Calculus For Engineers

Calculus
For Engineers
BY
Dr. Mohamed Ismail Mohamed Hessein

Professor Of Mathematics
Faculty Of Engineering ( Shoubra )
Benha University
Calculus Contents
CONTENTS
Chapter Page
CONTENTS 3
PREFACE 7
1 REVIEW OF FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS.. 9
1.1 Functions... 9
Basic elementary functions.... 23
1) Quadratic Function.... 23
2) Power Function. 24
3) Linear-Fractional Function 26
1.2 Special Types Of Functions... 28
1. Polynomials... 28
2. Exponential functions ... 29
3. Logarithmic functions 32
4. Trigonometric functions ( Circular functions ).. 37
5. Inverse Trigonometric functions... 46
6. Hyperbolic functions. 58
7. Inverse Hyperbolic functions. 68
1.3 Limits of functions. 78
1.4 Special Limits 83
EXERCISES 1... 93
3
Calculus Contents
CONTENTS
Chapter Page
2 DERIVATIVES 100
2.1 Revision on derivatives. 100
2.2 Differentiation of Trigonometric functions... 105
2.3 Differentiation of inverse trigonometric functions 107
2.4 Differentiation of Exponential and Logarithmic
functions 110
2.5 Logarithmic Differentiation... 113
2.6 Simplification before differentiation. 117
2.7 Differentiation of Hyperbolic functions 118
2.8 Differentiation of Inverse Hyperbolic functions... 120
2.9 Parametric representation of curves.. 124
2.10 Derivatives of higher order 126
2.11 Differentials... 136
EXERCISES 2... 139
3 MEAN VALUE THEOREMS.. 147
3.1 Mean Value Theorems... 147
3.2 Evaluation Of Indeterminate Forms.. 157
3.3 Curve Tracing 167
3.4 Tangents and Normal 174
EXERCISES 3... 175
4
Calculus Contents
CONTENTS
Chapter Page
4 INTEGRALS 184
4.1 Indefinite integrals. 184
4.2 Integrals of elementary functions.. 185
4.3 Integration by Substitution 187
4.4 Transformation of Trigonometric Function... 195
4.5 Powers Of Trigonometric functions.. 196
4.6 Even Powers Of Sines and Cosines.. 201
4.7 Integration by Parts 205
Inverse Trigonometric Functions... 211
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions 211
4.8 Successive Integration By Parts 215
4. 9 Some Trigonometrical and Hyperbolic
substations 218
4.10 Completing the Squares 223
4.11 Simplification before integration... 227
4.12 Miscellaneous Substitutions.. 228
4.13 Integration by the method of partial fractions... 234
Resolution of rational functions into partial
fractions. 234
EXERCISES 4... 239
5
Calculus Contents
CONTENTS
Chapter Page
5 DEFINITE INTEGRALS.. 244
5.1 The definite Integral.. 244
5.2 Upper and Lower Riemann Sums.. 245
5.3 Connection between definite and indefinite
integrals. 249
5.4 Properties Of Definite Integrals. 251
5.5 Sign of an area... 253
5.6 The Arc Length.. 257
5.7 Volume of a Solid.. 263
5.8 The Volume of a Solid of Revolution... 267
5.9 The Area of a Surface of Revolution 270
5.10 Simple Differential Equations... 273
5.11 Improper Integrals. 278
5.12 Numerical Integration 287
5.12.1 Rectangle Rules... 288
5.12.2 Trapezoidal Rule.. 290
5.12.3 Simpson's Rule 294
EXERCISES 5... 303
REFRENCES... 313
THE GREEK ALPHABET. 314
APPENDICES.... 315
6
Calculus PREFACE
PREFACE
The present book is based on lectures given by the
author to students of various colleges studying
mathematics. In designing this course the author tried to
select the most important mathematical facts and present
them so that the reader could acquire the necessary
mathematical conception and apply mathematics to other
branches. Therefore in most cases we did not give rigorous
formal proofs of the theorems. The rigorousness of a proof
often fails to be fruitful and therefore it is usually ignored
in practical applications. The book can be of use to readers
of various professions dealing with applications of
mathematics in their current work. The subject matter is
presented in a very systematic and logical manner. It
contains material which you will find of great use, not only
in the technica1 courses you have yet to take, but also in
your profession after graduation, as long as you deal with
the analytical aspects of your field.
In writing the book the actual mathematica1

background of working engineers is taken for granted. The
author has injected in this book his experience and
expertise of teaching. In fact, the book closely follows the
lectures given by the author to the preparatory year
students at the Faculty of Engineering (Shoubra), Benha
University.
7
Calculus PREFACE
This book consists of five chapters. Chapter 1

contains the fundamental concepts of functions of one
variable, and 1imits. Chapter 2 contains the fundamenta1s
of derivatives. In chapter 3 we wi11 discuss mean va1ue
theorems "Rolle's theorem, LaGranges theorem, Cauchy's
generalised theorem, Tay1or's theorem and L'Hospita1's
rules and curve tracing. Chapter 4 presents indefinite
integrals and the techniques of integration. Chapter 5
contains the definite integra1, its properties, how to apply
it to find the plane area and some of its applications in arc
length, volume of a solids and its surface area, in
differential equations, improper integral and some methods
of numerical integration.
Even after the most careful checking it is quite

possible that some errors have been overlooked, and I shall
be greatly indebted to anyone submitting corrections. It has
been gratifying to receive letters from students who have
used this book, giving us their reactions to it, pointing out
errors and misprints in it, and offering suggestions for its
improvement. Should you be inclined to do we would be
glad to hear from you also. And now good luck and every
success.
Mohamed Ismail M. Hessein
8
Calculus FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS Chapter 1
CHAPTER 1
REVIEW OF FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS
The student is already familiar with the following
important definitions:
1.1 Functions:
Definition 1.1: (The absolute or numerical value)
x if x 0 ,
The absolute value of x is defined as x =
x if x < 0 .
If a and b are any two numbers, then
a a a , a b = b a , a b = ab,
a a
= , b 0
b b
a + b a+b ; a b a+b ;
a + b ab ; a b ab.
Definition 1.2: (Intervals)
Let a and b be two numbers such that a < b. The set of all numbers
x between a and b is called the open interval from a to b and is
written (a , b) or a < x < b. The open interval (a , b) together with
its endpoints a and b is called the closed interva1 from a to b and
is written [a , b] or a x < b.
The set of all numbers x satisfying x < a {or x > b } is called an
infinite interval and is written ( , a) { or (b , ) }.
9
Definition 1.3: ( Neighbourhoods )

The set of all points x such that x a< where >0, is called a
neighbourhood of a point a.
The set of all points x such that 0 < x a< in which
x = a is excluded is called a deleted neighbourhood of a.
Definition 1.4: ( Constant and Variable )
In the definition of the interval a < x < b :
i) Each of the symbols a and b represents a single
number and is called a constant.
ii) The symbol x represents any one of a set of numbers
and is called variable.
Definition 1.5: ( Function of a variable )
A variable y is said to be a function of another variable x if
there is a rule (f ) which associates to each value x A one (and
only one) value of y B. We write this correspondence in the
form f(x). The set A is called the domain D of the function; x is
called the independent variable and y the dependent variable and
the set B is called the range R of the function.
The determination of the domain D of definition of a
function is essential for constructing its graph because this domain
is just a part of the axis of abscissas over or under which the graph
is placed.
In the Following, we see three simple graphs; the domains
of the functions are shaded. It is clear that in case a domain of
10
definition consists of several separate parts the corresponding

graph also consists of several components.
4 x2 , x2 2 .
2
(a) y = x 1, (b) y = (c) y =
Figure 1.1
2
If y = x 1, then x can take on any real values, i.e. the
domain of definition is the whole number line < x
< . ( The domain is shaded in Figure 1.1 a ).
If y = 4 x 2 , then we cannot obtain real values of y
2
while extracting the root in case we have 4 x < 0.
2 2
Consequently, there must be 4 x 0, i.e. x 4 . The
last inequality is fulfilled for 2 x 2 , i.e. the domain of
definition is the interval [ 2 , 2 ] . ( The domain is shaded
in Figure 1.1 b ).
If y = x 2 2 , then we cannot obtain real values of y
2
while extracting the root in case we have x 2 < 0.
2 2
Consequently, there must be x 2 0, i.e. x 2. The last
inequality is fulfilled for x 2 or x 2 ; the domain
of definition consists of two intervals ( , 2 ] and
[ 2 , ) ( The domain is shaded in Figure 1.1 c ).
In order to determine the domain D of definition of a
function we must first find out what may prevent us from getting
11
real values of the function and then form inequalities which

guarantee the possibility of obtaining real values. Then the
problem of determining the domain of definition is reduced to
solving these inequalities.
The range of a dependent variable y, that is the set of all the
values assumed by a function as its argument runs over the
domain of definition of the function, is called the range of the
function. For example, the domain of definition of the function y
2
= x ; is the interval < x < and the range of this function is
the interval 0 y< since in this case y assumes only
non-negative values.
2
The range of the function y = x 1, is [1 , ).
The range of the function y = 4 x 2 , is [0 , 2].
The range of the function y = x 2 2 , is [0 , ).
Let the graph of the function y = f(x) be known. Let us
consider the most important transformations of this graph.
(1) The graph y = f(x a) , represents the initial graph shifted
in the direction of the x-axis by a quantity equal to a.
(2) The graph y = b + f(x), represents the result of translating
the initial graph along the y-axis by a quantity equal to b.
(3) The graph y = c f(x), ( c 0 ) is obtained from the initial
graph y = f(x) by compressing the ordinates y by 1/c times
for 0 < c < 1 , and by stretching its ordinates c times with
the corresponding abscissa x remaining unchanged for
c > 1.
12
(4) If c < 0, then graph y = c f(x) is a mirror image of the

graph y = c f(x).
y = f(x a), (2) y = b + f(x). (3) y = c f(x).

Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3
If only one value of y corresponds to each value of x A,
the function is called singlevalued. If more than one value of y
corresponds to some values of x, the function is celled
multiple valued. Since a multiplevalued function can be
considered as a set of singlevalued functions, we shall assume
functions to be singlevalued.
2
For example if y = x, where x > 0 then to each x there
correspond two values of y. Hence y is a doublevalued function
of x. We consider this as two singlevalued functions f and g
where f(x) = x and g(x) = x.
The student is also familiar with the process of "graphing
functions" by obtaining number pairs (x , y) and considering these
as points plotted on a rectangular coordinate system. In general
y = f(x) is represented graphically by a curve.
13
Even and Odd functions:

A function f(x) is called even if f(x) = f(x) for every value of x
( x) in the domain of definition.
A function f(x) is called odd if f(x) = f(x) for every value of x
( x) in the domain of definition.
f(x) = f(x) x D f(x) = f(x) x D.

Figure 1.4 (Even function) Figure 1.5 (Odd function)
The graph of an even function is symmetric about the
yaxis. The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the
origin (0 , 0). It goes into itself under a rotation through 180
about this point.
Periodic functions:
Many important processes in nature and engineering are
periodic. To study such processes, it is necessary to consider the
behaviour of periodic functions.
A nonconstant function y = f(x) is said to be periodic if
there exists a number > 0 such that f(x) = f(x + ) for every
possible value of x. It then also follows that f(x) = f(x +2) and
f(x) = f(x ), in general, f(x) = f(x + n ) for every integer n, as
14
long as the values (x + n ) belong to the domain of

definition of the function. Each such number is called a period,
Figure 1.6 [periodic function f(x T) = f(x)]

and the smallest positive number T for which f(x) = f(x + T) is
called the primitive (smallest) period of the periodic function. The
graphical representation of a periodic function is a graph that goes
into itself when translated in the direction of the xaxis through a
distance equal to an integral multiple of a period [In Figure 1.6,
graph of a periodic function with the primitive period T.] The
bestknown periodic functions are the trigonometric functions.
From these further periodic functions can be constructed; for
example, the functions y = A sin ( x) with A 0 and 0 have
the period 2/ . Combined functions such as y = A sin ( x) +
+ B sin ( x) are periodic, provided that the ratio of , to is
rational, that is, if / = m / n , where m and n are relatively
prime integers. The period of the first function is 2/ , and that of
the second is 2/, and their ratio is (2/)/(2/) = / = n/m.
Thus, n periods of the first function correspond exactly to m
periods of the second function. Consequently the sum function has
the period m.(2/) = n.(2/).
15
Example 1.1 :
The periods of the individual functions of the sum function
y = sin x + sin 2x are 2 and and their ratio is 2/()=2. The
given function therefore has period 2 .
Figure 1.7 (y = sin x + sin 2x )
A rational function is a quotient of two polynomial functions.

An algebraic function is a function that can be expressed in terms
of sums, differences, products, quotients, or rational powers of
polynomials.
Functions that are not algebraic are termed transcendental.
The trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions are
examples of transcendental functions.
In calculus, we often build complicated functions from simpler
functions by combining them in various ways, using arithmetic
operations and composition. If f(x) and g(x) are two functions, we
define the sum f + g , the difference f g , the product f . g , and
the quotient f / g as follows:
i) (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x), ii) (f g)(x) = f(x) g(x),
iii) (f . g)(x) = f(x) . g(x), iv) (f / g)(x) = f(x) / g(x).
16
The domain of f + g , f g and f .g is the intersection of the

domains of f and g that is, the numbers that are common to both
domains. The domain of f / g consists of all numbers x in the
intersection such that g(x) 0.
A function f may have the same value for different numbers
2
in its domain. For example, if f(x) = x , then f(3) = 9 = f(3). In
order to define the inverse of a function, it is essential that
different numbers in the domain always give different values of f.
Such functions are called one-to-one functions.
Definition:1.6 ( one-to-one )
A function f with domain D and range R is a one-to-one function
if whenever a b in D, then f(a) f(b) in R.
Definition 1.7: ( Inverse functions )
If y is a function of x , denoted by f(x), then x is a
-1
function of y (with some restrictions), denoted by x = f (y),
called the inverse function. Interchange of x and y leads to
-1 -1
consideration of y = f (x). If f(x) is singlevalued, f (x) may
be multiplevalued in which case it can be considered as a set of
single valued functions, each of which is called a branch. It is
often convenient to choose one of these branches called the
-1
principal branch, and denote it by f (x). In such case the
value of the inverse function is called the principal value. It is
clear that:
17
1) (x , y) is on the graph of f if and only if (y , x) is on the

-1
graph of f .
2) The graphs of f and f1 are reflections of each other
through the line y = x.
f and f1 are reflections of each

other through the line y = x. 2
Figure 1.9 (y = x , y = x )
Figure 1.8 ( Inverse function )
2
The function y = x , whose graph is a parabola (see Figure 1.9).
Let us split the domain of definition of the function ( which is R )
into two intervals on which the function is monotone: ( , 0] and
2
[0 , ). In each of these intervals the function y = x possesses the
inverse : the inverse function y = x for the interval ( , 0]
and the inverse function y = + x for the interval [0 , ).
Remark:
-1
The notation f for the inverse function of f is standard.
-1
Unfortunately, there is a danger of confusing f with the
reciprocal of f, that is, with 1/f(x). The -1 in the notation for the
-1
inverse of f is not an exponent; f (x) does not mean 1/f(x). On
18
those occasion when we want to express 1/f(x) using the exponent

-1
1, we will write [f(x)] .
Example 1.2 :
3
Prove that the cubing function f(x) = x , is one-to-one, find the
inverse.
Solution:
To show that f is one-to-one,
lets suppose that f(a) = f(b).
3 3 3 3
Then a = b , a b = 0,
2 2
(a b)(a + a b + b ) = 0
i.e. a = b
The function is one-to-one since
f(a) = f(b) implies a = b.
-1
We set t = f (x) and solve the 3 3
Figure 1.10 (y = x , x = y )
equation f(t) = x for t:
3 1/3
f(t) = x ; t =x, i.e. t = x .
-1 -1 1/3
Substituting f (x) back in for t, we have f (x) = x .
The inverse of the cubing function is the cube-root function. The
3 -1 1/3
graph of f(x) = x and f (x) = x are shown in Figure 1.10.
Remark:
-1
We substitute t for f (x) merely to simplify the calculation. It is
easier to work with the symbol t than with the string of symbol
-1
f (x)
19
In Chapter 3, 3.3, we studied increasing and decreasing

functions:
A function f is increasing if x1 < x2 in the domain of f
implies f(x1) < f ( x2 ); f is decreasing if x1 < x2 in the domain of
f implies f(x1) > f ( x2 ).
Theorem 1.1 :
If f is either an increasing function or a decreasing function, then
f is one-to-one and hence has an inverse.
Proof:
Suppose that f is increasing, and let x1 and x2 be points in the
domain of f with x1 x2 . If x1 < x2, then f(x1) < f ( x2 ), if x1 > x2,
then f(x1) > f ( x2 ). In either cases, f(x1) f ( x2 ) and so f is one-
to-one. The proof for f as a decreasing function can be done in the
same way.
Theorem (1.1) has an important application to differentiable
functions whose domain are intervals. If f is continuous on an
interval I, and if f ' (x) > 0 [f ' (x) < 0] on the interior of I, then f is
increasing (decreasing) on I and by Theorem (1.1) f has an
inverse.
Example 1.3
The function x = sin y leads to consideration of y = sin1 x , which
is multiplevalued, since for each x (1 , 1) there are many
values of y. By restricting sin1 x to be such that :
20
sin1x , for example, the function becomes single

2 2
valued. In such case the principal value of sin1 ( 1 ) = ,
2 6
and sin ( 1 ) = .
1
2 6
Remark:
Remember that the minus one in sin1 x, although written an
1
exponent, is not an exponent i.e. does not mean ( sin x )1 =
sin x
= cosec x = csc x , do not confuse sin1 x with the reciprocal
1
. Actually, y = sin1 x merely gives a name to a new function
sin x
that is defined implicitly by x = sin y.
Example 1.4:
Find the inverse of f(x) = x +1.
Solution:
Since f [f 1
(x)] = f 1 ( x ) + 1 , it is clear that x = f 1 ( x ) + 1
and x2 = f 1 (x) + 1 . Hence f 1 (x) = x2 1
Since the domain of f(x) is the set [1, ) and the range of f is the
set [0, ). It follows that domain of f 1= range of f = [ 0, ) ,
range of f 1 = domain of f = [1, ).
1
Although the function g(x) = f (x) , where g(x) = x2 1 ,
the domain of the function g(x) is ( , ) [0, ) the domain
of f 1 , but the range of g is the set [1 , ) = the range of f 1.
21
Another method:
-1
We set t = f (x) and solve the equation f(t) = x for t:
2 2
f(t) = t + 1 = x , i.e. t + 1 = x , and t = x 1 .
-1 -1 2
Substituting f (x) back in for t, we have f (x) = x 1.
Example 1.5:
3
The function y = x 2/3 = x 2 is defined for all values of x and is
even; its graph is shown in the Figure 1.11 . Consequently, its
inverse y = x 3/2 = x 3 has two singlevalued branches defined in
the interval [0, ); their graphs are given in dotted line in Figure
1.11.
Figure 1.11 (y = x 3/2 = x3 ) Figure 1.12 ( y = x )

The function y = x 5/3 and its inverse y = x 3/5 are odd and
defined on the entire xaxis. Their graph are similar to those in
figure 1.10. It is clear that for other positive rational exponents
the graphs of the corresponding power are of these types given in
Figure 1.12.
22
Basic elementary functions:

Below we shall discuss behaviour of some basic elementary
functions.
1) Quadratic Function:
2
The general form of a quadratic function is y = a x + b x + c .
It is known that the graph of a quadratic function is a parabola. In
2
the simplest case when a = 1, b = 0 and c = 0, i.e. y = a x , the
graph has the form given in Figure 1.13. Then the function is even
and the y-axis is the symmetry axis of the graph (the axis of the
parabola). The intersection point of a parabola with its axis is
called the vertex of the parabola. The vertex V in Figure 1.13 is
placed at the origin of the coordinate system.
2 2
Figure 1.13( y = a x ) Figure 1.14( y = a (x ) + . )
In the general case when a 0, b and c are arbitrary numbers the
parabola is obtained from the parabola given in Figure 1.13 by the
operations of uniform expansion and parallel translation. To
determine the position of the vertex we can apply the so-called
2
method of completing a square , we get y = a (x ) + .
23
The vertex of the parabola is situated at the point V( , ) .

