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Notes: 02
(Entry-2016)
Note
Dont confuse the 1st law with energy conservation. The latter connotes
preservation of quality of energy! This concept is akin more to the 2nd law.
Change in as system (working fluid) changes from state-1 to state-2 is
.
i.e.
This equation is true for a process or a series of processes between state-1 and
state-2 provided there is no flow of fluid into or out of the system (closed
system/control mass).
Rules
i.e.
Note: Equations ( . . ) are true whether the process is reversible or not. These are energy
equations [energy is conserved!].
Example-2.2
Statement
In the compression stroke of an internal-combustion engine the heat
rejected to the cooling water is and the work input is .
Calculate the change in specific internal energy of the working fluid stating
whether it is a gain or a loss.
Solution
Applying
Example-2.3
Statement
In the cylinder of an air motor the compressed air has a specific internal
energy of at the beginning of the expansion and a specific
internal energy of after expansion. Calculate the heat flow to or
from the cylinder when the work done by the air during the expansion is
Solution
Applying
Ideal Reversible Non-Flow Process
Heat and work are path functions; both depend on the particular process (path).
System property is a point function; it depends only on the state point, never on
the history (process/path) about how the system state has been reached.
The Steady Flow Energy Equation
Let 1 of a fluid with specific internal energy, , is moving with velocity and is a height above a datum level. In
this condition, it possesses a total energy, + 2 + , where 2 is the kinetic energy of 1 of fluid and
is the potential energy of 1 of fluid. In most applications of engineering interest, the rate at which fluid flows
through a piece of machinery, equipment or apparatus, is constant. This type of flow is called steady flow. Another
way, the rate of mass flow of fluid at any section in steady flow is the same as at any other section. Fig-2.2 shows the
fluid flowing steadily through an apparatus. It is an example of an open system (control volume). The boundary
(control surface) is shown cutting the inlet pipe at section-1 and the outlet pipe at section-2. Let units of heat per
kg of fluid are supplied to the fluid while fluid does units of work per kg as it flows through the apparatus. Now in
order to introduce 1 of fluid across the boundary at inlet, an expenditure of energy is required. Similarly, in order
to push 1 of fluid across the boundary at exit, an expenditure of energy is required.
The inlet section is shown enlarged in fig-2.3. Consider an element of fluid,
length , and let the cross-sectional area of the inlet pipe be .
Energy that leaves at outlet and that transferred as work output across the boundary
For steady flow (fluid, heat and/or work), it is possible to write the following
balance equation [1st law of thermodynamics]:
The sum of specific internal energy, and the term, is given the symbol,
and is called specific enthalpy.
Substituting equation 2.7 in equation 2.6, omitting potential energy terms (usually small), gives:
+ 2 + = + 2 + 2.8
Equation 2.8 is called steady-flow energy equation. Since enthalpy is a system property, it can be introduced into
any problem whether the process is a flow process or a non-flow process.
Elaborating more on steady flow, consider now any section of cross-sectional area where the fluid velocity is ,
then the volume flow past the section is .
Dividing by specific volume, , gives the constant quantity that defines steady flow, i.e. mass flow rate,
= = 2.9
where is density of fluid at the section.
.
= 2 = 60 2 = 1800 = 1800 = 1800 = 1800 = 1.8
14000
work output = = = 823.5
17
Substituting values in equation 2.8:
1200 + 1.8 + = 360 + 11.25 + 823.5
= 7.02
heat rejected = +7.02 = 7.02 17 = 119.3
From equation (2.9),
=
17 0.5
, = = 0.142
60
Example 2.5
Statement
Air flows steadily at the rate of through an air compressor, entering at
with a pressure of and a specific volume of , and leaving
at with a pressure of and a specific volume of . The
specific internal energy of the air leaving is greater than that of the air
entering. Cooling water in a jacket surrounding the cylinder absorbs heat from the
air at the rate of . Calculate the power required to drive the compressor,
and the inlet and the outlet cross-sectional areas.
Solution
Omitting the potential energy terms in steady-flow energy equation 2.6:
.
Rearranging equation 2.a for work done:
From equation 2.9,
i.e.