impurities
INSOLUBILIZATION OF PROTEINS
pH adjustment to isoelectric point
RECOVERY OF PROTEINS
By centrifugation and decanting
SEDIMENT SUPERNATANT
Protein isolate Soluble impurities
364 COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETYVol. 8, 2009
cess for surimi production (Figure 1) involving a high or low
pH-mediated solubilization of the proteins as a 1st step,
since myofibrillar proteins are highly soluble at pH below
3.5 or above 10.5. After the solubilization follows a decant-
ing step where the lipids are skimmed and those impurities
that are denser than water, such as skins and bones, are
removed by sedimentation, centrifugation, or filtration. A
subsequent step is an isoelectric precipitation of the muscle
proteins by adjusting the pH to their isoelectric point (5.2
to 5.5). Thus, most of the proteins become insoluble, allow-
ing their recovery by centrifugation or filtration. Although
this protein isolate also contains sarcoplasmic proteins and
impurities, these are removed with further washes during
the surimi process (Hultin and others 2005).
Consequently, this pH-shift process achieves the highest yields
and the gelation properties are also improved (Carvajal and oth-
ers 2005). An additional advantage is the removal of more lipids
than during conventional surimi processing. Also the alkaline
pH-shift method is effective for stabilizing residual heme groups,
reducing its prooxidative character (Kristinsson and Hultin 2004;
Hultin and others 2005). Thereby, processing of raw materials
that tend to undergo lipid oxidation may be improved through
the use of the alkaline method. Moreover, this method main-
tains a better protein gel-forming capacity because it is carried
Figure 1 --- The acid and alkaline
solubilization processes for protein
isolates carried out in the laboratory.
Adapted from Hultin and others (2005).
UPPER LAYER
Lipids
Sustainable and efficient surimi . . .
out under cold conditions, it is faster than the standard process,
contaminates less, uses less water, and allows the incorporation
of low-value source of proteins, such as dark-fleshed fish, into
value-added human foods. The protein recovered has a lower
lipid content, which minimizes lipid oxidation and makes the
product more stable. Furthermore, the fish can be used with skin
and bones, allowing both the utilization of by-products (heads,
collarbones, backbones, and so forth) and whole underutilized
species (Nolsoe and Undeland 2009).
Hence, this new method could become an essential element in
the surimi industry (Hultin and others 2005). A further advantage
of the pH-shift process is its suitability to process unstable mate-
rials and those where the separation of the meat is difficult. The
acid method presents usually the advantages of higher protein
yields, higher solubility, and lower levels of sediments. However,
the conventional surimi and alkali-produced protein isolates gen-
erally result in stronger and whiter gels than the acid-produced
proteins. Also, because the alkaline process removes more lipids,
the protein isolates are more stable toward lipid oxidation than
the acid ones. Therefore, the purpose of the processing, the uses
of the isolates, and the raw material will determine the choice of
method. Nevertheless, initial trials are recommended to optimize
the process, considering the variations of raw materials (Nolsoe
and Undeland 2009).
Surimi from Underutilized Species
Surimi from small fatty dark-fleshed fish
Several whitefish species have been mentioned as preferred
species for surimi manufacturing (Benjakul and others 1997,
2003a; Guenneugues and Morrissey 2005). However, it is neces-
sary to take advantage of the availability of alternative resources
for surimi production, such as small fatty pelagic fish. Considering
that about 40% of the total fish catch in the world is dark-muscle
fish, and a large quantity of this fish catch is underutilized pelagic (1) A great increment in the gel-forming ability of fatty fishes is
species, such as sardine (Sardina pilchardus) or horse mackerel
(Trachurus trachurus), there is great interest in the develop-
ment of methods to make use of them for human consump-
tion (Hultin and others 2005). They are harvested as by-catch
of other species, but to a degree remain unused because only
low-quality surimi is obtained from them, or they are utilized for
low-priced products. Problems with the rapid deterioration of fish
quality, color, small size, fishy odor, and flavor, low muscle pH,
high fat content, and high concentration of sarcoplasmic protein
occur, and therefore the gelation process could be affected to
a degree that would limit their utilization in surimi production
(Shimizu and others 1992; Hultin and others 2005; Lin and others
2005).