Generally, If a > 0 the parabola is open upwards. If a < 0 the
parabola is open downwards (see Figure 1.14). In case a = 0 the
quadratic function turns into a linear one.
2) Power Function:
n
The general form of a power function is y = x .
If 0 < x < 1 then the greater n, the smaller the values of the
function. But if x >1 then the greater n, the greater the values of
the function. In Figure 1.15 we see the graphs for n = 1, 2, 3 and 4.
n
While constructing the parts of the graphs of y = x for the values
n
x < 0 one should take into account that the function y = x is even
for even n and odd for odd n. In particular, let us consider in detail
3
the graph of the function y = x (the cubic parabola). The graph is
convex upwards (or concave downwards) for x < 0, that is it lies
under the tangent drawn at any of its points. For x > 0 the graph is
convex downwards (or concave upwards). If we pass from left to
right through the origin of the coordinate system the direction of
convexity changes to the opposite one. The tangent to the graph at
the origin coincides with the x-axis but at the point of tangency O
the curve passes from one side of the tangent line to another. Such
points are called the points of inflection of a curve. Thus, the cubic
parabola has one point of inflection. For fractional values of the
exponent n the graphs are placed between the corresponding
graphs for integral values of n. But in the case of a fractional n
24
one should be careful when constructing graphs: a negative

number raised to a fractional power may result in an imaginary
number and therefore in such a case we must not construct the
graph for x < 0.
3 n
Figure 1.15 (y = x ) Figure 1.16 ( y = x , n=0,1,2,3)
Let us consider the case 0 < n < 1. For instance, let n = 1 , that is
2
1
y= x2 = x . Then, the graph is the upper half of the ordinary
(quadratic) parabola with the symmetry axis coinciding with the x-
axis (see Figure 1.17).
2/3
y = x (the semi-cubical
parabola) , (0 , 0) is a cusp
n
Figure 1.17 (y = x , 0 < n < 1) Figure 1.18
25
The graphs of power functions for some other fractional n are also
shown in Figure 1.17. In case the fraction representing n has an
odd denominator the graph exists not only for x > 0 but for x < 0
as well because, for negative numbers, we can extract real roots
with odd indices of radicals. In particular, let us take the graph of
2/3
the function y = x (the semi-cubical parabola) see Figure 1.18.
The graph first approaches the origin of the coordinates (for
example, when we pass from left to right) and then departs from
the origin. At the origin this curve has the so-called cusp.
The curve y = x with > 0 is called a parabola of order .
3) Linear-Fractional Function:
ax + b
A linear-fractional function has the general form y = .
cx + d
b
In the simplest case when a = d = 0, denoting = k, we obtain the
c
k
expression y = , which describes the inverse proportional
x
relation. The corresponding graph, is called a hyperbola. The
graph is shown in Figure 1.19 for the two cases k > 0 and k < 0,
k
separately. The function being odd, the hyperbola has a centre
x
of symmetry (which is located at the origin of coordinates in
Figure 1.19). It has two asymptotes (which are the coordinate
axes in Figure 1.19). It is easy to see that a hyperbola has two
symmetry axes (for the hyperbola in question the axes of
26
symmetry are the bisectors of the angles between the coordinate

axes in Figure 1.19).
k
Figure 1.19 ( y = )
x
We shall suppose that bc ad 0 since, if otherwise, the linear-
fractional function degenerates into a constant. For if bc = ad, we
a b
put = = m, then a = c m and b = d m and obtain
c d
ax + b cmx + dm cx + d
y= = =m =m.
cx + d cx + d cx + d
Performing a translation of the coordinate axes we prove that the
graph of the linear- fractional function is an equilateral hyperbola
with asymptotes parallel to coordinate axes. Indeed, if the origin
d a
of the translated system is placed at the points O'( , ) the
c c
equation of the graph in the coordinates O'x'y' takes the form
a' bc ad
y' = , where a' = . ( by hypothesis, b c a d 0, and
x' c2
therefore a' 0). The latter equation describes an equilateral
hyperbola whose asymptotes are the new axes O'x' and O'y' . In
the general case the graph of a linear-fractional function is also a
27
hyperbola which can be obtained by a parallel translation of the

hyperbola shown in Figure 1.19.
ax + b
A linear-fractional function of general form y = has a
cx + d
d
point of discontinuity at x = because the denominator
c
vanishes at the point. This accounts for the fact that the graph
consists of two separate portions.
1.2 Special Types Of Functions:

n n1
1. Polynomials: f(x) = a 0 x + a1 x ++an. (1.1)
If a 0 0, n is called the degree of the polynomial. The
polynomial equation f(x) = 0 has exactly n roots provided we
2
count repetitions. For example x 2x + 1 = 0 can be written
2
(x1) = 0 so that the two roots are 1,1.
Algebraic functions are functions y = f(x) satisfying an
algebraic equation of the form
n n-1 n-2
P0(x) y + P1(x) y + P2(x) y + + Pn(x) = 0 , (1.2)
where Pi(x) ( i = 0,1,2,,n) are polynomials in x.
Transcendental functions are functions which are not algebraic,

i.e. do not satisfy equations of the form (1.2).
The exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric, inverse
trigonometric, hyperbolic, and inverse hyperbolic functions are
examples of elementary transcendental functions.
28
2. Exponential functions:
An exponential function is a function of the form
x
y = f(x) = a , a 0 , 1. (1.3)
These functions obey the following rules:
am .an = am+n ; (1.4)
am
= amn , a 0 ; (1.5)
n
a
( a m ) n = a mn . (1.6)
This function is defined for all x, and we always consider the
values a > 0 (because raising a < 0 to a fractional power may result
x
in an imaginary number). This means that a > 0 for any x.
Therefore the graph of any exponential function lies above Ox.
0
Since a = 1, it passes through the point ( 0 , 1). The behaviour of
an exponential function depends on whether a > l or a < l. For a
=1 the function is equal to 1 for all values of x.
x x -x
Figure 1.20 (y = a ) Figure 1.21(y = 2 ), (y = 2 )
If a > l an increase of the exponent x results in an increase of y,
and if the argument increases indefinitely the same is with the
function. If a < 1 then, conversely, as the argument increases, the
29
function decreases and approaches indefinitely (asymptotically)
1
zero. The graphs of the exponential functions with bases a and
a
x
1
are symmetric with respect to Oy. For the function y = can
a
-x
be written as y = a whence it follows that for positive x's it
x
assumes the same values as the function y = a for the negative x's
having the same absolute values, and vice versa. This exactly
x -x
means that the graphs of the functions y = a and y = a are
symmetric relative to the axis of ordinates. In Figure 1.20 we see
the graphs of two exponential functions for a > l and a < l. The x-
axis is the asymptote line for both functions. In Figure 1.21 we
see the graphs of two exponential functions for a = 2 and a = 1 .

2
Most frequently we deal with the exponential function

whose base a special number e playing a very important role in
mathematics; its approximate value is 2.718. In this case there is
x
special notation: y = e = exp x. There are many important
relationships in natural sciences that are expressed by formulas of
kx
the type y = A e .
In Figures 1.22 and 1.23 we see the graphs of exponential
functions for a = 1,1.2, 2 , 3, 4, 10 , and a = 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 .

2 3 4 10
30

x -x x -x
(y = a , y = a ), a = 2,3,10 (y = a , y = a ), a =1,2,4
Any exponential function with an arbitrary base a can be
reduced to the base e. The number e is irrational number and its
value accurate to 32 decimal places
e = 2.71828182845904523536028747135266 .
Remarks:
We do not define exponential functions for a = 1, a = 0, or
x
negative values of a. For such choice of a, the values of a do not
give a one-to-one function whose domain is the set of all real
x
numbers. If a = 1, then a = 1 for all values of x and we have a
constant function and it is exponential formally only. If a = 0, then
x
a is undefined if x < 0 and has the constant value 0 for x > 0. If a
x
< 0 , then a is undefined for many values of x, like x = 1 , 1 .
2 4
Since 2 and 4 3 are not real number.
31
x
Most calculators have a power key y that can represent
an exponential function. Also most calculators provide special
x x
keys to compute 10 and e . Computer scientists often use
exponential with base 2 because computers store numbers
internally in base 2 format.
3. Logarithmic functions:
A logarithmic function is a function of the form
y = f(x) = og a x , a 0,1. (1.7)
The fundamental rules satisfied by logarithms to any base are
og a a = 1,
og a (m n) = og a m + og a n , (1.8)
og a m p = p og a m , og a a = 1, (1.9)
m
og a = og a m og a n , (1.10)
n
a og a x = x . (1.11)
To Prove (1.11), let a og a x = t, taking logarithms to the base a of
both sides of the equality we get og a x = og a t , therefore t = x.
The logarithmic function og a x , is defined only for a > 0,
and we consider the bases of logarithms a > 0 (a 1). The graphs
of logarithmic functions are shown for different bases in Figure
1.24. They have neither symmetry axes nor centres of symmetry
but have an asymptote, which is the y-axis. All the logarithmic
functions are proportional to each other since taking logarithms to
the base b of both sides of the equality (1.11), a og a x =x we get
32
og b x = og a x . og b a = k og a x , (1.12)
1
where k = og b a = . (1.13)
og a b
Therefore we can obtain all the graphs described in Figure 1.24 by
expanding or contracting one of them along the direction of the
y-axis with a uniform increase or, respectively, with a uniform
decrease of the distances of the points of the graph from the
x-axis.
Figure 1.24 ( y = og a x ) x
Figure 1.25 ( y = a , a>1, a<1)
y
If y = og a x, then x = a . The logarithmic function y = og a x,
x
is the inverse of the exponential function y = a (a > 0, a 1).
Therefore, for a given a, it is easy to construct its graph by taking
the mirror images of the corresponding graphs shown in Figure
1.25 with respect to the line y = x the bisector of the first and third
quadrants. The graph of a logarithmic function is called a
logarithmic curve (see Figure 1.24). The graphs in Figure 1.24
make it possible to describe the properties of logarithmic
functions. First of all, we see that every logarithmic function is
33
defined throughout the positive x-axis and is not defined for the
negative and zero values of the independent variable. All
logarithmic curves pass through the point (1, 0) since the
logarithm of unity is always equal to zero.
Properties of a logarithmic function are essentially
dependent on whether a > 1 or a < 1. In the former case (a > 1) the
logarithmic function is increasing over the whole interval (0 , ),
assumes negative values in the interval (0 , 1) and positive on the
interval (1, ). In the latter case (a < 1) the logarithmic function is
decreasing in the whole interval (0, ), is positive in the interval
(0,1) and negative in the interval (1, ).
The graphs of the logarithmic functions to bases a and 1/a
are symmetric with respect to Ox.
Taking into account that the logarithmic and exponential
functions are mutually inverse we can write
a og a x = x .
x
loga a = x and (1.14)
The first of these equalities is valid for any x and the second only
for x > 0. Using the last relation we can represent, for x > 0, any

power function y = x with an arbitrary exponent in the form of
a function composed of the logarithmic and exponential functions:
(
)
y = x = a og a x = a og a x .

(1.15)
Let us take logarithmic functions to two different bases a,
and b: y = og a x and t = og b x. Expressing x from the first
34
relation in terms of y, and substituting it into the second relation

y
we obtain t = og b x = og b a = y og b a ,
i.e. t = y og b a = og a x og b a ,
hence og b x = og a x og b a . (1.16)
Putting x = b, we receive the relation 1 = og b b = og a b og b a,
1
og a b = . (1.17)
og b a
1
og b x = og a x og b a = og a x . (1.18)
og a b
In order to pass in the logarithmic function from a base b, to
another base a, we should multiply the logarithms to the base a, by
1
the constant factor og b a = . Consequently, the
og a b
logarithms of the numbers to different bases are proportional, that
is one logarithmic curve is transformed into another by increasing
or decreasing all its ordinates the same number of times.
The logarithms to the base 10 are denoted as og x and are
called common (or decimal) logarithms. Logarithms to the base e
are called natural logarithms; [Napierian logarithms after the
Scottish mathematician J. Napier (1550-1617)]. They are denoted
as n x = og e x . The graph of the natural logarithm is shown in
Figure 1.26. A logarithm to any other base can be expressed in
terms of the natural logarithms in accordance with formula (1.18):
nx
og a x = . (1.19)
na
35
Hence, the formulas for passing from the common (decimal)

logarithms to the natural ones and vice versa are
og x = og 10 x = 0.4343 n x , (1.20)
and n x = 2.303 og x, (1.21)
og e = 1/ n 10 = 0.434294481903251827651128918916605
1/ og e = n 10 = 2.30258509299404568401799145468436
where the values of the proportionality factors are accurate to four
(and given also 32) decimal places. Besides the natural logarithms
we also use the common logarithms (in numerical calculations)
and the logarithms to the base 2 (in information theory and some
other branches of modern mathematics).
Figure 1.27 ( y = n | x | )
Figure 1.26 (y = n x , x = n y)
Any exponential function with an arbitrary base a can be
reduced to the base e; indeed, the definition of a logarithm implies
that a = e n a and therefore
x
( ) x
a = e na = e ,
kx
(1.22)
where k = n a .
Most calculators have LOG and LN keys for the
36
calculation of common logarithms and natural logarithms. To

numerically calculate logarithms with bases other than 10 and e,
we need to use formula (1.18) to change the base .
4. Trigonometric functions: ( Circular functions )
In mathematical analysis the argument of the trigonometric
functions
sin x
y = sin x , y = cos x , y = tan x = ,
cos x
1 1 cos x
y = csc x = , y = sec x = , y = cot x = .
sin x cos x sin x
is always considered as an arc or angle measured in radians.
For instance, the value of the function y = sin x
corresponding to x = x0, is equal to the sine of the angle of x0
radians. ( 3.14159)
The number is irrational number and its value accurate to 32
decimal places
( 3.1415926535897932384626433832795 radians, = 180).
Remember that the radian measure of an angle is the ratio of the
length of the arc it subtends to the radius of the circle in which it is
the central angle (a constant ratio for all such circles). In this very
sense such expressions as x + sin x, x sin x and the like are
understood.
The six trigonometric functions are sine , cosine, tangent,
cotangent, secant, and cosecant and abbreviated as follows:
37
y = sin x, y = cos x, y = tan x, y = cot x , y = sec x and y = csc x,

are connected by the five well-known algebraic relations (derived
from the definitions of these functions) which make it possible to
determine from a value of one of them ( sin x ) the corresponding
values of the others. All trigonometric functions are expressed by
sine function only as follows:
sin x sin x
1) cos x = sin (x + ), 2) tan x = =
2 cos x sin( x + )
2
1 1
4) sec x = ,
3) csc x = ,
sin x sin( x + )
2

cos x sin( x + 2 )
5) cot x = = .
sin x sin x
The word cosine means complementary sine, that is , the
sine of the complementary angle. Similarly cotangent and
cosecant, respectively, means tangent and secant of the
complementary angle. The complement of a given acute

angle is such that + = . The expressions cosine,
2
cotangent and cosecant therefore imply the mathematical
statements:

cos = sin ( ) = sin , csc = cosec = sec ( ) = sec ,
2 2

cot = tan ( ) = tan ,
2
+ = /2
38

In addition one sees that sin = cos ( ) , tan = cot ( ),
2 2

sec = cosec ( ) = csc ( ), so that the sine function is the
2 2
co-function of the cosine, and the tangent and secant, respectively,
are the co-functions of the cotangent and cosecant. Each
trigonometric function assumes for the argument increasing from

0 to the same values as its co-function for the argument
2

decreasing from to 0.
2
The trigonometric functions are periodic: the functions
sin x and cos x (and therefore csc x and sec x as well) with period
2 and the function tan x (and therefore cot x) with period .
Figure 1.28 (y = sin x )

Let us consider the well-known graphs of trigonometric
functions. We begin with the graph of the function y = sin x

(Figure 1.28). In the interval [0, ] it increases from zero to unity
2
3
and then in the interval [ , ] decreases passing through zero
2 2
3
attained at the point x = and reaching its least value 1 at .
2
3
Finally, in the interval [ , 2] it again increases from 1 to
2
zero. The period of the function y = sin x being 2, the whole
39
graph (called the sinusoid) is obtained by shifting its part

corresponding to the interval [0 , 2] to the right and to the left
by 2, 4, 6, .... The function y = sin x is odd, which is clearly
seen in Figure 1.28 since the graph is symmetric about the origin.
The range of the function y = sin x is [1 , 1].

For the cosine we have cos x = sin (x + )
2

Figure 1.29 [ y = sin x, y = cos x = sin (x + )]
2
and hence, the graph of the function y = cos x is the same sinusoid

but translated units of length to the left along the x-axis (see
2
Figures 1.29 and 1.30).
Figure 1.30 ( y = cos x )

The function y = cos x decreases on the interval [0 , ] from 1 to

1 assuming zero value at the point x = and then, on the
2
interval [, 2], increases from 1 to 1 passing through zero value
40
3
at the point x = . On the rest of the number scale its graph is
2
obtained by the periodic continuation with period 2. The function
y = cos x is even, and its graph is symmetric with respect to the
axis of ordinates. The range of the function y = cos x is [1 , 1].
i.e. for real values of x; sin x and cos x lie between 1 and 1.
Example 1.6:
2
Prove that the function cos x is periodic and find its least period.
Solution:
Since the function cos x is periodic with the period 2, the
2
function cos x is also periodic and the number 2 is its period.
To find its least period. It is easy to see that the number is a
2
period of the function cos x . In fact, for any x R we have
2 2 2
cos (x + ) = (cos x) = cos x.
2 2 2
And since cos 0 = cos = 1 and cos x < 1 for any x(0 , ), it
follows that the number is the least period of the given function.
Exercise:
2
Prove that the function sin x is periodic and find its least period.
sin x
The function y = tan x = is periodic with period ,
cos x
and therefore it is sufficient to analyse the shape of its graph on

the interval [0, ]. It is not defined at the point x = ; when x
2

increases and approaches from the left the function y = tan x is
2
41
positive and increases indefinitely; as x decreases and approaches
from right the function y = tan x is negative and its absolute

2
value increases indefinitely. Because of the periodicity of the
function y = tan x with period the shape of the graph is the same

in the vicinity of every point x = (2k+1) , where k is an arbitrary
2
integer.
Figure 1.31 ( y = tan x) Figure 1.32 ( y = cot x)

The graph of the function y = tan x (called the tangent curve) on
the entire axis Ox is obtained by the periodic continuation (with
period ) of its part corresponding to the interval [0, ] (see Figure
1.31). On every interval where the function y = tan x is defined it
increases. It is an odd function, and therefore its graph is

symmetric with respect to the origin. The straight lines x = , x
2

= are vertical asymptotes to the graph of the function y = tan x.
2
42
The range of the function y = tan x is ( , ). The graph of the

function y = tan x is shown in Figure 1.31.
1 cos x
The function y = cot x = = is periodic with
tan x sin x
period , and therefore it is sufficient to analyse the shape of its
graph on the interval [0, ]. It decreases from + to . It is not
defined at the points x = 0 and x = . The straight lines x = 0, x =
are vertical asymptotes to the graph of the function y = cot x, its
range ( , ). The graph of the function y = cot x, is shown in
Figure 1.32.
1
The function y = sec x = is periodic with period 2. It
cos x

is not defined at the points where cos x = 0 i.e. x = (2k+1) , k =
2

0, 1, 2, 3,. The straight lines x = (2k+1) , are vertical
2
asymptotes to the graph of the function y = sec x . The range of
the function y = sec x is ( , 1] [1 , ). The graph of the
function is shown in Figure 1.33.
1
The function y = cosec x = csc x = is periodic with period
sin x
2. It is not defined at the points where sin x = 0, i.e. x = k,
k = 0, 1, 2, 3,. The straight lines x = k , are vertical
asymptotes to the graph of the function y = csc x. The range of the
function y = csc x is ( , 1] [1 , ). The graph of the
function is shown in Figure 1.34.
43
Most calculators have SIN , COS and TAN keys to

approximate values for these trigonometric functions. The values
of the cosecant, secant, and cotangent functions can also be found
using a calculator ( by using the 1/x key) and the relations
1 1 1
csc x = , sec x = , cot x = .
sin x cos x tan x
Figure 1.33 ( y = sec x) Figure 1.34 ( y = csc x)
In this book, angles are measured in radians unless

otherwise specified. For example sin 30 means sine of 30 radians.
The sine of 30 degrees is written sin 30. Most calculators have
both modes of angle measurement, and it is a good idea to check
the mode before you begin computing.
Some properties of trigonometric functions
44
Even functions Odd functions Odd functions

cos (x) = cos x , sin (x)= sin x, tan ( x) = tan x ,
sec (x) = sec x , csc (x)= csc x, cot ( x) = cot x .
sin ( x) = cos x , cos ( x) = sin x ,

2 2
sin ( + x) = cos x , cos ( + x) = sin x ,
2 2
sin ( x) = sin x , cos ( x) = cos x ,
sin ( + x) = sin x , cos ( + x) = cos x ,
sin2 x + cos2 x = l , sec2 x tan2 x = l , csc2 x cot2 x = 1 .

sin (x y ) = sin x cos y cos x sin y ;
cos (x y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y ;
tan x tan y cot x cot y 1

tan ( x y) = , cot ( x y) = .
1 tan x tan y cot x cot y
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x ,
cos 2x = cos2 x sin2 x = 2cos2 x 1 = 1 2 sin2 x
2 tan x
tan 2 x = .
1 tan 2 x
sin2 x = 1 (1 cos 2x), cos2 x = 1 (1 + cos 2x),
2 2
x x
sin2 = 1 (1 cos x), cos2 = 1 (1 + cos x).
2 2 2 2
5. Inverse Trigonometric functions:
45
Since we may regard the values of the inverse

trigonometric functions as angles, these functions have a broad
range of applications, such as rates of change in the angle of
elevation as an observer tracks a moving object, speed of rotation
of a searchlight, and optimal angles to minimise energy loss in
blood flows. Since the trigonometric functions are not onetoone
they do not have inverse functions (see 1.2 4). By restricting
their domains, however, we may obtain onetoone functions that
have the same values as the trigonometric functions and that do
have inverses over these restricted domains.
We consider first the graph
of the sine function, whose
domain is R and whose range is
Figure 1.35
the closed interval [1, 1] (see

Figure 1.35). ( y = sin x , x )
2 2
The sine function is not onetoone, since a horizontal line
such as y = a 1 intersects the graph at more than one point.

If we restrict the domain to [ , ], then, as shown in
2 2
Figure 1.35, we obtain an increasing function that takes on every
value of the sine function exactly once. This new function, with

domain [ , ] and range [1, 1], is continuous and increasing
2 2
and hence has an inverse function that is continuous and
-1
increasing. The inverse function y = sin x, has domain [1, 1]
46

and range [ , ]. The 1 in sin1 is not regarded as an
2 2
exponent, but rather as a means of denoting an inverse function.
We may read the notation y = sin1x as y is the inverse sine of x.
The inverse sine function is also called the arcsine function
(denoted arcsin x) (read "arc sine of x"). The equation x = sin y in
the definition allow us to regard y as an angle. Thus, we often
read the inverse functions as y is the angle whose sine is x.
Figure 1.36 Figure 1.37 Figure 1.38 Figure 1.39

-1
Constructing the graph of y = sin x according to the
general rule for determining the graph of an inverse function, that
is rotating Figure 1.35 through 180 about the bisector of the first
and third quadrants, we obtain the curve given in Figure 1.37. It is
-1
readily seen that the function y = sin x is increasing and odd.
-1 -1
i.e. sin ( x) = sin x , 1 x 1.
47
If x = sin y, then y = sin1 x = arcsin x is the inverse sine of x.

We regard y as an angle y , 1 x 1.
2 2

i.e. the range of the function y = arcsin x is the interval [ , ]:
2 2

arcsin x . The value of the function arcsin x is equal
2 2
to the magnitude of the angle measured in radians whose sine is
equal to the given value of the independent variable x, this angle
being chosen among all the angles satisfying this condition so that

it lies between and . Thus, the equality y = arcsin x is
2 2
equivalent to the two equalities :

sin y = sin (arcsin x) = x, y .
2 2
The inverse of the function
y = cos x is investigated in a
completely similar manner. The
intervals in which y = cos x, Figure 1.40
monotonic are , [2 , ] , ( y = cos x , 0 x )
[ , 0], [0 , ], [ , 2],
If we restrict the domain of the cosine function to the
interval [0 , ], as shown in the Figure 1.40, we obtain a one to
one continuous decreasing function that has a continuous
decreasing inverse function. The inverse of the function y = cos x
-1
corresponding to the interval [0, ] is denoted as y = cos x, y is
48
the inverse cosine of x. The inverse cosine function is also called

the arccosine function (denoted arccos x) (read "arc cosine of x").
Its graph is given in Figure 1.39. This function is defined in the
interval [1, 1] and takes on the values lying between 0 and :
0 arccos x .
Consequently, the equality y = arccos x is equivalent to the two
relations cos y = cos (arc cos x) = x and 0 y .
The function y = arccos x is decreasing since cos x decreases in
the interval [0 , ]. When computing the values of y = arccos x for
negative values of x, it is advisable to use the identity
arccos ( x) = arccos x, (1.23)
which is directly implied by the reduction formula
cos( ) = cos . i.e. arccos x neither even nor odd.

We also give the following formulas: arcsin x + arccos x = .
2
From the triangle, for x > 0,
-1 -1
let = sin x, then = cos x,
& are complementary
angles i.e. + = /2.
-1 -1
Therefore arcsin x + arccos x = or sin x + cos x = .
2 2
This relation holds for the other values of x in [1,1] as well, but
we cannot draw this conclusion from the geometry of the given
triangle.
49
Since sin = 1 x 2 , cos = 1 x 2 , then

sin (arccos x) = + 1 x 2 , cos (arcsin x)= + 1 x 2 .
-1
y = arctan x = tan x, odd

< arctan x <
y = tan x , odd function 2 2
Figure 1.41(y = tan x ) Figure 1.42 ( y = arctan x )
On a calculator, the inverse sine function may be approximated by

-1
SIN or ASIN using a single key or, if available, or a two
stroke combination INV SIN or SHIFT SIN
The inverse cosine function is implemented in an analogous
fashion. Be sure to set the calculator to radian mode, For example,
SIN1 0.62 yields the approximate result 0.6687427032 radians,
but if the calculator is set in degrees, the result is 38.3161344737
= 38 18 58
We can proceed in a similar manner to find an inverse for
the tangent function. If we restrict the domain of the tangent to the

open interval ( , ), we obtain a continuous increasing function
2 2
(see Figure 1.41). We use this new function to define the inverse
50
tangent function y = tan1 x = arctan x ("arc tangent of x"). Its

graph is given in Figure 1.42. The properties of the function tan x
imply that the function y = arctan x is defined on the entire
number scale and is increasing and odd. arctan( x) = arctan x.

Its range is the interval ( , ). i.e. < arctan x < .
2 2 2 2
While the curve y = tan x has vertical asymptotes, the inverse

tangent y = arctan x has horizontal asymptotes y = .
2
-1
y = arccot x = cot x,
Domain ( , ),
Range (0 , )
neither odd nor even
Figure 1.43 ( y = cot x) Figure 1.44 (y = arccot x)
Let the student also analyse the graph of the inverse of the
function y = cot x.
While the curve y = cot x has vertical asymptotes, the inverse
cotangent y = arccot x, has horizontal asymptotes y = 0, y = .
Trigonometric functions are also called circular functions and their
inverses are spoken of as inverse circular functions.
51
If we consider the graph of y = sec x, there are many ways

to restrict x so that we obtain a onetoone function that takes on
every value of the secant function. There is no universal
agreement on how this should be done. It is more convenient to
restrict x to the "more natural" intervals [0 , /2) and (/2 , ] i.e.
in the interval [0,], excluding /2.
our choice
Other authors choice
Figure 1.45 ( y = sec x)

If x = sec y, then y = sec1 x =
arcsec x is the inverse secant
of x. We regard y as an angle Figure 1.46 (y = arcsec x)
0 y , y /2, |x| 1.
i.e. the range of the function y = arcsec x is the deleted interval

[0, ] { }: The equality y = arcsec x is equivalent to the two
2

equalities : sec y = sec (arcsec x) = x, 0 y , y .
2
When computing the values of y = arcsec x for negative values of
x, it is advisable to use the identity
52
arcsec ( x) = arcsec x , (1.24)

which is directly implied by the reduction formula
sec( ) = sec . i.e. arcsec x neither even nor odd.
Let arcsec x = , then sec = x and since sec( ) = x.
Therefore arcsec( x) = = arcsec x .
1
We can also see that arcsec x = arccos (1.25)
x
Let y = arcsec x, x > 0;
1
then x = sec y, hence cos y = ,
x
1
arcsec x = arccos .
x
This relation holds for the other values of x in ( , 1] as well,

but we cannot draw this conclusion from the geometry of the
given triangle.
From (1.23): arccos ( x) + arccos x = ,
From (1.24): arcsec ( x) + arcsec x = ,
1
Then for x > 0; arcsec ( x) = arcsec x = arccos =
x
1
= arccos ( ).
x
1
i.e. arcsec ( x) = arccos ( ).
x
Remarks:

1) Some authors choose arcsec x to lie between 0 and
2

when x is positive, and between and when x is negative
2
53
(hence as a negative angle in the third quadrant, as shown by the

heavy curve in Figure 1.46b (Other authors choice). This has the
only advantage of simplifying the formula for the derivative of
arcsec x but has the disadvantage of failing to satisfy Equations
(1.24) and (1.25) when x is negative. Also, some mathematical
tables give third-quadrant values for arcsec x instead of the
second-quadrant values used in this book. Watch out for this when
you use tables.
2) From the graphs of the inverse sine, inverse tangent, and
inverse secant, all of which are increasing functions on the
domains specified, we expect that their derivatives will be
positive. This is a consequence of the relation dy/dx = (dx/dy) 1
that connects the derivative of a function with its inverse. For
example, the secant function has a nonnegative derivative on

[0,], excluding ; hence it has an inverse there, and that inverse
2
also has a nonnegative derivative. It should be noted, however,
that some writers choose the principal value of the inverse secant

of x to lie between 0 and when x is positive, and between
2

and (hence, as a negative angle in the third quadrant) when x
2
is negative. This latter method has an advantage in simplifying the
formula for the derivative of sec1 x , but has the disadvantage of
failing to satisfy the relationship expressed in Equations (1.24)
and (1.25) when x is negative. Either method leads to a function
which is discontinuous, as is inherent in the nature of the secant
54
function itself, since to pass from a point where the secant is

negative to a point where the secant is positive requires crossing
one of the discontinuities of the curve.
The inverse cosecant function, csc1 x , can be defined in
similar fashion.
Figure 1.47 ( y = csc x) Figure 1.48 (y = arccsc x)

-1
y = csc x = arccsc x , domain : | x | 1 , Range: 0 < | y | .
2
It is easy to see that
arccsc ( x) = arccsc x , (1.26)
1
We can also see that arccsc x = arcsin . (1.27)
x
Most calculators and many computer applications do not
provide for the direct evaluation of the secant function or the
inverse secant function. We evaluate sec x by computing the
reciprocal of cos x, but there is no simple way to evaluate the
inverse secant function, we use relation (1.24).
55
The following is a list of the inverse trigonometric
functions and their prineipa1 values.
Function Domain Range
1) y = sin1 x = arcsin
1 x 1 y
x, 2 2
2) y = cos1 x = arccos x, 1 x 1 0y

3) y = tan1 x = arctan x, <x< <y<
2 2

1 ( ,1][1, ) [ ,0) (0, ]
4) y = csc x = arccsc x 2 2
x R (1,1)
= sin1 (1/x), < y < ,y 0
i.e. x 1 2 2

1 ( ,1][1, ) [0, ) ( , ]
5) y = sec x = arcsec x 2 2
x R (1,1)
= cos1(1/x), 0 y , y
i.e. x 1 2
6) y = cot1 x = arccot x
< x < 0<y<
= tan1 x ,
2
Some Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions:

1) sin(sin1 x) = sin(arcsin x) = x If 1 x 1

2) sin1 (sin x) = arcsin(sin x) = x If x
2 2
3) cos(cos1 x) = cos(arccos x) = x If 1 x 1
4) cos1 (cos x) = arccos(cos x) = x If 0 x
5) tan(tan1 x) = tan(arctan x) = x For every x R
56

6) tan1 (tan x) = arctan(tan x) = x If <x<
2 2
7) sec(sec1 x) = sec(arcsec x) = x If x 1

8) sec1 (sec x) = arcsec(sec x) = x x [0, ) ( ,]
2 2
9) csc(csc1 x) = csc(arccsc x) = x If x 1

10) csc1 (csc x) = arccsc(csc x) = x x [ 2 ,0)(0, 2 ]
11) cot(cot1 x) = cot(arccot x) = x For every x R

12) cot1 (cot x) = arccot(cot x) = x If 0 < x <
Be careful when using the properties of inverse

trigonometric functions.
In general, sin1 (sin x) = arcsin(sin x) x , but

sin1 (sin x) = arcsin(sin x) = x only if x
2 2
The right-triangle interpretations of the inverse
trigonometric functions (first quadrant values) shown in the
following can be useful to you. We will use some of them in
Chapter 4.
-1 -1 -1
= sin x = cos x = tan x
57
-1 -1 -1
= csc x = sec x = cot x
6. Hyperbolic functions:
The hyperbolic functions are not included into the class of
basic elementary functions but we discuss them here since they are
important for applications and admit of a simple investigation.
They are encountered in various applied sciences (in particular, in
electrical engineering, strength of materials and others).It is found
e x + e x e x e x
that the two functions and , have properties
2 2
which in many respects are analogous to those of cos x and sin x.
It can be shown that they bear a similar relation to the hyperbola
that the trigonometric (circular) functions do to the circle. Hence
x -x
the function y = 12 (e + e ), is called the hyperbolic cosine, and
x -x
y = 12 (e e ), is called the hyperbolic sine.
These are abbreviated to cosh x and sinh x, the added h

indicating the hyperbolic cosine, etc. The names are usually
pronounced "cosh" and "shine," respectively. They are defined by
the equations stated above:
e x e x
sinh x = , (1.28)
2
58
e x + e x
cosh x = . (1.29)
2
These functions are defined for all values of x. They are connected
by a number of algebraic relations similar to those connecting the
corresponding trigonometric functions (these relations account for
the words "cosine", "sine" and "tangent" entering into the names
of the functions).
Figure 1.49 (y = sinh x) odd Figure 1.50 (y = cosh x) even
The graphs of the functions cosh x and sinh x are easily

x -x
constructed since we know the graphs of the functions e and e .
The construction of the graph of the function y = cosh x is
demonstrated in Figure 1.50. This function is even , positive and
y 1. The function y = sinh x is odd; it is positive for x > 0,
negative for x< 0 and assumes zero value at the point x = 0. Its
graph is shown in Figure 1.49.
From definitions (1.28) and (1.29), we can see that
59
x
cosh x + sinh x = e , (1.30)
-x
cosh x sinh x = e . (1.31)
The impressive analogous between the sine , cosine functions and
hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine functions motivate us to
define hyperbolic functions that correspond to the four remaining
trigonometric functions. The hyperbolic tangent, hyperbolic
cosecant, hyperbolic secant, and hyperbolic cotangent functions,
denoted by tanh , csch, sech, and coth, respectively, are defined as
follows:
sinh x e x e x
3) tanh x = = , (1.32)
cosh x x x
e +e
1 2
4) csch x = = , x 0, (1.33)
sinh x e x e x
1 2
5) sech x = = , (1.34)
cosh x x x
e +e
cosh x e x + e x
6) coth x = = , x 0, (1.35)
sinh x x x
e e
The names of these are pronounced "than", "coshec",
"shec" and "coth." The curve of cosh x, shown in the figure
(1.50), is an important one. It is called the "catenary" and is the
curve formed by a uniform flexible chain which hangs freely with
its ends fixed.
The following are some properties of these functions:
even functions odd functions odd functions
cosh (x) = cosh x , sinh (x) = sinh x , tanh (x) = tanh x .
60
sech (x) = sech x , csch(x) = csch x , coth (x) = coth x .