The composition of dark muscle is the major problem when
incorporated into surimi, mainly because besides its higher lipid
content and susceptibility to oxidize, dark meat has greater pro-
teolytic activity, more trimethylamine oxide and higher con-
centrations of sarcoplasmic proteins (Shimizu and others 1992;
Sanchez-Zapata and others 2008; Eymard and others 2009);
therefore, it shows higher susceptibility to modori. Myoglobin
and hemoglobin are responsible for the red color of dark mus-
cle but they also promote lipid oxidation (Sanchez-Zapata and
Perez-Alvarez 2007). Nevertheless, the role of sarcoplasmic pro-
teins such as myoglobin is controversial; some researchers state
that they hamper myosin cross-linking during the gelation pro-
cess, others consider that these proteins do not interfere with the
myofibrillar proteins (Park and Park 2007). Also, dark-fleshed fish
mince experiences a sharp pH drop after slaughter, often below 6,
in comparison with 7, approximately, for Alaska pollock. This pH (Balange and Benjakul 2009a) has shown that the addition of
around the isoelectric point of the proteins increases their denat- oxidized phenolic compounds can improve surimi gel strength
Vol. 8, 2009COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY
uration rate, affecting the gelling ability of pelagic species flesh
kept in chilled storage for a day or 2. Additionaly, surimi from
pelagic fish presents a higher and stronger proteolytic activity
than surimi from light-fleshed species (Hamann and MacDonald
1992; Shimizu and others 1992; Hultin and others 2005). Thus,
the process for obtaining high-quality surimi from fish mince
with increasing contents of dark muscle could be more difficult,
mainly due to the problems discussed previously.
The industrial use of these species undergoes complex issues,
nonetheless, the use of decanter technologies, alternative wash-
ing methods, and novel extraction systems are allowing process-
ing of flesh from these fish species into surimi, with increasing
process yields (Morrissey and others 2005). Washing is a cru-
cial process because it removes many of the components that
cause low quality and poor stability (Hultin and others 2005;
Karayannakidis and others 2007). By increasing the washing cy-
cles (Kim and others 1996), or the washing time and the water
quantity (Chen and others 1997), the color of surimi can be im-
proved. However, long washes weaken the gel-forming ability
(Bentis and others 2005), they consume large amounts of water,
and cause contamination problems (Hultin and others 2005). The
addition of NaHCO 3 in the first washing solution and the use of
a decanter to remove the extra oil have been recommended. Ad-
ditional suggestions are to remove heme proteins by the addition
of sodium pyrophosphate and the use of reduced pressure dur-
ing washing (Hultin and others 2005). A preventive antioxidative
method would be washing the minced fish tissue under condi-
tions that prevent rupture of the red blood cells as it would reduce
the pro-oxidant effect of the hemoglobin released during mincing
(Richards and Hultin 2002, 2003; Hultin and others 2005). New
decanters, which use centrifugal force, can be used to fatty or
dark-fleshed fish, just a 2nd washing step may be required be-
fore decanting (Alfa Laval 2008). Other washing techniques have
been studied:
achieved by a first alkaline saline leaching (0.15% NaCl in
0.2% NaHCO 3 ) during 15 to 20 min, followed by washes
in water of saltwater if needed. Thus, the pH increases,
and thereby the rate of denaturation and the concentration
of heme pigments are reduced (Shimizu and others 1992).
Chaijan and others (2004) analyzed mince from sardine
(Sardinella gibbosa) and mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta)
washed with different concentrations of NaCl solutions.
This resulted in a higher removal of myoglobin, increased
gel-breaking force, and a superior gelling ability and white-
ness when compared with the conventional method.
(2) Chen and others (1997) and Jiang and others (1998) evalu-
ated the use of ozonation in mackerel (Trachurus japonicus)
during 10 to 20 min and during 30 min, respectively, to im-
prove color. While these short treatments had a whitening
effect, adversely, the ozone reduced the gel-forming ability,
and the fish oil suffered oxidation. To overcome the oxidant
effect of the ozone Wu and others (2000) added NADPH-
sulfite reductase from Escherichia coli and other chemical
reducing agents (bisulfite, sodium nitrite, and sodium thio-
sulfate) to mackerel (Scomber japonicus) surimi, and man-
aged to improve the gel-forming properties.
(3) The use of hydrogen peroxide to bleach the mince is also
effective, but methionine, cysteine and unsaturated fatty
acids are affected, and proteins are precipitated (Meacock
and others 1997).
In regards to the addition of ingredients, recent research
365
CRFSFS: Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety
through the formation of cross-links after reacting with proteins.
These compounds tend to decrease whiteness, but they may not
have a negative effect on the color of surimi made from dark flesh
meat. Another option is to remove as much of the dark muscle
from the fish as possible. Suzuki and Watabe (1986) reported that
surimi prepared from very fresh sardine light muscle has the same
quality as high-grade Alaska pollock surimi, although it is darker
than that from white-fleshed fish. However, a meat separator has
been unsuccessfully used for removal of high levels of the dark
muscle, resulting in low yield, with loss of some light muscle and
high product costs (Ochiai and others 2001; Hultin and others
2005).
Several considerations for production of surimi from dark-
fleshed muscle fish would be also beneficial:
(1) A proper last dewatering after washing is an essential stage
to ensure good quality (Eymard and others 2005).
(2) To face the seasonal variations that fatty fish show in lipid
content, it is better to aim to catch them when their content
is lower (Hultin and others 2005).