There is a close correspondence between formulae
expressing relations between hyperbolic functions and similar
relations between trigonometric (circular) functions. Consider the
following examples:
2 2 x -x 2 x -x 2
1) cosh x sinh x = [ 12 (e + e )] [ 12 (e e )] =
1 2x -2x 2x -2x
= 4
[e +e +2] 14 [ e +e 2] = 1 .
i.e. cosh2 x sinh2 x = 1. (1.36)

This should be compared with the trigonometrical result
2 2
cos x + sin x = 1.
Also cosh2 x sinh2 x = [cosh x + sinh x ][ cosh x sinh x ]=
x -x
= e . e = 1.
2
2) If we divide both sides of the identity (1.36) by cosh x, we
2 2
obtain 1 tanh x = sech x. (1.37)
2 2
This is analogous to the identity 1 + tan x = sec x
2
3) If we divide both sides of the identity (1.36) by sinh x, we
2 2
obtain coth x 1 = csch x . (1.38)
2 2
This is analogous to the identity cot x + 1 = csc x
2 2 x -x 2 x -x 2
4) cosh x + sinh x = [ 12 (e + e )] + [ 12 (e e )] =
2x -2x 2x -2x
= 14 [ e +e +2] + 14 [ e +e 2] =
1 2x -2x
= 2
(e +e ) = cosh 2x.
2 2
i.e. cosh x + sinh x = cosh 2x . (1.39)
2 2
This is analogous to cos x sin x = cos 2x.
61
Note the similarities and differences between (1.36)

(1.39) and the analogous trigonometric identities.
Similarly, any formula for trigonometric functions has its
counterpart in hyperbo1ic functions. It will be noticed that in the
above two cases there is a difference in the signs used, and this
applies only to sinh2 x. This has led to the formulation of
Osborne's rule, by which formulae for hyperbolic functions can be
at once written down from the corresponding formulae for
trigonometric functions.
Osborne's Rule:
In any formula connecting trigonometric functions of
general angles, the corresponding formula connecting hyperbolic
functions can be obtained by replacing each trigonometric
function by the corresponding hyperbolic function, if the sign of
every product or implied product of two sines is changed.
2 2 2 2
For example sec x = 1 + tan x , becomes sech x = 1 tanh x ,
2 2 2 2
sec x tan x 1 sec x = 1 + tan x
2 2 2 2
sech x tanh x 1 sech x = 1 tanh x
sin x . sin x sinh x . sinh x

since tan 2 x = , tanh 2 x = .
cos x . cos x cosh x . cosh x
The more important of these corresponding formulae are
summarised for convenience.
Trigonometric function Corresponding hyperbolic function
62

2 2 2 2
cos x + sin x = 1 cosh x sinh x = 1
2 2 2 2
1 + tan x = sec x 1 tanh x = sech x
2 2 2 2
cot x + 1 = csc x coth x 1 = csch x
sin (x y) = sinh (x y) =
=sin x cos y cos x sin y = sinh x cosh y cosh x sinh y
cos (x y) = cosh (x y) =
=cos x cos y sin x sin y = cosh x cosh y sinh x sinh y
tan x tan y tanh x tanh y
tan ( x y) = tanh ( x y) =
1 tan x tan y 1 tanh x tanh y
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
2 2 2 2
cos 2x = cos x sin x = cosh 2x = cosh x + sinh x =
2 2 2 2
= 2cos x 1 = 1 2 sin x = 2cosh x 1 = 1 + 2 sinh x
2 tan x 2 tanh x
tan 2 x = tanh 2 x =
1 tan 2 x 1 + tanh 2 x
2 x 2 x
sin = 12 (1 cos x) sinh = 12 (cosh x 1)
2 2
2 x 2 x
cos = 12 (1 + cos x) cosh = 12 (cosh x + 1)
2 2
There are major differences between the hyperbolic and
the circular functions. The circular functions are periodic, but the
hyperbolic functions are not periodic. The graphs of the
hyperbolic functions are shown in Figures (1.49) (1.54) .
63
0 < sech x 1
Figure 1.51 (y = tanh x) odd Figure 1.52 (y = sech x) even
Figure 1.53 (y = coth x) odd Figure 1.54 (y = csch x) odd
Figure 1.55( y = sinh x ) Figure 1.56( y = cosh x )
64
From the graphs on Figures 1.55, 1.56 and also from the
formulas defining the hyperbolic functions it is seen that for large
x
positive values of x we can approximately write cosh x 1 e
2
1 x 1 -x
and sinh x e , since the term e is negligibly small
2 2
for large x > 0. For small negative values of x , we can
-x -x
approximately write cosh x 1 e and sinh x 1 e . It
2 2
clearly follows that for large positive values of x the function
tanh x approaches unity remaining less than unity. The function
y = tanh x being odd and equal to zero at the point x = 0, its graph
can be easily constructed schematically (see Figure 1.51). The
shape of this graph similar to that of the graph of arctan x (see
Figure 1.42), but it should be taken into account that its

asymptotes are the straight lines y = 1 and not the lines y =
2
(which are the asymptotes of arctan x).
To graph y= cosh x & y= sinh x,
you can easily find the intervals
of increasing and decreasing, the
concavity, and so on. Both
graphs are drawn in the same
figure. Observe that
cosh x 1 and cosh x > sinh x. Figure 1.57 (cosh x > sinh x)
Some scientific calculator have keys that can be used to find

values of sinh , cosh and tanh directly. We can also substitute
65
numbers for x in Definitions (1.28) (1.35). The following

striking connections between the two sets of functions are given
for information of the student.
e x + e x e ix + e ix
cosh x = ; cos x = ,
2 2
e x e x e ix e ix
sinh x = ; sin x = .
2 2i
2 3 4
where i= 1, i = 1 , i = i , i = 1.
cos ix = cosh x , sin ix = i sinh x , tan ix = i tanh x ,
sec ix = sech x , csc ix = i csch x , cot ix = i coth x .
Here we give the following simple rule: if in any identity
connecting the trigonometric functions cos x, sin x, and tan x the
expressions cos x, sin x and tan x , (sec x, csc x, and cot x ) are,
respectively, replaced by cosh x, i sinh x and i tanh x, ( sech x ,
2
- i csch x, and i coth x ), where i = 1, an identity for the
hyperbolic functions is obtained.
cos x cosh x , sin x i sinh x , tan x i tanh x ,
sec x sech x , csc x i csch x , cot x i coth x ,
The more important of these formulae are summarised in the
following:
2 2 2 2 2 2
cosh x sinh x = 1, 1 tanh x = sech x, coth x 1 = csch x.
sinh (x y) = sinh x cosh y cosh x sinh y ,
cosh (x y) = cosh x cosh y sinh x sinh y,
66
tanh x tanh y
tanh ( x y) = ,
1 tanh x tanh y
2 2 2 2
cosh 2x = cosh x + sinh x = 2cosh x 1 = 1 + 2 sinh x
2 tanh x
sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x , tanh 2 x = ,
1 + tanh 2 x
2 x 2 x
sinh = 12 (cosh x 1) , cosh = 12 (cosh x + 1).
2 2
2 2
Relation to the Hyperbola x y = 1:
The hyperbolic sine and cosine are related to the
2 2
hyperbola x y = 1 much as the circular sine and cosine are
2 2
related to the circle x + y = 1:
1) For each real
2 2
cos + sin = 1,
and thus the point P(cos , sin )
2 2
lies on the unit circle x + y = 1.
i.e. x = cos , y = sin . The
cosine and sine are called
circular functions. Figure 1.58
2) For each real t
2 2
cosh t sinh t = 1, and
thus the point Q (cosh t, sinh t)
2 2
lies on the hyperbola x y =1.
i.e. x = cosh t , y = sinh t .
Figure 1.59
67
2 2
The point P(cos , sin ) is on the circle x + y = 1, while the
2 2
point Q (cosh t, sinh t) is on the hyperbola x y =1. These are
the reasons for referring to cos and sin as circular functions
and to cosh t and sinh t as hyperbolic functions.
For each in [0 , 2] the number gives the length of the circular
-1 -1
arc AP and = cos x = arccos x , = sin y = arcsin y,
-1 -1
i.e. cos x , sin y gives the length of the circular arc AP. This is
-1 -1
the reason for referring to cos x , sin y as arccos x and arcsin y.
Also 1 gives the area of the circular sector generated by the
2
circular arc that begins at A(1,0) and ends at P(cos , sin ) see
Figure 1.58. But, for each t > 0 the number t is not equal to the
length of the hyperbolic arc BQ, this gives the reason why we do
not use neither arcsinh nor arccosh . While 1 t gives the area of
2
the hyperbolic sector generated by the hyperbolic arc that begins
at B(1,0) and ends at Q( cosh t , sinh t) see Figure 1.59.
7. Inverse Hyperbolic functions:

We now investigate the inverses of the hyperbolic
functions, which frequently occur in evaluating certain types of
integrals. Also inverse hyperbolic functions are used in derivation
of the equation for a hanging cable.
Of the six hyperbolic functions, only the hyperbolic cosine
and hyperbolic secant are not one-to-one (refer to the graphs of
y = sinh x, y = cosh x, and y = tanh x). Thus, the hyperbolic sine,
68
hyperbolic tangent, hyperbolic cosecant, and hyperbolic cotangent

functions all have inverses. If we restrict the domain of the
hyperbolic cosine and hyperbolic secant functions to x 0, then
these functions will also have inverses. The hyperbolic inverses
that are important to us are the inverse hyperbolic sine, the inverse
hyperbolic cosine, and the inverse hyperbolic tangent.
Unlike the trigonometric functions, it is possible to express
the inverse hyperbolic functions explicitly. Since the hyperbolic
functions are defined in terms of exponentials, we might expect
that their inverses can be expressed in terms of natural logarithms
(the inverse of the exponential function). The inverse functions of
the corresponding, hyperbolic functions are denoted as
-l -1 -1 -l -l
y = sinh x , y = cosh x, y = tanh x , y = sech x, y = csch x
-l
and y = coth x and not termed arc-hyperbolic functions.
The function sinh x is defined and increases in the interval
(,), its range coinciding with Oy (Figure 1.49). Therefore the
-l
function y = sinh x is defined throughout Ox and increases. It can
be expressed explicitly by means of the logarithmic function. To
find this expression we begin by noting that
-l y -y
y = sinh x is equivalent to x = sinh y = 1 [ e e ] ,
2
y -y
then e 2x e = 0.
y 2y y
Multiplying both sides by e , we obtain e 2x e 1 = 0 .
Applying the quadratic formula we get
69
4x 2 + 4 ], or e = [x x 2 + 1 ].
y y
e = 1 [ 2x
2
Since x 2 + 1 > x, then [x x 2 + 1 ] < 0.
x 2 + 1 ]. The second root [x x 2 + 1 ]< 0
y
Therefore e = [x +
is refused since it is negative for all values of x and therefore
y
cannot be equal the positive quantity e . Using natural logarithms
we finally obtain
x2 +1] .
-1
y = sinh x = n [x + (1.40)
-1
y = sinh x , < x <
-1
< y < y = cosh x , 1 x < , 0 y<
-1 -1
Figure 1.60 (y = sinh x) Figure 1.61( y = cosh x )
-1 -1
The graphs of y = sinh x and y = cosh x are shown in Figures
(1.60) and (1.61).
As with trigonometric functions, some inverses functions

exist only if the domain is restricted. For example, if the domain
of cosh is restricted to the set of nonnegative real numbers, then
the resulting function is increasing, and its inverse function
-1
cosh x is defined by
x 2 1 ].
-1
cosh x = n [x + (1.41)
70
Discussions:
The function cosh x decreases throughout the interval (, 0] and
increases throughout [0, ). Its range is the interval [1, ).
-1
Consequently, the function y = cosh x splits into two single-
valued branches defined for x l.
-1 y -y
y = cosh x is equivalent to x = cosh y = 1 [ e + e ] ,
2
y -y
then e 2x + e = 0.
y 2y y
Multiplying both sides by e , we obtain e 2x e + 1 = 0 .
4 x 2 4 ], or e = [x x 2 1 ].
y y
e = 1 [ 2x
2
Using natural logarithms we finally obtain the two expressions
x 2 1 ] , and
-l
y1 = (cosh x)1 = n [x +
x2 1] .
-l
y2 = (cosh x)2 = n [x
The first branch y1 is the inverse of the function y = cosh x in the
interval [0, ), while the second y2 corresponds to the interval
( , 0]. It is readily seen that [x x 2 1 ][ x + x 2 1 ] = 1,
2
1
= [ x + x2 1] ,
-1
i.e. x x 1 =
x + x 2 1
that is, n [x x 2 1 ] = n [x+ x 2 1 ].
This is of course a consequence of the fact that y = cosh x , is an

even function.
71
x 2 1 ] , is [1,) and
-l
The domain of y1 = (cosh x)1 = n [x +
x2 1] ,
-l
its range [0 , ), while to y2 = (cosh x)2 = n [x
the domain is [1,) and its range (, 0].
x 2 1 ], defined for
-1
Finally, the function y = cosh x = n [x +
x l, its range [0,) is the inverse function to the restricted
function y = cosh x , x 0 ,
x 2 1 ], defined
-1
while the function y = cosh x = n [x +
for x l, its range ( ,0] is the inverse function to the restricted
function y = cosh x , x 0.
-1
The function y = tanh x, is defined in the interval (1, 1)
which is the range of the function tanh x. It is easy to verify that
-1 1 1+ x
tanh x = n , | x | < 1. (1.42)
2 1 x
-1
Similarly, y = tanh x if and only if tanh y = x , for | x | < 1.
e y e y y -y y -y
Hence x = tanh y = . i.e. x [ e + e ] = e e .
e y + e y
y -y y
Therefore e (1 x) = e (1 + x) . Multiplying both sides by e ,
2y 1+ x
we obtain e = . Using natural logarithms we finally obtain
1 x
-1 1 1+ x
tanh x = 2 n , | x | < 1.
1 x
The hyperbolic cotangent is one-to-one on their domain and
therefore have inverse, denoted by
-1 1 x +1
coth x = n , x > 1. (1.43)
2 x 1
72
-1
-1 y = coth x, | x | > 1,
y = tanh x, | x | 1, < y <
y R {0}
-1 -1
Figure 1.62 ( y = tanh x ) Figure 1.63 (y = coth x)
-1 -1
The graphs of y = tanh x and y = coth x are shown in Figures
(1.62) and (1.63).
1
Like y = cosh x, the function y = sech x = fails to
cosh x
be one-to-one, but its restriction y = sech x , x 0,
to nonnegative values of x does have an inverse, denoted by
-l
y = sech x .
-1
For every value of x in the interval (0 , 1], y = sech x is the
nonnegative number whose hyperbolic secant is x . The graphs of
-1
y = sech x, x 0 and y = sech x are shown in Figure (1.64).
-1
y = sech x , y 0 is equivalent to
2
x = sech y = ,y 0
y y
e +e
y -y
then x [e + e ] = 2 .
y 2y y
Multiplying both sides by e , we obtain x e 2e +x=0.
73
y 2 4 4x 2 y 1 1 x
2
e = , or e = .
2x x
1+ 1 x2
If y 0 , then e > 1 and e y =
y
, 0 < x < 1,
x
using natural logarithms we obtain the expression
1 + 1 x 2
y1 = n .
x

y 1 1 x2
y
If y 0 , then e < 1 and e = , 0 < x < 1,
x
using natural logarithms we obtain the expression
1 1 x 2 1 + 1 x 2
y2 = n = y1 = n .
x x

that is
1 1 x 2 2
n = n 1 + 1 x .
x x

Since we choose the restricted function
-1
y = sech x, y 0,
1 + 1 x 2
y y
then e > 1 and e = , 0 < x < 1.
x

Using natural logarithms we finally obtain the expression
1 + 1 x 2
-l
y = sech x = n , y 0. (1.44)
x

74
This is the inverse of the function y = sech x in the interval [0, ),

while y2 corresponds to the interval ( , 0].
The hyperbolic cosecant is one-to-one on their domain and
therefore have inverse, denoted by
1 x 2 + 1
csch x = n +
-1
,x 0 , (1.45)
x x

-1 -1
The graphs of y = sech x and y = csch x are shown in Figures
(1.64) and (1.65).
y = sech-1x , 0 < x 1, y = csch-1x, x R {0},

1 1
= cosh1 , 0 y < . = sinh1 , y R {0}
x x
Example 1.7:
Show that for all x 0
-1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 -1 1
sech x = cosh , csch x = sinh , coth x = tanh .
x x x
75
Solution:
-1 1
Let y = sech x, then x = sech y, hence cosh y = ,
x
-1 1 -11 -1
i.e. y = cosh .Therefore sech x = cosh .
x x
Similarly, it is easy to see the validity of the other two identities.
These identities come in handy when we have to calculate
-1 -1 -1
the values of sech x, csch x, and coth x on a calculator that
-1 -1 -1
gives only cosh x, sinh x, and tanh x.
When hyperbolic function keys are not available on a
calculator, it is still possible to evaluate the inverse hyperbolic
functions by expressing them in terms of natural logarithms.
Some Properties of Inverse hyperbolic Functions
1) sinh(sinh1 x) = sinh n [x + x 2 + 1 ]= x , xR
2) sinh1 (sinh x) = x , xR
3) cosh(cosh1 x) = cosh n [x + x 2 1 ]= x , x 1
4) cosh1 (cosh x) = x , x1
1 1+ x
5) tanh(tanh1 x) = tanh n =x, |x| 1
2 1 x
6) tanh1 (tanh x) = x , xR
1 + 1 x 2
7) sech(sech x) = sech n
1
= x , 0<x 1
x

8) sech1 (sech x) = x , 0<x 1
1 x 2 + 1
9) csch(csch x) = csch n +
1
= x, x R {0}
x x

76
10) csch1 (csch x) = x , x R {0}

1 x +1
11) coth (coth1 x) = coth[ n ]= x , |x|>1
2 x 1
12) coth1 (coth x) = x , x R {0}
The following is a list of the inverse hyperbolic functions
and their prineipa1 values.
1) y = sinh1 x = n [x + x 2 + 1 ]. < x < < y <

2) y = cosh1 x = n [x + x 2 1 ]. 1 x< 0 y<
1 1+ x
3) y = tanh1 x = n , |x|<1 < y <
2 1 x
1
4) y = csch1 x = sinh1 =
x
x 2 + 1
x R {0} y R {0}
= n 1 +
x x

1
5) y = sech1 x = cosh1 =
x
2 0<x 1 0 y<
= n 1 + 1 x
x

1
6) y = coth1 x = tanh1 =
x |x|>1 y R {0}
= 1 x +1
n
2 x 1
Example 1.8:
-1 -1 1
Using csch x = sin to deduce the logarithmic expression to
x
-1
csch x.
77
Solution:
Since sinh1 x = n [x + x 2 + 1 ], then
2 1 1+ x2
1 1 1
sinh 1
= n[ + + 1] = n + = csch1 x .
x x x x |x|

1.3 Limits of functions:

Definition 1.7:
The function f(x) is said to have the limit L as x approaches a,
abbreviated lim f(x) = L, if given any number >0 we can find a
x a
number > 0 such that | f(x) L| < whenever 0 < | x a | < .
This means essentially that we can make f(x) L as small as we
wish by choosing x sufficiently close to a, i.e. by choosing |x a|
sufficiently small ( but not zero, i.e. we exclude x = a ).
Theorems on Limits:
In this book the following theorems on limits will be assumed to
be true.
If lim f(x) = L and lim g(x) = M , then
x a x a
1) lim [f(x) g(x)] = lim f(x) lim g(x) = L M

x a x a x a
2) lim [f(x) . g(x)] = lim f(x) . lim g(x) = L . M

xa xa xa
3) lim [f(x) g(x)] = lim f(x) lim g(x) = L M , if M 0.

xa xa xa
78
Well Known Limits:
xn an n-1 xn an n n m
1) lim =na , 2) lim = a .
xa x a xa x m a m m
Definition 1.8: ( Right and Left hand limits)

In the definition of Limit no restriction was made as to how x
should approach a. It is sometimes found convenient to restrict
this approach. Considering x and a as points on the real axis where
a is fixed and x moving, then x can approach a from the right or
from the left. We indicate these respective approaches
by writing x a+ and x a.
If lim f(x) = L1 and lim f(x) = L2 , we call L1 and L2,
x a + x a
respectively the right and left hand limits of f(x) at a and denote
them by f(a+) or f(a+0) and f(a) or f(a0).
We have lim f(x) = L if and only if lim f(x) = lim f(x) = L .
xa x a + x a
Example 1.9:
x2
Let f(x) = , x 2 ; f(2) = 0. i) Graph the function,
x2
ii) Find lim f(x), iii) Find lim f(x), iv) Find lim f(x).
x 2+ x 2 x2
Solution:
i) For x >2, |x 2| = x 2 and f(x) = 1.
79
For x <2, |x 2| = (x 2 ) and f(x) = 1.