(3) If the fish is not very fresh, due to its rapid deterioration,
it is impossible to make surimi from small pelagic species
(Suzuki and Watabe 1986). For that reason has been made
trials with surimi from frozen pelagic fish, such as Sardina
pilchardus (Karayannakidis and others 2008a). Nonethe-
less, a gel with good quality was obtained just from sardines
frozen stored up to 20 d.
(4) The whiteness of surimi from these species could be af-
fected. Hence, the addition of whitening agents such as
titanium dioxide, calcium carbonate, and soybean oil has
been proposed, although gel-forming ability might be de-
layed, mainly when an excessive amount of whitening
agent is used (Meacock and others 1997; Benjakul and
others 2004b). Also, Schnee (2006) proposed and patented
the addition of alkaline earth phosphates to improve the
whiteness of surimi without affecting the structure and the
taste.
(5) Another alternative to make use of dark-fleshed species and
low-quality fish meat is the production of deep-fried kam-
aboko, which is popular in Japan. After frying, the color
in the surface is dark, but in this case, whiteness is not a
decisive quality attribute (Konno 2005).
Overall, an ideal method, both efficient and economical, to
obtain the flesh without contamination from dark muscle has
not been found (Hultin and others 2005). But fortunately, the
development of new techniques facilitates the production of dark-
meat fish surimi, resulting in better-quality surimi.
Surimi from freshwater fish species
The growing volume and diversity of inland fish farming, is
turning increasing interest on some species as raw material for
surimi for a more efficient alternative to add value, as occurs with
silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) (Liu and others 2008b).
This carp is appreciated for its white color and attractive taste, but
the high amount of fish-bone in the edible portion makes difficult
the production of fillets, resulting in higher rates of unused meat.
Properties of freshwater fish muscle show differences with re-
gard to other marine species. Although these species show only
moderate gel forming ability and the frozen storage affects the
protein properties, it can be utilized adapting the parameters of
the gelation process (Ganesh and others 2006). According to Luo
and others (2001) they would need a longer time and higher
temperature, since the myofibrillar protein of freshwater fishes
are more stable to heat.
To improve the properties of freshwater fish species surimi
some variations in the process have been studied:
366 COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETYVol. 8, 2009
(1) This surimi is considerably affected by proteases, such as
cathepsins (Liu and others 2008a); therefore, it requires the
control of the modori state. Luo and others (2008) found that
10% of soy protein isolate could decrease the development
of modori in silver carp surimi, but more research would
be necessary to optimize the process.
(2) Chitosan in catfish (Pangasius sutchi) enhanced the gel
strength (Kungsuwan and others 2002). Mao and Wu (2007)
also added chitosan in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idel-
lus) and concluded that chitosan improves gel color, tex-
ture, and prevents lipid oxidation.
(3) Different methods for processing of common carp (Cypri-
nus carpio) were studied by Jafarpour and Gorczyca (2008)
who reported that the best texture and color was obtained
with the conventional method of surimi processing, but
using a centrifuge instead of a decanter and filtering to
remove the sarcoplasmic proteins, together with effective
dewatering.
(4) Rawdkuen and others (2009) have investigated the prop-
erties of surimi obtained from tilapia (Oreochromis ssp.)
by the acidalkaline process to increases protein yields
and reduce lipids and pigments; finding that other aspects,
such as gel strength needed improvement. Effective removal
of scales, bones, and skin particles from rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) processing by-products has been
achieved by isoelectric solubilization/precipitation, but gels
from the recovered myofibrillar protein still showed prote-
olysis with added beef plasma proteins, and further use of
potato starch, transglutaminase, and phosphate to reduce
proteolysis were required to achieve a desirable function-
ality (Chen and Jaczynski 2007a, 2007b; Chen and others
2007). Another study on the application of the acidalkaline
process for the recovery of the proteins left after cutting the
catfish fillets managed to produce an increase in the yield
of the fish for human consumption (Kristinsson and others
2005).
(5) Due to the pink color that common carp confers to surimi,
hydrogen peroxide has been added to improve color, but
the structure of the gel was affected (Jafarpour and others
2008).
(6) The addition of protease inhibitors, such as soy protein iso-
late (Luo and others 2008) and food-grade serine inhibitors
in tropical tilapia (Tilapia niloticus) surimi (Yongsawatdigul
and others 2000), and MTGase to improve the poor gel-
forming ability (Ni and others 1999; Ni and others 2001)
have given positive results.
(7) Different gelling ingredients have been also consid-
ered; among others, xanthan combined with locust bean
(Ramrez and others 2002) and pectins (Barrera and others
2002) in silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix).
Surimi from cephalopods
Besides the use of fish muscle, it is possible to manufacture
gelling products from Cephalopoda. They have some advantages
including its color, low fat content, mild flavor, and they rep-
resent an abundance of underutilized species. Despite the fact
that acceptable collagen-based edible gels can be obtained as
reported by De La Fuente-Betancourt and others (2009), the tra-
ditional method to make surimi cannot be applied to cephalo-
pod muscle. Its myofibrillar protein is much more water-soluble
than fish muscle, with some odorous compounds, and its high
protease activity cause decreased functionality of the obtained
product (Izquierdo-Jimenez and others 2003; Careche and Bor-
deras 2004; Sanchez-Alonso and others 2007a; De La Fuente-
Betancourt and others 2009).
Sustainable and efficient surimi . . .
Surimi from cephalopods such as the giant squid (Dosidicus
gigas) is a new product from the concentrate of muscle protein
of its main myofibrillar proteins. According to Careche and Bor-
deras (2004), this concentrate could be produced by neutral pH
solubilization and further isoelectric precipitation, while a recent
study (Cortes-Ruiz and others 2008) states that manufacture is
also possible under acidic conditions. There is an improvement
in the gel-forming ability of the concentrate when it is mixed
with sodium chloride or potassium chloride and/or other addi-
tives and ingredients, prior to heating or high-pressure treatment,
which modifies its texture. Thus, a heat-stable gel is obtained for
the production of substitutes or other products that are surimi-like
(Careche and Borderas 2004).
This kind of surimi differs from conventional fish surimi in a
number of characteristics. For example, its structure is particularly
fine and with acid pH and, as a result, the volume of released
water after thawing is higher and the product yield is lower.
Therefore, ingredients such as wheat fiber have been tested to
bind this free water (Sanchez-Alonso and others 2007b). The
gelation properties of cephalopod muscle also can be improved
by means of (HHP) before heating (Nagashima and others 1993).
Surimi from crab
The important amount of Jonah crab (Cancer borealis) har-
vested as by-catch of the lobster industry, together with the in-
crease in consumer demand for Jonah crab claws, have generated
interest in the use of the crab meat. Its mild flavor and relatively
low cost make crab a potential resource of protein for surimi
production (Baxter and Skonberg 2006, 2008). One concern is
that while the claws are the most popular part, after their removal
the crabmeat left behind is wasted. Therefore, a low-value crab
mince can be obtained from the neglected meat using mechanical
deboning equipment. However, the profitability and utilization of
this resource could increase with new uses, such as the formation
of surimi-like gels (Baxter and Skonberg 2008).
A drawback results from the common practice of cooking the
whole product before becoming available for surimi processing,
with the subsequent denaturation of proteins, causing a signifi-
cant loss of functionality. But Baxter and Skonberg (2006) demon-
strated that washed crab mince obtained from previously cooked
Jonah crab meat is suitable to produce gels with acceptable char-
acteristics, which can be used as the main ingredient in protein
gel-based products.
Surimi from other marine species
Other species have potential to be alternative resources for
surimi production. For instance, fatty-fish escolar (Lepidocybium
avobrunneum) is a by-catch of tuna, which remains underuti-
lized. However, it is discarded because more than 90% of its
lipid content (18% to 22%) is wax ester, a material that causes
diarrhea after ingestion. Therefore, the use of escolar meat for
surimi production would only be enabled after reducing its lipid
and wax contents. As Pattaravivat and others (2008) suggest, the
use of a palmitic sucrose ester solution seems to be a method of
lipid removal after the first washing. In addition, the quality of
the obtained gel was better than surimi of medium gel strength
(SA grade), confirming that escolar meat could become a suitable
material for surimi production.
The potential for adding krill, squid, or octopus at low propor-
tions into acidified fish muscle mixtures with the aim to produce
a ready-to-eat prototype has been successfully demonstrated, but
firmness and an adequate moisture level was only achieved when
a critical ratio of fish mince was included in the formulations, as
explored by De Juan-Segovia and Kuri (2007, 2008).
Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba), probably one of the most
abundant marine species, has not been used for surimi produc-
Vol. 8, 2009COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY
tion due to the high quantities of resulting by-product, and low
yield of recovered proteins. The application of the isoelectric
solubilization/precipitation method has allowed the higher yield
recovery of functional muscle proteins from whole krill in a
continuous mode. This allows one to produce krill protein con-
centrates and surimi gels, with the potential of recovering fat
fractions and maintaining high levels of omega-3 polyunsatu-
rated fatty acids (Chen and Jaczynski 2007a; Gigliotti and oth-
ers 2008). Nevertheless, more research is needed to optimize
this process. Applications for surimi processing from shrimp has
been developed at the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
(BFAR) at the Philippines, and summarized by Abella and others
(1995).