The graph consists of the lines
y = 1 , x >2 ; y = 1, x < 2 ; and the point (2,0).
ii) As x2 from the right, f(x) 1, i.e. lim f(x) = 1 ,
x 2+
as seems clear from the graph.

iii) As x2 from the
left,
f(x) 1, i.e. lim f(x) = 1 ,
x 2
iv)Since lim f(x) lim f(x);

x 2+ x 2
lim f(x) does not exist.

x2 Figure 1.66
Remark that f(2) = 2.
Definition 1.9: ( Infinity )

We say that lim f(x) = (or ) if for each positive number M
xa
we can find a positive number (depending on M in general) such
that f(x) > M (or f(x) <-M ) whenever 0 < |x a| <
Similarly, we say that lim f(x) = A , if for any positive number
x
we can find a positive number N (depending on in general) such
that | f(x) A| < whenever x > N.
A similar definition can be formulated for lim f(x).
x
80
Note: The symbols , are not new numbers to be adjoined to
the set of real numbers. These symbols are introduced to indicated
a certain type of behaviour of a variable or a function. When a
variable or a function constantly increases in value but never
exceeds a certain number M, the variable or function approaches
M or some smaller number as limit. When no such number M
exists, the variable or function is said to become infinite. In the
latter case, no limit exists; the limit notation is used merely
because of its convenience.
When lim f(x) and lim g(x) exist, the theorems on
x x
1imits remain valid. They must not be used, however, when

lim f(x)= and lim g(x) = , or when lim f(x)=
xa xa x
and lim g(x) = .

x
2
For example, lim [x / (2 x)] = and lim [1/(4 x )] = ,
x2 x2
x 1
but lim = lim x (2 + x ) = 8.
x 2 2 x 4 x 2 x 2
Also lim (x + 2) = and lim (3 x) = ,
x x
but lim [ (x + 2) + (3 x)] = lim 5 = 5 .

x x
81
Theorem 1.1: Sandwich Theorem
If lim f(x) = L and lim g(x) = L, and if the inequality
xa xa
f(x) h(x) g(x) holds in the neighbourhood of a, then

lim h(x) = L
xa
Example 1.10:
1 1 1
i) It is clear that lim = 0. Since | 0|= < for all x
x x x x
satisfying the condition x > (l/).
ii) The limit lim sin x does not exist. Take the sequence of values
x
xk = 1
2
(2k+1) , (k = 0, 1,2,...) this sequence tends to while the
value of f(xk) = (-1)k, do not tend to any limit as k .
sin x
iii) lim = 0.
x x
Because sin x lies between 1 and 1, for x > 0 holds the
1 sin x 1
inequality .
x x x
1 1
Since lim = lim = 0 ,the result follows.
x x x x
sin x
i.e. lim = 0.
x x
82
1
iv) lim x sin = 0.
x0 x
1
Since | x | x sin | x | and lim | x | = lim | x | = 0.
x x0 x0
v) lim cos x = 1, since

x0
2 1
|cos x 1| = 2 | sin 2
x| =
2
= 2|sin 12 x| |sin 12 x| < 2 | 12 x|| 12 x| = 12 x < ,

for |x| < (2 ) .
i.e. |cos x 1| converges to zero as x0.
1.4 Special Limits:

sin x
1) lim = 1, (1.46)
x0 x
sin x
Let f(x) = ,this function is
x
not defined for x = 0 since the
numerator and denominator of
the function become zero. Let us
consider a unit circle. From the
figure one can see that Figure 1.67
the area of the sector OEB (which denoted by A(OEB) lies
between the areas of the triangles OEB and OED
i.e. A(OEB) < A(OEB) < A(OED)
A(OEB) = 1 (1)(arc BE) = 1 (arc BE) = 1 x
2 2 2
83
( x is measured in radian)
A(OEB) = 12 (1)(BC) = 1
2
(BC) = 1
2
sin x ,
A(OED) = 1 (1)(BE) = 1 (DE) = 1 tan x .
2 2 2
After cancelling 1 , we get sin x < x < tan x.
2
Divide all terms by sin x (Assuming sin x >0) :

x 1 sin x
1< < or 1 > > cos x.
sin x cos x x
We derived this inequality on the assumption that x > 0.
sin( x ) sin x
Noting that = and cos (x) = cos x,
( x ) x
we conclude that it holds for x< 0 as well. But lim cos x = 1 ,
x0
sin x
lim 1 = 1. Thus by Theorem 1.1 lim = 1.
x0 x0 x
tan x
2) lim =1. (1.47)
x0 x
tan x sin x 1
For = . and each factor tends to the limit 1 as
x x cos x
x0.
1 x
3) We define the number e as e = lim (1 + ) .
x x
(1.48)
It is easy to see that 2 < e < 3.
1 1 1 1
We can prove that e = 1 + + + + ... + + ... (1.49)
1! 2! 3! n!
The number e is irrational, and its value, correct to 32 decimal
places is e = 2.71828182845904523536028747135266.
84
1/ u
lim (1 + u ) = e, (1.50)
u 0
a x a
lim (1 + ) = e , (1.51)
x x
1 ax a
lim (1 + ) = e , (1.52)
x x
a bx ab
lim (1 + ) = e , (1.53)
x x
Example 1.11:
x + 3 ( x + 4)
Find lim ( )
x x + 1
Solution:
x + 3 ( x + 4) 2 ( x +1)+3 2
lim ( ) = lim (1 + ) = lim (1 + ) y +3 =
x x + 1 x x +1 y y
2 2
= lim (1 + ) y . lim (1 + ) 3 = e2 . 1 = e2.
y y y y
Example 1.12:
ax ab
Prove that I = lim = a b n a , a > 0.
x b x b
Solution:
Put t = ax ab , then ax = t + ab and x n a = n ( t + ab )
n(t + a b )
i.e. x = .
na
When x b , t 0 , then
85
t na t na
I = lim = lim =
b
t 0 n(t + a ) - b n a t 0 (t + a b )
n
ab

t na na
= lim
t 0 (
n 1 + ta b
)
= lim
t 0 1
n 1 + ta
(b
=
)
t
na na
= lim = =
1 1
t 0
(
n 1 + ta b t
) (
lim n 1 + ta
t 0
b t
)
na na na
= = = = a b n a.
1 b a b
(
n lim 1 + ta
t 0
b t
) n e a

Definition 1.10: ( Continuity )

The function f(x) is said to be continuous at x = a if for any >0 ,
we can find > 0 such that | f(x)f(a) | < whenever | x a | < .
Note that this implies three conditions which must be met in order
that f(x) be continuous at x = a.
1) lim f(x) = L , must exist.
xa
2) f(a) must exist . i.e. f(x) is defined at a .

3) L = f(a).
equivalently if f(x) is continuous at x = a. we can write this in the
form lim f(x) = f ( lim x ).
xa xa
86
Points where f(x) fails to be continuous are called discontinuities
of f(x) and f(x) is said to be discontinuous at these points.
In constructing a graph of a continuous function the pencil
need never leave the paper, while for a discontinuous function this
is not true since there is generally a jump taking place. This is of
course merely a characteristic property and not a definition of
continuity or discontinuity.
Definition 1.11: (Continuity in an interval )
A function f(x) is said to be continuous in an interval if it is
continuous at all points of the interval.
In this book the following theorems on continuous functions

will be assumed to be true, its proofs are beyond the scope of this
book.
Theorem 1.2:
If f(x) and g(x) are continuous at x = a, so also are the functions
f(x) g(x), f(x)g(s) and f(x)/g(x), the last only if g(a) 0.
Similar results hold for continuity in an interval.
Theorem 1.3:
The following functions are continuous in every finite interval:
(a) all po1ynomials, (b) sin x and cos x; (c) ax , a > 0;
(d) og a x , x > 0 , a 0 , 1 .
Theorem 1.4:
87
If y = f(x) is continuous at x = a and u = g(y) is continuous at
y = b and if b =f(a), then the function u = g[f(x)], called a
function of a function or composite function, is continuous at
x = a.
( i .e. A continuous function of continuous function is continuous.)
Theorem 1.5: ( Intermediate value theorem )
If f(x) is continuous in [a,b] and if f(a) = A, f(b) = B, then
corresponding to any number C between A and B there exists at
least one number c in [a , b] such that f(c) = C.
Theorem 1.6:
If f(x) is continuous in [a , b] and if f(a) and f(b) have opposite
signs, there is at least one number c for which f(c) = 0, where
a < c<b.
Theorem 1.7:
If f(x) is continuous in a closed interval, then f(x) has a maximum
value M for at least one value of x in the interva1 and a minimum
value m for at 1east one value of x in the interval. Furthermore,
f(x) assumes all values between m and M for one or more values
of x in the interval.
Definition 1.12: (Uniform Continuity )
f(x) is said to be uniformly continuous in an interval if for any
> 0 we can find > 0 such that | f(x1) f(x2) | < whenever
|x1 x2|< where x1 and x2 are any two points in the interval.
( depends only on and not on x1 or x2 )
88
Theorem 1.8:
If f(x) is continuous in a closed interval, it is uniformly continuous
in the interval.
Example 1.13:
The function y = l/x is discontinuous at x = 0.
Indeed, the function is not defined at x = 0. It is easy to see that
this function is continuous for any x 0.
Example 1.14:
The function f(x) = |x| / x , at x > 0 , f(x) = 1; at x < 0 , f(x) = 1.
It is clear that this function is discontinuous at x = 0. Indeed the
function is not defined at x = 0.
Example 1.15:
1
a) Show that f(x) = x sin , x 0; f(0) = 3 is not continuous
x
at x = 0.
b) Can one redefine f(0) so that f(x) is continuous at x = 0 ?
Solution:
1
a) From Example 1.10 (iv), lim x sin = 0.
x0 x
But this limit is not equal to f(0) = 3, so that f(x) is discontinuous
at x = 0 .
89
b) By redefining f(x) so that f(0) = 0, the function becomes
continuous. Because the function can be made continuous at a
point simply by redefining the function at the point, we call the
point a removable discontinuity.
Example 1.16:
2
Prove that f(x) = x is uniformly continuous in 0 < x < 1.
Solution:
2
1) From Theorem 1.2, the function f(x) = x is continuous in the
closed interval [0 , 1]. Hence, From Theorem 1.8 it is uniformly
continuous in [0 , 1] and thus in (0,1).
2) Another method:
We must show that given any > 0 , we can find > 0, such
2 2
that |x xo | < when |x xo| < , where depends only on
and not on xo where 0 < xo < 1 .
If x and xo are any two points in (0 , 1), then
2 2
|x xo | = |x + xo| |x xo| < |1+1| |x xo| = 2 |x xo|.
2 2
Thus if |x xo| < , it follows that |x xo | < 2 .
Given > 0, choosing = 12 and we see that
2 2
|x xo | < when |x xo| < , where depends only on
and not on xo .
Hence f(x) = x2 is uniformly continuous in (0 , 1 ).
90
Example 1.17:
1
Show that f(x) = is not uniformly continuous in (0 , 1).
2
x
Solution:
Let a and a+ be any two points in (0 , 1). Then
1 1 2 2
| f(a) f(a+)| = = ( a + ) a = ( 2a + ) .
a2 ( a + ) 2 a 2 (a + ) 2 a 2 (a + ) 2
can be made larger than any positive number by choosing (a)

sufficiently close to 0. Hence the function cannot be uniformly
continuous.
Example 1.18:
3 2
a) Given f(x) = 2x 3x + 7x 10 , evaluate f(l) and f(2).
b) Prove that f(x) = 0 for some real number x such that 1< x
<2.
c) Show how to calculate the value of x in (b).
Solution:
3 2
a) f(l) = 2(1) 3(1) + 7(1) 10 = 4,
3 2
f(2) =2(2) 3(2) + 7(2) 10 = 8.
b) It is clear that f(l) and f(2) have opposite signs, f(x) is
continuous. From Theorem 1.5, there exists a number c
between 1 and 2 such that f(c) = 0.
91
c) f(1.5) = 0.5 . Then applying Theorem 1.5 again, we see that
the required root 1ies between 1 and 1.5 and is "most
likely" closer to 1.5 than to 1, since f(1.5) = 0.5 has a value
closer to 0 than f(l) = 4 ( this is not always a valid
conclusion but is worth pursuing in practice).
Thus consider x = l.4 , hence f(1.4) = 0.592 , we conclude that
there is a root between 1.4 and 1.5 which is most likely closer
to 1.5 than 1.4 . Continuing in this manner, we find that the
root is l.46 to 2 decimal places.
EXERCISES 1
1) Determine the domain of the functions:
92
a) y = 4 x2 , b) y = x 2 16 , c) y = l / (x2),
d) y = 1 / (x2 9) , e) y = x / (x2 + 4).
[Answers: 2 x 2 , b) |x| 4 , c) all x 2, d) all x 3
e) The set of real numbers R .]
2) Find the domain of definition of the functions:
a) f(x) = n (1+x) / (x 1 ); b) f(x) = 1 2x + 3 arcsin 1 (3x1).
2
[Answers: a) (1,1) (1, ), b) [1/3 , 1 ] ]
2
3) Find the range of the functions:
a) f(x) = x2 6 x + 5, b) g(x) = 2 + 3 sin x ,
c) h(x) = x2 + 8x 13 , d) T(x) = 1 3 cos x.
[Answers : a) [4, ) b) [1 , 5] , c) ( , 3] , d) [2 , 4] ].
If f(x) = (x 1) / (x + 1) , show that f(l/x) = f(x)
4)
and f(1 / x ) = 1 / f(x).
5) If f(x) = l/x, show that f(a) f(b) = f[ a b/(ba) ].
6) If y = f(x) = (5x+3)/(4x5) , show that x = f(y).
7) If f(x) = sin x, show that
f(A + B) = f(A) f(B + ) + f(A + ) f(B).
2 2
8) If g(x) = og [(1 x) / (1+x)],
show that g(a) + g(b) = g [(a + b) / (1+ab)].
9) Graph the functions:

a) y = | sin x | , b) y = | cos x |, c) y = | tan x | ,
d) y = | cot x |, e) y = x + |x| , f) y = | x + 2|.
93
10) Determine whether the fol1owing functions are even or odd:

a) f(x) = x2 3 x + 2 sin x , b) f(x) = 2 x + 2x,
2
c) f(x) = |x| 5 e x , d) f(x)= x2 + 5 x ,
e) f(x) = og [(x +3)/(x 3)].
[Answers: a) and e) odd ; b and c even , d) neither even nor odd.]
11) Are the following functions identical ?
a) f(x) = x/ x2 and y(x) = 1/ x , b) f(x) = x2 / x and g(x) = x ,
c) f(x) = x and g(x) = x2 , d) f(x) = n x2 and g(x) = 2 n x.
[Answers: a) Yes, b) Yes except x = 0 , c) identical on (0,) ,
d) identical on (0,).]
12) Give an example of an analytically represented function:
a) defined only on the interval 2 x 2 ;
b) defined only on the interval 2 < x < 2 and not defined at x = 0,
c) defined for all rea1 values of x, except for x = 2, x = 3, x = 4.
[Answers: a) y = 4 x 2 , b) y = l /x 4 x2 ,
c) y = l/(x 2) + l/(x 3) + l/(x 4) ].
13) Let f(x) is defined on [a , a]. Prove that f(x) + f(x) is an
even function, and f(x) f(x) is an odd one.
14) Let f(x) is defined on [a , a]. Prove that f(x) can be
represented as the sum of even and odd functions.
15) Represent each of the fol1owing functions in the form of a

sum of an even and an odd functions.
a) y = ax , b) y = (1+x)100 ,
94
c) y = sin x + cos x , d) y = e x,
e) y = x2 +3x + 2 , f) y = l x 3 x 4 2x 5 ,
g) y = sin2x + cos 1 x + tan x.
2
2
16) Show that the graph of the function y = n[ x + x + 1] , is
symmetric about the origin. Find the inverse function.
[Answers: y = sinh x ]
17) Find the inverse to the given functions:
a) y = x2 + 1, b) y = 1/ (1 x),
3
c) y = x2 +1, d) y = 10x+1 ,
e) y = l + og (x+2) , f) y = 2x / (1+2 x ),
g) y = 2 sin3x, h) y = 4 arcsin 1 x 2 .
[Answers: a) y = x 1 , b) y = (x1)/ x, c) y = x 3 1 ,
d) y = og [ x /10 ] , e) y = 2 + 10x1,
f) y = og 2 [ x / (1x)] , g) y = arcsin 1 x ,
2
h) y = cos x ( 0 x 2 ) . ]
18) Let f(x) = |x 1| /(x 1) , x 1 ; f(l) = 0
a) Graph the function. b) Find lim f(x), c) Find lim f(x),
x 1+ x 1
d) Find lim f(x). [Answers: b) 1, c) 1, d) does not exist.]
x 1
19) Prove that f(x) = x2 is continuous at x = 1.
95
20) a) Prove that f(x) = x sin (1/x), x 0 ; f(0) = 2, is not

continuous at x = 0.
b) Can one redefine f(0) so that f(x) is continuous at x =
0.
21) Is the function f(x) = (2x4 6x3 + x2 +3) / (x 1), continuous
at x = 1 ?
22) For what values of x in the domain of definition is each of
the following functions continuous:
a) f(x) = x / (x2 1), b) f(x) = (1 + cos x)/(3+ sin x),
2
c) f(x) = 1 / 4 10 + x , d) f(x) = 10 1 /( x 3) ,
2
e) f(x) =101/(x3) ,x3; f(3)=0, f) f(x) = (x |x|)/ x ,
g) f(x)= (x |x|)/ x; x< 0 ,f(0)=2 h) f(x) = x csc x,
i) f(x) = x csc x, x 0; f(0) = 1.
[Answers: a) All x except x = l, b) All x, c) All x>10, d) All
x3, e) All x, f) All x 0 , g) continuous from the left at x = 0,
h) All x n , n = 0,1,2,3,... , i) All x n , n = 1,2,3,... .]
23) Prove that f(x) = x , g(x) = x3 are uniformly continuous in
0<x<1.
24) Prove that f(x) = 1/x is not uniformly continuous in 0<x<1.
25) Evaluate:
sin mx 1 cos x
a) lim , b) lim ,
x0 x x0 x
1 cos x d) lim (x3) csc x ,
c) lim , x3
x0 x2
96
cos ax cos bx 1 2 cos x + cos 2 x
e) lim , f) lim ,
2 2
x0 x x0 x
6 x sin 2x 3 sin x sin 3x
g) lim , h) lim ,
x0 2 x + 3 sin 4 x x0 x 3
[Answers: a) m, b) 0, c) 1 , d) 1/,
2
e) 1 (b2a2) , f) 1 , g) 2/7 , h) 43. ]
2
1
x 2 sin
26) Prove that lim x
=0.
x0 sin x
27) The function f(x) = (x2 1)/ (x3 1), is not defined for x =1.
What must the value of f(l) be for the function extended by
this value to be continuous for x = 1 ? [ Answer: 2/3 ]
28) Evaluate:
a) lim 1 + 2 + ... + n , b) 4x 3 2x 2 + 1 , c) x2 + x 1,
n n2
lim lim
x 3x 3 5 x 2x + 5
3x 2 2x 1 x 1/ 3
x (x + h)3 x3
1/ 4
d) lim , e) lim , f) lim ,
3 1 / 5 1 / 6 h
x x +4 x1 x x h0
1+ x 1 1 3
g) lim , h) lim ,
x0 x x1 1 x 1 x 3
[answers: a) 1 , b) 4/3, c) , d) 0, e) 5/2 , f) 3x2 g) 1 , h) 1 ].