The manufacture of surimi from Elasmobranchs (sharks, rays,
and skates) has been also studied, since they were considered un-
derutilized due to their shape, meat odor, and taste (Venugopal
and others 2002). However, these species are now threatened by
over-explotation in high seas fisheries, especially sharks by the
high value of their fins, but also they are harvested as by-catch
in considerable amounts in some places (Turan and others 2007;
Dulvy and others 2008). Reports about surimi from sharks and
rays are scarce, but Turan and Sonmez (2007) found that thorn-
back ray (Raja clavata) was a suitable resource for surimi pro-
duction, and Kailasapathy and Salampessy (1999) made surimi
from angel shark (Squatina spp.) with the addition of urease to re-
move the urea from shark mince without affecting the myofibrillar
proteins.
Surimi-like materials
In the last few years, interest has increased towards the uti-
lization of nonmarine organisms for the production of surimi-like
gels. Specifically, some low-value meats, or animal by-products
that would not be used as foods unless processed, can sometimes
be suitable for turning low-value materials into useful surimi
ingredients. For example, surimi from mechanically deboned
chicken meat has been studied as a solution to use residual parts
such as necks, backs, breast frames, and the meat adhering to
the carcasses (Smyth and ONeill 1997; Antonomanolaki and
others 1999; Navarro 2005, 2006; Jin and others 2009). Spent
layers provide material with high potential for surimi-like prod-
ucts since they are underutilized (Nowsad and others 2000; Jin
and others 2007a). Carcasses from these old hens have tough
and dry muscles, properties that could be modified by process-
ing, mainly during the thermal gelation (Yang and Froning 1992;
Kijowski and Richardson 1996). Beef, pork, and sheep muscles
also, and even beef or pig hearts, have been used to produce
surimi-like materials (Wan and others 1993; Zepeda and others
1993; Wang and Xiong 1998; Jin and others 2007b; Kang and
others 2007).
The differences between functionality of red muscles, such
as leg and neck, and white muscles, such as breast, have
been studied (Amato and others 1989; Lan and others 1995;
Navarro 2005; Navarro and others 2007) and the consensus is
that red muscle produces a stronger gel. However, red meat
has a high fat content, more heme pigments, and high levels
of collagen, causing problems when it is used in the pro-
duction of surimi-like materials (Park and others 1996). Con-
sequently, repeated washing of minced meat with water or
low ionic strength aqueous solutions (that is, sodium chloride
or lactic acid) to remove fat, pigments, sarcoplasmic proteins,
and other materials are necessary to obtain higher myofibril-
lar protein concentrations (Varnam and Sutherland 1995; Sayas
Barbera and others 2001). Only then will the resulting filamen-
tous structure (fibrous network) of the gel be of acceptable textural
properties (Yang and Froning 1992; Antonomanolaki and others
1999).
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CRFSFS: Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety
High collagen content could be inconvenient. Collagen is very
insoluble in water or saline solution, and, along with the myofib-
rillar proteins, it is retained during surimi processing. Heating
can change collagen to gelatin, which seems to interfere with
the gelation of the myofibrillar proteins. While fish muscle has
a small proportion of collagen, and it does not seem to affect
its gelling ability, mammalian and avian muscle tissue has high
concentrations of it. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce the con-
nective tissue content when preparing surimi by conventional
washing methods to obtain improved properties (Carvajal and
others 2005). Some approaches have been studied, including the
method for separating proteins from connective tissue based on
the lower strength of muscle protein than that of connective tis-
sue, which was developed by Hultin and Riley (2007); however,
more research is needed to improve the qualities of these surimi-
like products.
Recuperation of Solids from Surimi Processing
The wastewater produced after washing and refining the mince
contains insoluble components such as myosin fractions, scales,
fat, and other tissue fibers; and also soluble components such as
enzymes, polypeptides, blood components, and inorganic min-
erals. There is an increasing interest within the food industries
in using fish body parts for different foods and functional ingre-
dients, together with the processing of by-products into value-
added components (Morrissey and others 2005; Nolsoe and
Undeland 2009). For example, bioactive compounds of inter-
est such as proteases (Mireles and Morrissey 2002) or other
sarcoplasmic proteins (Piyadhammaviboon and Yongsawatdigul
2009) can be obtained by ultrafiltration of the surimi wash-water
(SWW), which contains TGase, and therefore can be used as gel
enhancer in surimi production (Piyadhammaviboon and Yong-
sawatdigul 2009); emulsifiers from fractions extracted from cod
after the pH-shift method have been recovered (Nolsoe and Un-
deland 2009), and also the acid-soluble collagen from the refiner
discharge, which may be used as a functional ingredient (Park
and others 2007); even antioxidants have been found in SWW
(Morrissey and others 2005).
On the one hand, washing removes small flesh particles, in-
cluding myofibrillar proteins (Park and Lin 1996, 2005) and fac-
tors, such as changes in pH and ionic strength, proteolysis, and
mechanical forces may diminish the recovery of myofibrillar pro-
teins. Around 40% to 50% of the myofibrillar proteins is lost in
soluble or insoluble forms during mincing, washing, screening,
and screw-pressing. The water from washing and dewatering op-
erations carries approximately 15% of the myofibrillar proteins.