2 2
29) Evaluate:
3 x 1
a) lim , x2 + x + 1 1
b) lim ,
x 1 x 1 x 0 x
x2 3 d) lim 1 + x 2 x 2 1,
c) lim ,
x

x 3 x 3 + 1
97
x 6 64 f) lim x 2 + x + 1 x ,
e) lim ,
x

x 2 x + 2
g) lim x x 2 + 1 x , 1+ x 1 x
h) lim .
x

x 0 x
[Answers : a) 2/3 , b) 1 , c) 1 , d) 0, e) 192 , f) 1 , g) 1 , h) 1.]
2 2 2
30) Prove that:

a) lim (sin m x)/(tan n x) = m / n ,
x 0
b) lim (sin a x) / (sin b x) = a / b,
x 0
c) lim (tan m x) / x = m,
x 0
1
d) lim (sin m x) / x = m,
x 0
1
e) lim (tan m x) / x = m ,
x 0
lim (sin 12 x) / x = 14 ,
2 2
f)
x 0
tan x sin x 1
g) lim = ,
3 2
x 0 x
( x +1) / x
1
h) lim 1 + =1,
x x
2 x 1
x + 1
i) lim = e6 ,
x x 2
( x +1) / 3
3x 4
j) lim = e2/3 ,
x 3x + 2
98
2
x
x 2 + 1 2
k) lim 2 =e ,
x x 1
2x
tan 1
2
) 1 x =1
lim ,
x 0 2x

1 + x2
m) lim [ sec x tan x] = 0 ,
x / 2
cos x sin x
n) lim = 2 ,
x / 4 / 4 x
cos x + sin x
cos x sin x
p) lim =1.
x / 4 x + / 4
31) Prove that
b
ax ab
a na
lim x = , a,c>0.
x b c c b
c n c
99
Calculus DERIVATIVES Chapter 2
CHAPTER 2
DERIVATIVES
2.1Revision on derivatives:
The derivative of y = f(x) at a point x is defined as
f (x + h) f (x) y dy
f ' ( x ) = lim = lim = , (2.1)
h 0 h x 0 x dx
where h = x , y = f(x + h) f(x) = f(x+x) f(x) ,
provided the 1imit exists. The process of finding derivatives is
called differentiation. By taking derivatives of y' = dy/dx = f'(x)
we can find second, third and higher order derivatives, denoted by
d2y 3
(3) d y
y" = y = 2 = f " (x) = f (x), y' "= y = 3 = f '"(x) = f (3) (x), etc.
(2) (2)
dx dx
Geometrically the derivative of a function f(x) at a point
represents the slope of the tangent line drawn to the curve y = f(x),
at the point.
If the function has a derivative at a point, then it is
continuous at the point. However, the converse is not necessarily
true.
Remark: The derivative of an even function is an odd function:
f ( x + h ) f ( x ) f (x h) f (x)
f ' ( x ) = lim = lim =
h 0 h h 0 h
f (x) f (x h)
= lim = f ' ( x ). (2.2)
h 0 h
Analogously, the derivative of an odd function is an even
function.
100
Rules for differentiation

The student is already familiar with the following important
rules. If f(x) and g(x) are differentiable functions, the following
differentiation rules are valid.
d d d
1) [ f(x) g(x) ] = f(x) g(x) = f ' (x) g'(x).
dx dx dx
(2.2)
d d
2) [C f(x)]) = C f(x) = C f '(x), where C is any
dx dx
constant.
d d d
3) [f(x).g(x)] = f(x) g(x) + g(x) f(x) =
dx dx dx
= f(x) . g' (x) + g(x) .f ' (x). (2.3)
This rule can be remembered as follows:
Derivative of a product of two functions =
= first function derivative of the second function +
+ second function derivative of the first function.
d f ( x ) g(x ) f ' (x ) f ( x ) g' (x )
4) = if g(x) 0 .
dx g ( x ) [g ( x )] 2
(2.4)
This rule can be remembered as follows:
Derivative of a quotient =
denominator (numerator) ' numerator (denominator)'
=
(denominator) 2
5) If y = f(u) where u = g(x), then
101
dy dy du du
= . = f '(u). = f '[g(x)].g ' (x) . (2.5)
dx du dx dx
Similarly if y = f(u) where u = g(v) and v = h(x),
dy dy du dv
Then = . . (2.6)
dx du dv dx
The results (2.5) and (2.6) are often called chain rules for
differentiation of composite functions.
1
6) If y = f(x), then x = f (y); and dy/dx and dx/dy are related
dy dx
by = 1/ .
dx dy
(2.7)
7) If x = f(t) and y = g(t), then
dy

dy dt g ( t )
= = . (2.8)
dx dx f ( t )

dt
d
8) (C) = 0, where C is any constant.
dx
d n n1
9) x =nx . (2.9)
dx
Example 2.1:
Differentiate each of the following Functions:
2 2 2 3 3
1) f(x) = (x +6x+3) , 2) g(x) = (x +4) (2x 1) ,
2 2
3) h(x) = x /(4 x ) .
Solution:
102
2 2 2
1) f '(x) = 1 (x +6x+3) .(x +6x+3)' = (x +6x+3) .(x+3)
2
=
2
= (x+3)/ (x +6x+3) .
2 2 3 3 2 2 3 3
2) g(x) = (x +4) [(2x 1) ]' + [(x + 4) ]' (2x 1) =
2 2 3 2 2 2 3 3
= (x +4) [3 (2x 1) (6x )] + [2(x +4)(2x)] (2x 1) =
2 3 2 3
=2x (x +4) (2x 1) (13x + 36x 2).
1
(4 x 2 ) 2 .( 2 x ) 1
2x
2
(4 x 2 )(2 x )
3) h'(x) = 2
=
4x
2x (4 x 2 ) + x 3 x (8 x 2 )
= 3
= 3
.
2 2
(4 x ) 2 (4 x ) 2
Example 2.2:
2
Find dy/dx, given x = y (1 y ) .
Solution:
dx 2 1 2 1 2y 2
= (1 y ) + y (1 y ) (2y) = ,
dy 2 2
1 y
2
dy 1 1 y
and = = .
dx dx / dy 1 2 y 2
Example 2.3:
u2 1 2 1/3
Find dy/dx, given y = and u = (x +2)
u2 +1
Solution:
103
dy (u 2 + 1)(2u ) (u 2 1)(2u ) 4u
= = ,
du (u 2 + 1) 2 (u 2 + 1) 2
du 1 2 2 2x 2x
= ( x + 2) 3 (2x ) = 2
= 2
.
dx 3 2 3u
3( x + 2) 3
dy dy du 4u 2x 8x
Then = = 2 = =
dx du dx (u + 1) 2 3u 2 3u (u 2 + 1) 2
8x
= 2 1/3 2 2/3 2
.
3(x + 2) [(x + 2) + 1]
Example 2.4:
3 2
Show that the function f(x) = x +3x 8x + 2 has derivatives of
all orders at x = a.
Solution:
2 2
f (x) = 3x + 6x 8 , f '(a) = 3a + 6a 8 ,
f "(x) = 6x + 6 , f "(a) = 6a + 6 ,
f "'(x) = 6 , f "'(a) = 6.
(4) (4)
f (x) = 0 , f (a) = 0 .
All derivatives of higher order are identically zero.
Example 2.5:
(n)
Given f(x) = 1/ (1 x) , find f (x).
Solution:
2 2
We find f '(x) = (l)(lx) (l) = 1! (lx) ,
3 3
f "(x) = (2)1! (lx) (1) = 2! (lx) ,
4 4
f '"(x) = (3)2! (lx) (1) = 3! (lx) ,
104
(n) (n+1)
which suggests f (x) = n! (lx) .
This may be established by Mathematical Induction.
Example 2.6:
3 3
Find y' and y" at the point ( 1, 1) of the curve x y + x y = 2 .
Solution:
Differentiating implicitly with respect to x twice,
3 2 2 3
x y' + 3 x y + 3x y y' + y = 0 , and
3 2 2 2 2 2 2
x y"+3x y'+3x y'+6x y+3x y y" + 6xy (y') + 3 y y' +3y y' = 0,
3 2 2 2 2
x y"+6x y'+6 x y + 3x y y" + 6xy (y') + 6y y' = 0,
2 2 2 2 2
y" x ( x +3 y ) + 6 y' (x + y ) + 6xy (y') +6 x y = 0.
When x = 1, y = 1; substituting in the first derived relation,
y' = 1. Substituting x = 1, y = 1 and y' = 1 in the second relation,
y" = 0.
2.2 Differentiation of
Trigonometric functions:
d
1) Derive (sin x) = cos x . (2.10)
dx
Let y = sin x , y + y = sin (x + x) ,
y = sin (x+ x) sin x = 2 cos (x + 1 x) sin 1 x ,
2 2
1
y sin x
1
= cos (x + x) . 1 2 .
x 2
x
2
1
dy y sin x
Then = lim = lim cos (x + 1 x) . lim 1 2 =
dx x0 x x0 2 x0 x
2
105
= cos x .
d
2) Derive ( cos x ) = sin x. (2.11)
dx
d d
( cos x ) = sin ( 1 x) = cos ( 1 x) = sin x.
dx dx 2 2
d 2
3) (tan x ) = sec x . (2.12)
dx
d d sin x cos x. cos x sin x ( sin x )
(tan x ) = = 2
=
dx dx cos x cos x
cos 2 x + sin 2 x 1 2
= 2
= 2
= sec x .
cos x cos x
Remark : When the angle x is given in degrees, it must be
converted to radians before the above results can be applied.
d d x 2 x 2
(tan x) = (tan )= sec = sec x. (2.13)
dx dx 180 180 180 180
Our treatment of the trigonometric functions has been
based entirely on radian measure. When degree are used, the
derivatives of the trigonometric functions contain the extra factor

0.0175. The extra factor is a disadvantage, particularly
180 180
in problems where it occurs repeatedly. This tends to discourse the
use of degree measure in theoretical work.
Prove that :
d
(cot x) = csc2 x , (2.14)
dx
106
d
(sec x) = sec x tan x , (2.15)
dx
d
(csc x) = csc x cot x . (2.16)
dx
Rules Of Differentiation
y y' y y'
sin x cos x csc x csc x cot x

cos x sin x sec x sec x tan x
2 2
tan x sec x cot x csc x
Example 2.7:
Find the first derivative of i) y = sin a x + cos b x,
2 2 3
ii) y = tan x , iii) y = tan x , iv) y = sec x .
Solution:
i) y' = [sin a x + cos b x ]'= a cos a x b sin b x .
2 2 2 2 2 2
ii) y' = [tan x ]' = ( sec x )[ x ]' = ( sec x ) (2x).
iii) y' = [tan2 x]' = [(tan x) 2]' = 2 tan x [tan x]' = 2 tan x
sec2x.

iv) y' = [sec3 x ]'=3 sec2 x [ sec x ]' =

=3 sec2 x [ sec x ] tan x [ x ]' =
1 3
= 3 sec3 x tan x = sec3 x tan x .
2 x 2 x
inverse trigonometric functions:
107
d 1
1) Derive ( arcsin x ) = .
dx 1 x 2
(2.
17)
Let y = arcsin x. Then x = sin y and
differentiate with respect (W.R.) to x, we
get 1 = cos y (dy/dx)
dy/dx = 1/ cos y = 1/ 1 x 2 .
Figure 2.1
The sign being positive since cos y > 0 on the interval <y< .
2 2
d 1 + 1 if x > 1
2) Derive ( arcsec x) = ,
dx 2
x x 1 1 if x < 1
1
= , (2.18)
2
x x 1
Let y = arcsec x. Then x = sec y and differentiate W.R. to x, we
get, 1 = sec y tan y (dy/dx).
dy/dx = 1/(sec y tan y) = l / (x x 2 1 ).

The sign being positive since
sec y tan y > 0 ; on 0 < y < ,
and the sign being negative since Figure 2.2
sec y tan y < 0 ; on < y < 2.
d 1 + 1 if x > 1
Therefore ( arcsec x)=
dx x x2 1 1 if x < 1
y y'
108
1
1
sin x = arcsin x
1 x2
1
1
cos x = arccos x
1 x2
1
1
tan x = arctan x
1+ x2
1 1 1 if x > 1
1 =
csc x = arccsc x + 1 if x < 1
x x2 1 x x2 1
1 1 + 1 if x > 1
1 =
sec x = arcsec x 1 if x < 1
x x2 1 x x2 1
1
cot
1
x = arccot x
1+ x2
Example 2.8:
Find y' if
1 1 2
i) y = sin (3x2) ii) y = cos 3x ,
iii) y = tan
1
5x ,
2 1 1 x
iv) y = cot .
1 + x
Solution:
1 (3x 2)'
i) y' = [sin (3x2)]' = =
2
1 (3x 2)
3
,
2
1 (3x 2)
1 2 (3x 2 )' 6x '
ii) y' = [cos 3x ]' = = ,
4 4
1 9x 1 9x
109
1 2 (5x 2 )' 10x

iii) y' = [tan 5x ]' = = ,
4 4
1 + 25x 1 + 25x
1 1 x [(1 x ) /(1 + x )]'
iv) y' = [cot ]' = =
1 + x 1 + [(1 x ) /(1 + x )] 2
(1 + x ) 2 (1 + x ) (1 x )
= . =
2 2 2
(1 + x ) + (1 x ) (1 + x )
2 1
= = .
(1 + x ) 2 + (1 x ) 2 1 + x 2
1 1 x 1 1
Now, as you see [cot ]' = = [ tan x]' ,
1 + x 1+ x2
1 1 1 x
find the relation between tan x , cot ?
1 + x
2.4 Differentiation of Exponential and

Logarithmic functions:
d 1
1) Derive [ n x]= . (2.19)
dx x
Let y = n x , y +y = n (x + x),
y = n (x + x) n x = n [(x + x)/x] = n [1+ ( x)/x] ,
x
y 1 x 1 x x 1 x x
= n[1 + ]= n[1 + ]= n[1 + ] ,
x x x x x x x x
x x
dy 1 x x 1 x x
and = lim n[1 + ] = n lim [1 + ] =
dx x x 0 x x x 0 x
110
1 1
= n e= .
x x
d 1 du
It is easy to see that [ n u]= . (2.20)
dx u dx
d x x
2) Derive [ a ] = a n a. (2.21)
dx
x
Let y = a , then n y = x n a .
Differentiating W.R. to x, we get
d 1 dy d
( n y)= = (x n a) = n a .
dx y dx dx
1 dy dy x
Then = na , = y n a = a n a.
y dx dx
When a = e, n a = n e = 1, and we have
d x x
[e ]=e . (2.22)
dx
a x
Notes: i) The functions x and a are of a completely different
nature, and one should bear in mind in forming the derivatives of
a a1
expressions involving them. The derivative of x is (a x );
x x
that of a is ( a n a ).
ii) To see that: og a b og b c = og a c
u
Let u = og b c , then c = b , take the logarithm to both sides
W.R. a , we get og a c = u og a b = og b c . og a b.
iii) If c = a , we get og a b og b a = og a a = 1,
therefore og b a = 1/ og a b
iv) If b = e , we get n a = og e a = 1/ og a e .
d x x x
Hence [a ]=a n a = a / og a e . (2.23)
dx
111
d 1
3) Derive [ og a x ] = og a e. (2.24)
dx x
y
Let y = og a x , then x = a , differentiating W.R. to x, we get
y dy dy y
1=a n a . Therefore = 1/ (a n a) = 1/ (x n a)
dx dx
dy 1 1 1
i.e. = = og a e.
dx x n a x
Example 2.9:
3 3
Find y', if i) y = n (x+5) , ii) y = [ n (x+5)] ,
iii) y = n cos 2x , iv) y = n [ x + 1 + x 2 ].
Solution:
3
i) y' = [ n (x+5) ]' = [3 n (x+5)]' = 3/ (x+5),
3 2
ii) y' = {[ n (x+5)] }' = 3[ n (x+5)] [ n (x+5)]' =
2
=3[ n (x+5)] / (x+5),
1 2 sin 2x
iii) y' = [ n cos 2x]' = [cos 2x]' = = 2 tan 2x ,
cos 2 x cos 2 x
1
iv) y' = { n [ x + 1 + x 2 ]}' = [ x + 1 + x 2 ]' =
x + 1+ x2
1 [ x 2 ]'
= [1+ ]=
2 2
x + 1+ x 2 1+ x
1 x 1
= [1+ ]= .
2 2 2
x + 1+ x 1+ x 1+ x
112
y y'
1
og a x og a e , x > 0 , a > 0.
x
1
n x , x > 0.
x
1
n x , x 0.
x
1 du
og a u og a e , u > 0 , a > 0.
u dx
1 du
n u ,u > 0.
u dx
1 du
n u , u 0.
u dx
x x
a a n a , a > 0 , a 1
u du
a
u a na , a > 0 , a 1
dx
x x
e e
Example 2.10:
3 3
Find y', if i) y = e ( x ) , ii) y = a ( x ) ,
3 x 2x
iii) y = x 2 , iv) y = e sin 3x.
Solution:
3 3 3
y' = [ e ( x ) ]' = e ( x ) [x ]' = 3 x e ( x ) ,
3 2
i)
3 3 3
y' = [ a ( x ) ]' = a ( x ) n a [x ]' = 3 x a ( x ) n a ,
3 2
ii)
3 x 3 x x 3
iii) y' = [x 2 ]' = x [2 ]' + 2 [x ]' =
3 x 2 x 2 x
=x 2 n 2 + 3x 2 = x 2 [x n 2 + 3],
113
2x 2x 2x
iv) y' = [e sin 3x]' = e [sin 3x]' + sin 3x [e ]' =
2x 2x 2x
= 3e cos 3x 2 sin 3x e =e [3cos 3x 2 sin 3x].
2.5 Logarithmic Differentiation:
Given y = f(x), we may sometimes find dy/dx by logarithmic
differentiation. This method is especially useful if f(x) involves
complicated products, quotient, or powers. In the following
guidelines, it is assumed that f(x) > 0; however, we shall show that
the same steps can be used if f(x) < 0.
1) Let y = f(x),
2) Take natural logarithms and simplify n y = n f(x),
d d
3) Differentiate implicitly W.R. to x , ( n y) = [ n f(x)],
dx dx
1 dy d
4) Applying logarithmic differentiation, = [ n f(x)],
y dx dx
dy d
5) Multiply by y (= f(x) ), = f(x) [ n f(x)].
dx dx
Of course, to complete the solution we must differentiate n f(x)
at some stage after guideline (3).
If f(x) < 0 for some x, then guideline (2) is invalid, since
n f(x) is undefined. In this event, we can replace guideline (1)
with | y | = | f(x) | and take natural logarithms, obtaining n | y | =
= n | f(x) | . If we now differentiate implicitly W.R. to x , we
again arrive at guideline (4). Thus , negative values of f(x) do not
change the outcome, and we are not concerned whether f(x) is
114
positive or negative. The method should not be used to find f '(a) if

f (a) = 0, since n 0 is undefined.
The process by which f '(x) was obtained is called
logarithmic differentiation. Logarithmic differentiation is valid at
all points x where f (x) 0. At points x where f (x) = 0, none of it
makes sense.
If a differentiable function y = f(x) is the product of n
factors, y = u1(x) u2(x) u3(x) un(x),
the process of differentiation may be simplified by taking the
natural logarithm of the function before differentiating.
Then n y = n u1(x) + n u2(x) + n u3(x) + n un(x).
Differentiating W.R. to x we get
y' u '1 ( x ) u ' 2 ( x ) u '3 ( x ) u' (x)
= + + ++ n .
y u1 (x ) u 2 (x ) u 3 (x ) u n (x)
Multiplying both sides by y , we get
u ' (x ) u ' 2 (x) u '3 (x) u' (x)
y' = y [ 1 + + ++ n ], (2.25)
u1 (x ) u 2 (x) u 3 (x) u n (x)
i.e. y' = u'1(x) u2(x) u3(x) un(x) + u1(x) u'2(x) u3(x) un(x)+
+u1(x) u2(x) u'3(x) un(x)++ u1(x) u2(x) u3(x) u'n(x).
This function y = f(x) can, of course, also be differentiated by
repeated applications of the product rule (2.3). The great
advantage of logarithmic differentiation is that it gives us an
explicit formula for the derivative, a formula thats easy to
remember and easy to work with.
115
Example 2.11:
Given that f(x) = x(x1) (x2) (x3),
find f ' (x) for x 0 , 1, 2, 3.
Solution:
We can write f '(x) directly from Formula (2.25),
1 1 1 1
g'(x) = x(x1) (x2) (x3) + + + ,
x x 1 x 2 x 3
or we can go through the process by which we derived Formula
(2.25):
n |f (x)| = n | x | + n | x 1 | + n | x 2 | + n | x 3 | ,
f ' (x) 1 1 1 1
= + + + ,
f ( x ) x x 1 x 2 x 3
1 1 1 1
f ' (x) = x(x1) (x2) (x3) + + + .
x x 1 x 2 x 3
f ' (x) = (x1) (x2) (x3)+ x (x2) (x3)+ x(x1) (x3)+
+ x(x1) (x2).
Although f '(1) exist and f '(1) = 2, the logarithmic differentiation
method is not applicable to find f '(a) for a = 0 , 1, 2, 3 , (Since f(a)
= 0 , for a = 0 , 1, 2, 3)
Find f '(a) for a = 0 , 2, 3 .
Example 2.12:
Use logarithmic differentiation to find the first derivative of
2 2 2
y = x (1x ) /(1+x ) .
116
Solution:
2 2
n y = n x + 2 n (l x ) 1 n (l + x ).
2
y' 1 4x 2x
Then = + 1
y x 1 x2 2 1+ x2
(1 5x 2 4 x 4 )(1 x 2 )
y' = .
(1 + x 2 ) 3 / 2
Example 2.13:
2 2
i) D(x e x sin2x) , ii) D( x 3x ).
3
Find
where D = d/dx .
Solution:
2
Let y = x e x sin2x. Taking n to both sides,
3
i)
2
n y = 3 n x + x + n (sin2x).
1 dy 3 2 cos 2 x
= + 2x + ;
y dx x sin 2 x
2
Then Dy = y' = x e x [ (3+2x ) sin 2x + 2x cos 2x ].
2 2
ii) Although it is not a product, the logarithmic differentiation

method is applicable in this case.
2
Let y = x 3x , then
2
n y = 3x nx .
1 dy 2 1
= 3x + 6 x n x = 3x + 6 x n x .
y dx x
117
2
Then Dy = y' = 3 x 3x +1 [ 1 + 2 n x].
2.6 Simplification before differentiation:
In the case of certain types of expressions, the
differentiation is facilitated if the expression itse1f is simplified
before differentiation. Notable cases are those in which logarithms
occur, when use is made of the theorems on logarithms; also the
cases of fractions where the denominator is
a surdic quantity, which are simplified by rationalising the
denominator.
Example 2.14:
1 + x3 x2 + a2 x
Find y', where a) y = n , b) y = .
2 2 2
1+ x x +a +x
Solution:
3 2
a) y = 1 [ n (1+x ) n (1+x )].
2
3x 2 2x x ( x 3 + 3x 2)
1
Then y' =
2
= .
3
1 + x 1 + x 2 2(1 + x 2 )(1 + x 3 )
x2 + a2 x x2 + a2 x
b) y = . =
2 2 2 2
x +a +x x +a x
2x 2 + a 2 2x x 2 + a 2
=
a2
1 x
Then y' = [4x 2 x 2 + a 2 2x. ]=
2 2 2
a x +a
118
1 2( x 2 + a 2 ) + 2 x 2 2 (2x 2 + a 2 )
= [4x ]= [2x ].
2 2 2 2 2 2
a x +a a x +a
Note: In all cases the result must be simplified as far as possible.
Hyperbolic functions:
d d 1 x x 1 x x
sinh x = [e e ]= [e + e ] = cosh x ,
dx dx 2 2
(2.26)
d d 1 x x x x
cosh x = [e + e ]= 1 [e e ] = sinh x ,
dx dx 2 2
(2.27)
d d sinh x cosh x cosh x sinh x sinh x
tanh x = = =
dx dx cosh x 2
cosh x
cosh 2 x sinh 2 x 1 2
= = = sech x , (2.28)
cosh 2 x cosh 2 x
d d 1 2
sech x = [ cosh x ] = [ cosh x] sinh x =
dx dx
sinh x
= = sech x tanh x , (2.29)
2
cosh x
d d 1 2
csch x = [ sinh x ] = [ sinh x] cosh x =
dx dx
cosh x
= = csch x coth x , (2.30)
sinh 2 x
d d 1 2 2
coth x = [ tanh x ] = [tanh x] sech x =
dx dx
sec h 2 x 1 2
= = = csch x . (2.31)
tanh 2 x sinh 2 x
119
y y' y y'
sinh x cosh x csch x csch x coth x

cosh x sinh x sech x sech x tanh x
2 2
tanh x sech x coth x csch x
Exercises:
Derive formulas (2.28) (2.31) by another two different methods.
Example 2.15:
Find y', if i) y = tanh(l +x ),
2 ii) y = 1 sinh2x 1 x,
4 2
2
iii) y = n tanh 2x , iv) y = x sech x .
Solution:
2 2 2 2 2
i) y' = [tanh(l + x )]' = sech (l+x ).[l+x ]' = 2x sech
2
(l+x ),
ii) y' = [ 1 sinh2x 1 x]' = 1 cosh2x (2) 1 =
4 2 4 2
2
= 1 [ cosh 2x 1]= sinh x ,
2
2 sec h 2 2 x 2
iii) y' = [ n tanh 2x ]' = = =
tanh 2 x sinh 2 x cosh 2 x
= 4 csch 4x .
2 2 2
iv) y' = [ x sech x ]' = x ( sech x tanh x )(2x) + sech
2
x =
2 2 2 2
= 2 x sech x tanh x + sech x .
120
y y' = dy/dx y y' = dy/dx
du du
sinh u cosh u csch u csch u coth u
dx dx
du du
cosh u sinh u sech u sech u tanh u
dx dx
2 du 2 du
tanh u sech u coth u csch u
dx dx
Inverse Hyperbolic functions:
d 1 1
1) Derive (sinh x ) = .
dx 1+ x 2
(2.32)
1
Let y = sinh x. Then x = sinh y and differentiate with
respect (W.R.) to x, we get 1 = cosh y (dy/dx) ,
1
dy/dx = 1/ cosh y = 1/ 1 + sinh 2 y = .
2
1+ x
The sign being positive since cosh y > 0.
d 1 1
2) Derive (cosh x ) = .
dx 2
x 1
(2.33)
1
Let y = cosh x. Then x = cosh y and differentiate with
respect (W.R.) to x, we get 1 = sinh y (dy/dx) ,
2 2
dy/dx = 1/ sinh y . Since cosh y sinh y = 1 ,
121
cosh 2 y 1 .
2 2
then sinh y = cosh y 1 and sinh y =
1
If we restrict attention to the principal value , y = cosh x , y 0,
for then sinh y 0 , and therefor sinh y = + cosh 2 y 1 .
1
Thus dy/dx = 1/ sinh y = 1/ cosh 2 y 1 = .
2
x 1
d 1 1
3) Derive (tanh x ) = , | x | < 1.
dx 2
1 x
(2.34)
1
Let y = tanh x. Then x = tanh y and differentiate with
2
respect (W.R.) to x, we get 1 = sech y (dy/dx) ,
2 2 2
dy/dx = 1/ sech y . Since 1 tanh y = sech y , then
dy 1 1 1
= = = .
dx sec h 2 y 1 tanh 2 y 1 x 2
d 1 1
4) Derive (sech x ) = .
dx x 1 x 2
(2.35)
1
Let y = sech x. Then x = sech y and differentiate with
respect (W.R.) to x, we get 1 = sech y tanh y (dy/dx) ,
2 2
dy/dx = 1/ sech y tanh y . Since 1 tanh y = sech y ,
then tanh y = 1 sech y and tanh y = 1 sec h 2 y .
2 2
1
If we restrict attention to the principal value , y = sech x , y 0,
for then tanh y 0 , and therefor tanh y = + 1 sec h 2 y .
dy 1 1
Thus = =
dx sec h y tanh y x 1 x 2
122
d 1 1
5) Derive (csch x ) = .
dx x 1+ x 2
(2.36)
1
Let y = csch x. Then x = csch y and differentiate with
respect (W.R.) to x, we get 1 = csch y coth y (dy/dx) ,
2 2
dy/dx = 1/ csch y coth y . Since coth y 1 = csch y ,
csc h 2 y + 1 .
2 2
then coth y = csch y + 1 and coth y =
It is easy to see, cf. Figure (1.68) , when x > 0 ; y>0 and when
x < 0 , y < 0 also and for then csch y coth y > 0 in all cases.
dy 1 1
Thus = = .
dx csc h y coth y x 1 + x 2
d 1 1
6) Derive (coth x ) = , | x | > 1.
dx 2
1 x
(2.37)
1
Let y = coth x. Then x = coth y and differentiate with
2
respect (W.R.) to x, we get 1 = csch y (dy/dx) ,
2 2 2
dy/dx = 1/ csch y . Since coth y 1 = csch y , then
dy 1 1 1 1
= = = = .
dx csc h 2 y coth 2 y 1 1 coth 2 y 1 x 2
Example 2.16:
1 1 x
Find y', if i) y = cosh 2x , ii) y = sinh e ,
1 1
iii) y = tanh (sin x) , iv) y = coth (1/x) .
Solution:
123
1 2
i) y' = [cosh 2x]' = ,
2
4x 1
1 x ex
ii) y' = [ sinh e ]' = ,
2x
e +1
1 [sin x ]' 1 cos x
iii) y' = [tanh (sin x)]' = , = =
1 sin 2 x 1 sin 2 x cos x
1 1 1 1
iv) y' = [coth (1/x)]' = = .
2 2 2
1 (1 / x ) x 1 x
dy
y y' =
dx
1 du
1 2
sinh u= n (u + u + 1 )
1 + u 2 dx
1 du
u = n (u + u 2 1)
1
cosh
u 2 1 dx
1
1 1+ u 1 du
tanh n u= , u < 1 , | u | < 1.
2 1 u 1 u 2 dx
1 2
csch u = n 1 + u + 1 =
u u 1 du

1 1 u 1 + u 2 dx
= sinh , u 0
u
2
u = n 1 + 1 u =
1
sech
u 1 du

1 1 u 1 u 2 dx
= cosh , 0< u 1
u
124
1 1 u +1
coth u= n ,u > 1.
2 u 1 1 du
, | u | > 1.
1 2 dx
= tanh
1
. 1 u
u
2.9 Parametric representation of curves:
If the coordinates (x , y) of a point P on a curve are given as
functions f(t) and g(t) of a third variable or parameter t. The
equations x = f(t) , y = g(t) are called parametric equations of the
dy dy dy dx
curve. The first derivative is given by = / .
dx dx dt dt
d2y
The second derivative is given by
dx 2
d 2 y d dy d dy dt
= = . and so on.
dx 2 dx dx dt dx dx
d2y d dy dt
It is easy to see that = . is different from and
dx 2 dt dx dx
d2y d2x
not equal to / in general.
dt 2 dt 2
dx d 2 y d 2 x dy

d 2 y dt dt 2 dt 2 dt
Show that = .
2 3
dx dx
dt
Example 2.17:
It is clear that; x = a cos t , y = b sin t , are parametric equations,
x2 y2
with parameter t of the ellipse + = 1.
2 2
a b
125
dx dy
It is clear that = a sin t , = b cos t ,
dt dt
d2x d2y
= a cos t and = b sin t . Thus
2 2
dt dt
dy dy dx b
= / = b cos t / a sin t = cot t .
dx dt dt a
d 2 y d dy dt b 2 dx b 2
= . = csc t / = csc t / a sin t =
dx 2 dt dx dx a dt a
b 3
= csc t,
a2
d2y d2x b
while / = b sin t / a cos t = tan t ,
dt 2 dt 2 a
d2y b 3 b d2y d2x
i.e. = csc t tan t = / .
2 2 a 2 2
dx a dt dt
Example 2.18:
2
It is clear that; x = cos , y = 4 sin are parametric equations,
2
with parameter of the parabola 4x + y = 4.
2
Also x = 1 t , y = 4 t is another parametric equations with
2
parameter t, of the same curve.
It should be noted that the first set of parametric equation
represents only a portion of the parabola, whereas the second
represents the entire curve.
dx dy
It is clear that = sin , = 8 sin cos , then
d d
dy 8 sin cos
= = 8 cos = 8 x.
dx sin
126
d2y d d
= [ 8 cos ] . = 8 sin / sin = 8 .
dx 2 d dx
d2y d
or very simply = [8x] = 8 .
dx 2 dx
d2y d2x
= 8 cos 2 , = cos
2 2
d d
d2y d2x d2y
and / = 8 cos2 / cos = 8.
2 2 2
d d dx
dx 1 dy dy
It is clear that = , =2t, = 4 t = 8x ,
dt 2 dt dx
d2y d dt
= [ 4 t] . = 4 / 1 = 8 .
2
dx 2 dt dx
d2y d2x d2y d2x
=2, = 0 and / is not defined.
dt 2 dt 2 dt 2
dt 2
Figure 2.3 a Figure 2.3 b
2.10 Derivatives of higher order:

The derivative of a function f(x) is a new function.
127
Therefore we can try to find its derivative. The derivative of a first

derivative is cal1ed a derivative of the second order or the second
derivative and is denoted by y" or f "(x). The derivative of the
second derivative is called a derivative of the third order or the
third derivative and is denoted by y"' or f "'(x). By induction, the
(n) th th
derivative f of the n ( or simply, the n derivative) is denoted
(n1) th
as the (first) derivative of the derivative f (x) of the (nl)
th
order. Of course, the n derivative of a given function f at a given
point x may or may not exist.
m
The function x , where m is a positive integer possesses
the derivatives of any order throughout the real axis.
m (n) mn
(x ) = m (ml)...(mn+l) x . ( n < m ). (2.38)
m (m)
For n = m , we have (x ) = m! .
m (n) m (m+k)
For n > m we have (x ) 0 . i.e. (x ) 0 , k > 0.
x (n) x n x n
Obviously, (a ) = a ( n a) = a n a,
(2.39)
x (n) x bx (n) n bx
and. in particular (e ) = e , (e ) =b e . (2.40)
th
Let us calculate the n derivative of the functions
sin x , cos x :
If y = sin x, then
y' = cos x = sin (x + )
2
Thus as a result of the differentiation of the function y = sin x, a
quantity is added to the argument of that function. Hence we
2
obtain the following formulas:
128
y" = [sin (x + )]' = cos (x + ) = sin (x + 2 ),

2 2 2
y'" = [sin (x + 2 )]' = cos (x + 2 ) = sin ( x + 3 ) ,

2 2 2
(4)
y = [sin (x + 3 )]' = cos (x + 3 ) = sin ( x + 4 ), and so on.
2 2 2
Finally, it is easy to see that
y = [sin x] = sin (x + n ) .
(n) (n)
2
= cos (x + n ).
(n) (n)
Similarly, y = [cos x]
2
= a sin (a x + n ),
(n) (n) n
In general, y = [sin a x] (2.41)
2
y = [cos a x] = a cos (a x + n ).
(n) (n) n
(2.42)
2
In all cases the general formulas established by the method of
Mathematical Induction.
th
Let us calculate the n derivative of the functions
sinh a x, cosh a x.
2
If y = sinh a x, then y' = a cosh a x , y" = a sinh a x ,
(n) (n) a n sinh ax, if n is an even integer,
y = [sinh ax] = n (2.43)
a cosh ax, if n is an odd integer .
2
Similarly, if y = cosh a x, then y' = a sinh a x , y" = a cosh a x ,
(n) (n) a n cosh ax, if n is an even integer,
y = [cosh a x] = n (2.44)
a sinh ax, if n is an odd integer .
th
Let us calculate the n derivative of the function n x .
1 2 3
Let y = n x , y' = 1/x = x , y" = x , y"' = (1)(2) x ,
(4) 4 3 4
y = (1)(2)(3) x = (1) 3! x , and in general
n 1
(n) n1 n (1) (n 1)!
y = (1) (n1)! x = . (2.45)
n
x
129
th
Let us calculate the n derivative of the function 1/x =x
1
.
1 2 3
Let y = 1/x =x , y' = x , y" = (1)(2) x ,
(3) 4 3 4
y"' = y = (1)(2)(3) x = (1) 3! x , and in general
(n) n n1 (1) n n!
y = (1) n! x = . (2.46)
n +1
x
m m m 1
In general, let y = 1/x = x , then y' = m x ,
m2
y" = (m)(m1) x ,
(3) m3 3 m3
y = (m)(m1)(m2) x = (1) m(m+1)(m+2) x =
3 ( m + 2)! 1
= (1) , since
(m 1)! x m +3
1.2.3...(m 1)m(m + 1)(m + 2) (m + 2)!
m(m+1)(m+2) = = ,
1.2.3...(m 1) (m 1)!
(4) m4
y = (m)(m1)(m2)(m3) x =
4 m4 4 (m + 3)! 1
= (1) m(m+1)(m+2)(m+3) x = (1) ,
(m 1)! x m + 4
(n) n (m + n 1)! 1
y = (1) . (2.47)
(m 1)! x m + n
But, by far not for any function, we succeed in finding a
th
general formula for its n derivative.
Example 2.19:
th
Find the n derivative of the linearfractional function
y = (a x + b)/(c x + d), where a, b, c and d are constants.
Solution:
130
Differentiating W.R. to x get