Thus, depending on how the washing is done, the concentration
of solids in the SWW can range from 0.5% to 2% (Morrissey and
others 2005). However, normally this SWW is discarded as waste
(Krasaechol and others 2008).
On the other hand, methods for the efficient recovery of pro-
teins from SWW are emerging. Soluble proteins can be separated
by ultrafiltration, which removes a high percentage of them; al-
though a large membrane area would be necessary. The resulting
concentrated protein has a dark color and strong odors, but it
could be used in animal feed. However, an advantage of ultrafil-
tration is the possibility of recycling processing water (Marti and
others 1994; Lin and others 1995; Montero and Gomez-Guillen
1998; Park and Lin 2005). One method could be flocculation of
the soluble proteins by ferric chloride or chitosanalginate; this
would allow their recovery and the reduction of organic matter
before discharging, but ferric chloride has a high toxicity (Marti
and others 1994; Velazquez and others 2007). Methods based
on the addition of chemical compounds to modify the proper-
ties of the water have been recently studied by Bourtoom and
368 COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETYVol. 8, 2009
others (2009). They concluded that the precipitation of proteins
can be achieved with ethanol (60g ethanol/100g SWW), since
this organic solvent reduces the dielectric constant of the wa-
ter; but also by shifting pH, with a larger yield at pH 3.5, close
to the isoelectrical point. But a study for the characterization of
the recovered proteins is needed to know their functionability.
Another method could be heating the thermo-sensitive proteins
to induce coagulation and precipitation. This could be done by
steam or hot water in direct contact, although the water con-
sumption would be increased (Huang and others 1997), and also
by ohmic heating (Benjakul and others 1997; Huang and oth-
ers 1997). In fact, current work on the coagulation of protein in
SWW under continuous ohmic heating following a separation
to reduce the biological oxygen demand of wastewater, as well
as protein recovery, has been reported to be of high energy ef-
ficiency (Kanjanapongkul and others 2009). The electric energy
directly heats the fluid quickly and uniformly, with an additional
advantage of applying a clean technology without the need for
any chemical additives. This continuous process is considered to
have potential commercial applications.
Insoluble solids can be recovered from SWW by centrifugation
without affecting the functional properties of proteins (Ramrez
and others 2007b); however, according to Lin and others (1995),
the use of microfiltration is a more economical alternative for in-
soluble components. Decanter centrifuges are normally used for
the recovery of fine particles lost through the dewatering screens
and screw presses (Park and Lin 2005). Moreover, if the pH-shift
method is used, the extraction of by-products will be facilitated
and, as reported for sardine processing (Nolsoe and Undeland
2009), will allow to take advantage of recovering the proteins
in the soft jelly, which otherwise would be discarded after the
first centrifugation. Taskaya and Jaczynski (2009), also found a
very efficient recovery of proteins from the isoelectric solubiliza-
tion/precipitation of process water by the application of anionic
flocculants of high molecular weight.
Park and Lin (2005) suggest that a certain quantity of these
recovered meats may be recycled into high-quality surimi paste,
but also that it can be marketed as low-grade surimi. Lin and oth-
ers (1995) reported that proteins from the SWW microfiltration
had high functional properties and, when compared to conven-
tional surimi, their composition was similar. When the authors
substituted 10% surimi with the recovered insoluble proteins,
they found that the quality of the gel was the same as the qual-
ity of surimi without these proteins. Ramrez and others (2007b)
stated that adding 1% of insoluble solids from SWW actually im-
proved the mechanical properties of Pacific whiting surimi, ob-
taining also an acceptable color without the need to add higher
quantities. Velazquez and others (2008) obtained similar results
using Alaska pollock. However, when the proteins added to high-
quality surimi were soluble, the mechanical properties of the gels
improved, but increased in redness (Velazquez and others 2007).
The mechanical properties seem to be due to a higher absorption
of water by the particles, allowing a higher number of protein-
protein interactions. But an excessive proportion will negatively
affect the protein network (Velazquez and others 2008).
Therefore, the recovery of solids from surimi processing has
important advantages: it maximizes the utilization of seafood re-
sources and the productivity, it reduces waste, it generates treated
water that may be reused in the seafood processing operations,
and even the mechanical properties of surimi are enhanced in
some cases (Velazquez and others 2007, 2008). Moreover, the
use of pH-shift isolation of proteins shows a considerable poten-
tial for using underutilized muscle proteins, including complex
raw materials (Nolsoe and Undeland 2009). Fish proteins derived
from surimi processing can find a number of uses, depending on
the setting of particular processing facilities and the cost-benefit
Sustainable and efficient surimi . . .
of processing materials, which can include direct incorporation
into the surimi mince, or other uses such as those compiled by
Keller (1990), which include uses as pet food ingredients, protein
hydrolysates, particularly if there is a high bone content, fishmeal,
protein concentrates, protein preparations for animal feeds, re-
cuperation of pigments in some instances, extraction of chitin,
preparation of flavorings, fish silage, and composting by a range
of techniques.
Management of the Enviromental Impact
of Surimi Processing
In general, the major problems for the seafood industry con-
cern utilization of natural resources. They include large require-
ments of freshwater, the negative impact on the environment
as a consequence of discharging processing water that has not
been adequately treated, and the poor utilization of fish resources
(Morrissey and others 2005).
Surimi processing, as is shown in Figure 2 can be divided into
2 main stages. The 1st phase (heading, gutting, deboning, and
mincing) prepares the fish mince for the 2nd one (washing and
refining of mince), and all stages consume water. Surimi process-
ing from white-flesh fish requires a large amount of chilled water
because of the extensive washing. The mean consumption for
washing is about 27m3 per ton of surimi (Afonso and Borquez
2002). The minimum might be less than 10 to 15 L of water for
shore-side operations and less than 5 to 7 L for at-sea operations
to produce 1 kg of surimi (Park and Lin 2005); and water is often
discharged carrying proteins, oils, and other organic materials
(Huang and others 1997; Afonso and Borquez 2002). Consider-
ing that 2 to 3 million metric tons of fish per year (2% to 3% of
the world fisheries supply) are used for surimi production (Vidal-
Giraud and Chateau 2007), the worldwide consumption of water,
Vol. 8, 2009COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY
Figure 2 --- Wastewater during surimi
processing and a water recycling
washing system. Adapted from Lee
(1990) and Morrissey and others
(2005).
and the contamination and loss of valuable components are no-
table. In addition, the use of water is becoming more expensive;
therefore, the industry is interested in the reduction of water us-
age and the improvement of washing efficiency. In fact, during
the last 20 y the better ratios of water/meat and the washing cycles
have been linked to a more effective washing process. Excessive
washing increases the water requirements and also the wastew-
ater, and it results in the loss of myofribrillar proteins. Therefore,
increasing the washing time and the number of washing cycles
with a lower water/meat ratio would be attainable with the same
washing effect with less water (Park and Lin 2005).
However, wastewater is the biggest problem for the surimi in-
dustry and, therefore, it is the aim of companies to develop ef-
ficient methods for wastewater treatment and protein recovery.
Several of the methods to recover solids from the SWW have
been mentioned before. They bring about the reduction of the
polluting load and the possibility of added solids incorporation
into the surimi paste. Additionally, the cost for the disposal of the
wastewater is reduced; also, higher productivity is achieved when
the recovered proteins from SWW are incorporated into primary
products or some bioactive compounds are extracted (Morrissey
and others 2005). The relevance of this line of work on the recov-
ery of by-products from seafood processing flows is becoming
more important. Funding and work are sometimes directed to
animal feed applications, such as pellets, and lately energy pro-
duction from by-catch waste, while only a few groups carry out
research directed towards human food (Torres and others 2007;
J.W. Park, unpublished data).
Another alternative to reduce the cost of pollution control is the
application of the pH-shift method in surimi production, because
the SWW has low protein content, and thus a lower biological
oxygen demand. This makes possible multiple reuses of the water;
also, no components that would contribute to pollution are added
369
CRFSFS: Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety
during the process (Hultin and others 2005). The development
of an unwashed surimi seems viable, and it additionally has the
advantage of including more bioactive compounds as an inhibitor
of angiotensin I converting enzyme (enzyme for increasing blood
pressure); and there is a reduction in water usage and pollutants
during the process (Yoshie-Stark and others 2009).
For the recycling of wastewater, Lee (1990) suggested the
principle of counter-current washing, which consists, basically,
in using cleaner water in the later washes. For example, in a
3-step washing process, the water from the 2nd dewatering can
be reused in the 1st wash, whereas the water from the 3rd wash
is re-circulated to the 2nd wash. Therefore, the water from the
1st step would be discharged with high levels of undesirable
impurities, and the last wash is with freshwater. In this case, re-
cycling the SWW in 2 of the 3 steps could reduce water usage
by two-thirds; it would also save waste management costs and
energy costs due to the refrigeration of the water. All this needs
to be tested on a large scale before its implementation on a
commercial production scale, but producers seem to reject this
possibility (Park and Lin 2005). Nevertheless, Clark (2008) reports
that in a clam processing operation, by recycling the water by this
method, important savings were achieved by reducing freshwater
usage.
Another point that should be considered at some stages in the
processing is the real requirement of freshwater. For instance,
during heading, gutting, and deboning, water is injected in the
machines to remove fish fluid and the pieces adhered to the
machines. After that, large amounts of water are usually used
for transporting skins, viscera, and backbones from filleting and
deboning machines to the scrap delivery system. These steps
do not need to use freshwater; they can utilize recycled water
(Morrissey and others 2005).
Regarding surimi from pelagic fish, such as sardines, contami-
nation is even higher. Solid by-products represent 30% to 60% of
the whole fish, in addition to the wastewater. However, the appli-
cation of ultrafiltration has been assessed by Dumay and others
(2008), and it seems to be a suitable technology for the recovery
of proteins and lipids from the SWW from pelagic fish process
water, while in effluents with high charges of compounds it has
been possible to work with centrifugation, controlled hydroly-
sis, and membrane technology to recover lipids and proteins.
Therefore, the use of efficient membrane and filtration systems
and emerging separation technologies will enable better use of
resources for surimi production.
Solid waste is also produced during surimi processing from the
heads, viscera, skin, frames, and bones. It can be used as fish-
meal after drying, but expensive equipment is required and the
wastewater may have a difficult treatment. Likewise, this solid
waste can be used for composting to elaborate fertilizers (Morris-
sey and others 2005). A more economical process is the manufac-
ture of fish protein hydrolysates (Benjakul and Morrissey 1997),
and has been used even as cryoprotectant in lizardfish surimi
(Arvanitoyannis and Kassaveti 2008). Furthermore, due to the el-
evated concentration of proteases in the by-products, fish sauce
can be made by fermentation (Morrissey and others 2005). A fur-
ther opportunity to add value to fish by-products, and particularly
the skins, is to obtain gelatine that can be used by food proces-
sors as a gelling agent and to produce edible films (Norziah and
others 2009).
Fish oil is another important waste; nevertheless, the high con-
tent of omega-3 fatty acids, such as eicosapentanoic acid and
docosahexaenoic acid, makes this by-product be considered as
nutraceutical and a food ingredient, since they claim to prevent
heart diseases. However, the oil is removed during the washing
steps and is not recoverable for this purpose, being used fre-
370 COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETYVol. 8, 2009
quently for heating, mixed with other fuel oils. Considering the
larger use of pelagic species with higher amount of oil, the re-
covery of this oil as a high commercial value could be another
area of research (Morrissey and others 2005).
However, it is necessary to establish the most suitable pro-
cess and the one with the lowest energy consumption to make
by-product recovery profitable (Morrissey and others 2005).
More studies are needed to overcome some of the difficulties
with regards to the extraction methods, recovery methods, but
also to design and adapt affordable equipment for the indus-
try, which may result in more profitable processes. The intro-
duction of new technologies will reduce the producers burden
of solid waste and wastewater, which may tip the balance and
be a factor for the potential widespread application of these
operations.
Conclusions
The sustainability credentials of surimi processing are debat-
able. On the one hand, the process is an effective way to take
advantage of underutilized fish species and nonfish species, mak-
ing the use of such resources more sustainable and profitable. But
on the other hand, surimi is associated with the use of declining
fish stocks, large volumes of freshwater, high levels of contami-
nated wastewater, and poor use of whole fish for human foods.
The introduction of novel species in the industry could enable
processors to maintain a profitable level of business and mini-
mize some environmental impacts, particularly if they are able
to process a range of raw materials with variable qualities. Addi-
tional aspects which producers need to consider are mainly those
related to water use and waste, minimizing input, reusing where
possible, and recovering material from flows. This may require
an advanced understanding of all material properties and behav-
ior which would benefit from both conventional and emerging
separation technologies. More sustainable and ethical processing
would result in long-lasting enterprises that manage the bottom
line wisely and respond to their stakeholder needs.
The extraction yield of proteins from fish is another challenge,
but successful trials with innovative technologies such as the
pH-shift method are steps into the right direction, particularly
because these technologies also make possible the reduction of
water requirements. The introduction of the countercurrent wash-
ing principle could save a major quantity of water. Finally, the
attainment of lower pollution loads by means of the recovery of
useful compounds, such as proteins or functional fats from the
washwater, would turn waste into profit.
In addition to legislation and enforcement pressure, the effort
from the fish industry to increase efficiency and to improve its
operations footprints is likely to result in more sustainable prac-
tices. With the possibility of the use of more advanced technolo-
gies, including HHP, ohmic and microwave heating, advanced
decanting and filtration, among others, improvement of current
practices and the development of value-added products, mainly
using mince from low-cost fishery resources, the surimi industry
will have a good future.
Acknowledgments
The work of A.M.M.S. was supported by a grant from Caja de
Ahorros del Mediterraneo (CAM); V.K. is a fellow (on sustainabil-
ity in the food chain) at the UP Centre for Sustainable Futures
(CETL), funded by The Higher Education Funding Council for
England. Thanks to Alfa Laval, Spain, for information provided.
Sustainable and efficient surimi . . .

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