a (cx + d ) c(ax + b) 2
y' = = [ a d b c] ( c x + d) ,
(cx + d) 2
3
y" = [ a d b c] (2) ( c x + d) c,
(3) 4 2
y = [ a d b c] (2)(3) ( c x + d) c =
2 4 2
= [ a d b c] (1) 3! ( c x + d) c
It is easy to get
(n) n1 n1 n1
y = [ a d b c] (1) n! ( c x + d) c .
Leibnitz's formula:
th
This is used to find the n derivative of a product, and
states that:
If we take a function f(x) = u(x) v(x), where u(x) and v(x) are
th
certain functions possessing the n derivatives at a given point, the
th
n derivative of f(x) exists at that point and is expressed by the
Leibnitz's formula.
(n) (n) (n) n (n1) n (n2)
f (x) = [u v] =u v + C1 u v' + C2 u v" + +
+ n Cr u
(nr) (r) (n)
v ++uv =
n
= n C r u (n r ) v (r ) , (2.48)
r =0
n (n 1)(n 2)...(n r + 1) n!
where n C r = = . (2.49)
r! r! (n r )!
Note:
n
The result (2.48) is similar to the binomial expansion of (a + b) ,
which states that
n n n n1 n n2 2 n nr r n
(a + b) = a + C1 a b + C2 a b + + Cr a b ++ b =
131
n 0 n n1 n n2 2 n nr r 0 n
= a b + C1 a b+ C2 a b ++ Cr a b ++ a b =
n
= n C r a n r b r . (2.50)
r =0
The terms on the right hand side of equation (2.48) may be
obtained from the terms in the binomial expansion (2.50) by
nr r (nr) (r)
replacing a b by u v for r = 0, 1, 2, , n, and
(0) (0)
interpreting u as being u itself and v as being v .
N.B. In the application of Leibnitz's formula, the v function
should be a function of x ( if possible) that vanishes after a finite
number of differentiation.
Exercise:
Using the method of Mathematical induction prove the Leibnitz's
formula.
Example 2.20:
th 3 ax
Find the n derivative to the function y = x e .
Solution:
ax ax 2 ax (n) n ax
Let u = e , u' = a e , u" = a e , u =a e .
3 2 (4)
v = x , v ' = 3x , v" = 6x, v"' = 6 v = 0 .
(n) n ax 3 n1 ax 2 n2 ax
Then y = a e x + n a e 3 x + 1 n(n1) a e 6x +
2
n3 ax
+ 1 n(n1)(n2) a e (6) =
6
132
ax n 3 n1 2 n2 n3
= e [a x + 3 n a x +3n(n1) a x + n(n1)(n2)a ]=
n3 ax 3 3 2 2
=a e [ a x + 3 n a x +3n(n1) a x + n(n1)(n2)].
Example 2.21:
th
Find the n derivative to the function y = x sin x.
Solution:
= sin [x + n ],
(n)
Let u = sin x , u
2
v = x , v ' = 1 , v" = 0 .
Then y = x sin [x + n ] + n sin [x + (n1) ] .
(n)
2 2
Example 2.22:
x 2x
Prove that the function y = A e +Be satisfies the differential
equation y" + 3y' + 2y = 0 (here A and B are constants).
Solution:
x 2x x 2x
y' = A e 2 B e , y" = A e +4 B e .
x 2x
Then y" + 3y' + 2y = A e +4Be +
x 2x x 2x
+ 3 [ A e 2 B e ]+ 2[A e +Be ]=
x 2x
= A[13+2] e + B [46+2]e 0.
Equation y" + 3y' + 2y = 0 is called a second order differential
x 2x
equation and y = A e +Be its solution.
Example 2.23:
(n)
Find y , if y = x n x.
133
Solution:
Let u = n x , v = x .
(n) (1) n 1 (n 1)!
Hence, from (2.44) , u = , v = x , v' =1, v" = 0.
n
x
n 1
(n) (1) (n 1)! (1) n 2 (n 2)!
Then y =x + n(1) =
n n 1
x x
n 2
(1) (n 2)!
= .
n 1
x
Example 2.24:
(n) 2
Find y , if y = x cos x.
Solution:
= cos(x + n ),
2 (n)
Let u = cos x , v = x , from (2.41) u
2
(3)
v' = 2x, v" = 2 , v = 0. Then from Leibnitz's formula, we get
y = x cos[x + n ]+2nx cos[x+(n1) ]+n(n1)cos[x +(n2) ]
(n) 2
2 2 2
2
= x cos[x + n ]+2nx cos[x + n ]+n(n1)cos[x +n ]=
2 2 2 2
= x cos[x + n ]+2nx sin[x + n ] n(n1)cos[x +n ]=
2
2 2 2
= {x n(n1)}cos[x + n ]+2nx sin[x + n ].
2
2 2
Example 2.25:
(n) (6) (9) 3
Find y ,y and y , if y = x sinh ax.
Solution:
134
3 2 (3) (4)
Let u = sinh a x, v = x , v' = 3x , v" = 6x , v = 6, v =0.
(n) a n sinh ax, if n is an even integer,
[sinh a x] = n
a cosh ax, if n is an odd integer .
(n) n
i) Let n = 2m is an even integer ,then [sinh a x] =a
sinh ax,
and from Leibnitz's formula, we get
(n) 3 n n2
y = sinh ax [x a + 1 n(n1) a 6x] +
2
n1 2 n3
+cosh ax [n a 3 x + 1 n(n1)(n2) a (6)] =
6
= P(x) sinh ax + Q(x) cosh ax ,
n2 2 2
where P(x) = a x [x a + 3n(n1)],
n3 2 2
Q(x) =n a [3a x + (n1)(n2) ].
ii) Let n = 2 m + 1 is an odd integer ,
(n) n
then [sinh a x] = a cosh ax, and from Leibnitz's formula, we get
(n) 3 n n2
y = cosh ax [x a + n(n1) 1 a 6x] +
2
n1 2 n3
+ sinh ax [n a 3x + 1 n(n1)(n2) a (6)]=
6
= P(x) cosh ax + Q(x) sinh ax ,
P(x) sinh ax + Q(x) cosh ax, if n is an even integer,

(n)
i.e. y =
P(x) cosh ax + Q(x) sinh ax, if n is an odd integer
n2 2 2
where P(x) = a x [x a + 3n(n1)],
n3 2 2
Q(x) = n a [3a x + (n1)(n2) ].
(6) 4 2 2 3 2 2
y = a x [ a x + 90] sinh ax + 6a [3 a x +20] cosh ax ,
(9) 7 2 2 6 2 2
y = a x [a x + 216] cosh ax+ 9 a [3 a x + 56] cosh ax.
Example 2.26:
135
1 1 2 dy
If y= sin x, Prove that (1x ) = x y + 1.
1 x2 dx
By applying Leibnitzs formula, show that

2 (n+1) (n) 2 (n1)
(1x ) y (2n+1) x y n y =0,
(n+1)
Hence find the value of y when x = 0.
Solution:
In this type of problem it is advisable to clear fractions at any
stage before differentiating, as it is more convenient to
differentiate a product rather than a fraction.
1
sin x , therefore y 1 x 2 = sin x ,
1 1
y= (2.51)
1 x2
Differentiating with respect to x,
dy x 1
1 x2 y= ,
dx 1 x 2
1 x 2
2 dy 2 dy
i.e. (1x ) x y = 1 , i.e. (1x ) = 1 + x y, (2.52)
dx dx
th th
The n derivative of the L.H.S. of (2.52) will equal the n
derivative of the R.H.S. of (2.52), and applying Leibnitzs
formula,
th 2
The n derivative of (1x ) y' with respect to x is
2 (n+1) n (n) n (n1)
(1x ) y + C1(2x) y + C2 (2)y =
2 (n+1) (n) (n1)
= (1x ) y 2nxy n(n1) y (2.53)
th
The n derivative of x y + 1 with respect to x
(n) (n1)
is x y +ny . (2.54)
Equating the last two results (2.53) and (2.54) we get
136
2 (n+1) (n) (n1) (n) (n1)
(1x ) y 2nxy n(n1) y =xy +ny
2 (n+1) (n) 2 (n1)
(1x ) y (2 n +1) x y n y =0. (2.55)
(n+1) 2 (n1)
Put x = 0 in (2.55) , we get , y (0) = n y (0), (2.56)
From (2.51) , when x = 0 , y (0) = 0,
From (2.56), when n = 1, 3, 5, ,we get
(2) (0) (4) (2) (6)
y (0) = y (0)= y (0) = 0, y (0) = 9 y (0)= 0, y (0)=0 , etc.
(n+1)
Therefore, when n is odd, y (0) = 0.
From (2.52) , when x = 0 , y' (0) = 1,
From (2.56), when n = 2k , k =1, 2, 3, ,we get
(3) 2 2 (5) 2 (3) 2 2 (7) 2 2 2
y (0) = 2 y ' (0)= 2 , y (0) = 4 y (0)= 2 .4 , y (0)= 2 .4 .6 ,
(2k+1) 2 2 2 2 2 k 2 2k 2
, y = 2 .4 .6 (2k) = (2 ) (k!) = 2 (k!) etc.
(n+1) 2k 2 n 2
Therefore, when n is even = 2k , y (0) = 2 (k!) =2 [(n/2)!] .
(n+1) 0 if n is an odd integer,
Hence y = n n 2
[ ]
2 2 ! if n is an even integer.
2.11 Differentials:
Let x = dx be an increment given to x. Then
y = f(x+x) f(x) , (2.57)
is called the increment in y = f(x). If f(x) is continuous and has a
continuous first derivative in an interval, then
y = f '(x) x + x = f '(x) dx + dx, (2.58)
where 0 as x 0 . The expression
dy = f '(x) dx, (2.59)
137
is called the differential of y. Note that y dy in general.

However if x = dx is small, then dy is a close approximation of
y. The quantity dx, called the differential of x, and dy need not
be small. Because of the definitions (2.57) and (2.59) we often
write
dy f ( x + x ) f ( x ) y
= f '(x) = lim = lim . (2.60)
dx x0 x x0 x
On the figure
PL = x = dx
ML = dy, QL = y
y = the change in
the function f(x),
Figure 2.4
dy = the change in the direction of the tangent.
It is emphasised that dx and dy are not the limits of x and y as

x 0, since these limits are zero whereas dx and dy are not
necessarily zero. Instead, given dx we determine dy from (2.59),
i.e. dy is a dependent variable determined from the independent
variable dx for a given x.
Example 2.27:
3
If y = f(x) = x , find i) y , ii) dy , iii) y dy.
138
Solution:
3 3
i) y = f (x + x) f(x) = (x+ x) x =
2 2 3
= 3 x x + 3 x (x) + (x) .
2 2
ii) dy = ( principal part of y = 3 x x )= 3 x dx ,
since by definition x = dx .
2 2 2
Note that f '(x) = 3x and dy = 3x dx i.e. dy/dx = 3x .
It must be emphasised that dy and dx are not necessarily small.
iii) From (i) and (ii),
2 3
y dy = 3 x (x) + (x) = x ,
2
where = 3 x x + (x)
In case x small, dy and y are approximately equal.
Example 2.28:
Evaluate 3 9 approximately by use of differentials
Solution:
If x is small, y = f(x +x) f(x) = f '(x) x ,
approximately. Let f (x) = 3 x .
(2/3)
Then 3 x + x 3 x 1 x x,
3
(where denotes approximately equal to)
(2/3)
If x = 8 and x = 1, we have 3 9 3 8 1 (8) (1) ,
3
i.e. 3 9 2 + 1 (8)
3
(2/3) 2
[]
(1) = 2 + 1 1 = 2 + 1
3 2 12
139
Then 3 9 2 + 0.083 =2.083

3
It is interesting to observe that (2.083) = 9.0422 so that the
approximation is fairly good. A calculator readout of 3 9 is
2.0800838 correct to seven figures.
EXERCISES 2
1) Find from first principles the differential coefficient of

a) y = 1/x, b) y = x , c) y = cot x x
-2 2
[Answers: a) x , b) 1/2 x , c) cot x ]
2) Applying the formulas and the rules of differentiation, find
the derivative of the following functions
3 2 2 x
a) y = 2x 5x + 7 x + 4, b) y = x e ,
3
c) y = x arctan x , d) y = x x [ 3 n x 2],
arcsin x sin x cos x
e) y = , f) y = ,
x sin x + cos x
3 4 6
g) y = ( 2x + 5) h) y = tan x,
2
i) y = cos x , j) y = sin(2x+3).
2 x
[Answers: a) 6 x 10 x + 7 , b)x e (x+2),
3 2 2
c) x /(1+x ) + 3x arctan x, d) (9/2) x n x,
e) [x 1 x 2 arcsin x]/x 1 x2 ,
2 2
f) 2/[ sin x + cos x] ,
2 3 3 5 2
g) 24x (2x +5) , h) 6 tan x sec x , i) sin 2x, j) 2 cos(2x+3). ]
3) Differentiate the following functions
3
a) y = tan n x, b) y = sin (x/3),
c) y = n (x + 5) ,
2 d) y = n tan 1 x ,
2
140
e) y = n [ x + x 2 + 1 ], f) y = arctan [ ( n x)/3] ,
g) y = n [ 2 sin x + 1 + 2 sin x 1 ],
h) y = 1 x x2 + k + 1 k n[ x + x 2 + k ],
2 2
2 4
i) y = arcsin [2x /(1+x )] , | x | < 1 ,
j) y = e arctan e n 1 + e 2 x .
x x
2 2
[Answers: a) (1/x) sec n x, b) sin (x/3)cos(x/3),
2 2 - 2
c) 2x/(x +5), d) 1/sin x , e) (1+x ) , f) 3/[x(9+ n x)],

4 sin 2 x 1 , h) (x +k) , i) 4x /(1+x ) , j) e arctan e .]
2 4 x x
g) cos x/
4) Find y' if :
2
a) y = [ sin x / cos x] + n [(l + sin x )/ cos x ],
2
b) y = 1 tan x + n cos x ,
2
3 5
c) y = 5 sinh (x/15) + 3 sinh (x/15) ,
2 tan x
d) y = x ( x ) , e) y = ( sin x ) .
3
[Answers: a) 2 sec x, b) 1 (tan x )/ x ,
2
2 2 2 3
c) sinh (x/15)cosh (x/15)[1+sinh (x/15)]sinh (x/15)cosh (x/15),
2
d) x x +1 [1+ 2 n x],
tan x 2
e) ( sin x ) (1+ sec x n sin x) .]
5) Find y' if:

sin x + cos x
a) y = 3 cos x + 2 sin x , b) y = ,
sin x cos x
2 3
c) y = (x +1) arctan x, d) y = x arcsin x ,
2x 2 + x + 1 cos x + sin x
e) y = , f) y = ,
x2 x +1 1 cos x
141
e x + sin x x
g) y = , h) y = e ( cos x + sin x) .
xe x
2
[Answers: a)3 sin x + 2 cos x , b) -2/(sin x cos x) ,
2 3 2 -
c) 2x arctan x + 1, d) 3x arcsin x + x (1x ) ,
3x 2 + 2 x + 2 f)
cos x sin x 1
,
e) , 2
( x 2 x + 1) 2 (1 cos x )
x (cos x sin x ) sin x e x
g) , h) 2 ex cos x .]
2 x
x e
6) Find y' if:
3
a) y = sin x , b) y = n tan x,
cos x 3
c) y = 5 , d) y = n sin (x +1),
5
e) y = arcsin 1 x 2 , f) y = n (tan 3x).
2 cos x
[Answers: a) 3 sin x cos x, b) 2/sin2x, c) 5 .sin x n 5,
d) 3x cot(x +1), e) x/|x| 1 x 2 , x 0,
2 3
4
f) 30 csc 6x n (tan3x).]
7) Investigate the function y = | n x | for differentiability at the
point x = 1.
8) Find the derivatives of the following functions
2 4 3
a) y = (1 + 3x + 5x ) , b) y = ( 3 sin x) ,
3
sin 2 x + [1/cos x],
2
c) y = d) y = arccos x,
2
e) y =sin 3x+ cos(x/5) +tan x , f) y = sin(x 5x+1) + tan(a/x),
3
2e x + 2 x + 1 + n x,
5
g) y = h) y = arctan n x + n arctan x,
2
i) y = n arctan(x/3), j) y = x+ x+ x .
2 3 2
[Answers: a) 4(1+3x+5x ) (3+10x), b) 3(3 sin x) . cos x,
142
1/3 3
c) 2 cos x / 3(sin x) + 2 sin x /cos x , d) 1/2 x (1 x ) ,
2
e) 3cos3x (1/5) sin(x/5)+( sec x )/2 x ,
2
f) (2x5) cos(x25x+1) (a/x) sec (a/x),
x x x x 2/3 4
g) (2e +2 n 2)/3(2e 2 +1) + (sin x)/x ,
2 2
h) 1/x(1+ n x) + 1/(1+x )(arctan x),
2
i) 2 n arctan(x/3)[1/arctan(x/3)][3/(9+x )]
1 1 1
j) [1 + (1 + )]
2 x+ x+ x 2 x+ x 2 x
9) Find the derivatives of the following functions:

a) y = sinh 5x cosh (x/3), b) y = coth(tan x) tanh(cot x),
2 3 3 2
c) y = arccos(tan x)+sinh(sin6x) d) y = sinh x + cosh x ,
sinh ax
e) y = e /[sinh bxcosh bx].
[Answers: a) 5cosh5x cosh(x/3)+(l/3)sinh5x sinh(x/3),
2 2 2 2
b) sec x/[sinh (tan x)] + csc x/[cosh (cot x)],
c) (l/cosh x) + 6 cos 6x cosh(sin 6x) ,
3 2 3
d) 3x[x sinh 2x + cosh x sinh 2x ],
sinh ax bx
e) e e ( a cosh ax + b). ]
x 2
10) Show that the function y = x e 2 satisfies the equation
2
x y' = (1 x ) y.
-x
11) Show that the function y = x e satisfies the equation x
y' = (1 x ) y.
th
12) Find the derivatives of the n order of the following
functions
ax
a) y = n x , b) y = e ,
143
c) y = sin x , d) y = sin 5x cos 2x,

2
e) y = sin x cos x , f) y = sin 3x cos x,
2
g) y = n [ x + x 2],
c) sin(x + n ),
n-1 -n n ax
[Answers: a) (1) (n-l)!x , b) a e ,
2
d) 1 [7 sin(7x+n )+3 sin(3x+n )], e) 2 sin(2x+n ) ,
n n n-1
2 2 2 2
1 1 n 1 n
f) sin(x + n ) + 3 sin(3x+n )+ 5 sin(5x+n ) ,
4 2 2 2 4 2
n-1 -n -n
g) (1) (n1)! [ ( x 1) + (x +2) ].
2
13) If y = x/(x l), prove that
(n) n -n-1 -n-1
y = 1 (1) n! [ ( x + 1) + (x 1) ].
2
14) Using the Leibnitzs formula, find the derivative of the
indicated orders for the following functions
2 (25) x 2 (24)
a) y = x sin x ; find y , b) y = e (x 1) ; find y ,
ax (n)
c) y = e sin bx ; find y .
(25) 2
[Answers: a) y = (x 6000) cos x + 50 x sin x ,
(24) x 2
b) y = e [ x + 48 x + 551],
(n) ax n n-2 2
d) y = e sin bx [a n(n1)a b /2! +] +
ax n-1 n-3 3
+ e cos bx [na b n(n1)(n2)a b /3! +] ].
15) For the function
3 5
a) y =2x + 3 x + x ; find dx/dy ,
2 2
b) y = 3x 1 cos x ; find d x/dy ,
2
x 2 2
c) y = x + e ; find d x/dy .
2 4 3
[Answers: a) 1/(6x + 15x + 11), b) 4 cos x/(6+sin x) ,
x x 3
c) e /(1+e ) .]
144
16) For each of the following functions represented

parametrically find the derivative of the first order of y with
respect to x.
a) x = a (t sin t) ; y = a (l - cos t) ,
b) x = a sin t sin at ; y = a cos t + cos at,
c) x = 2 n cot t ; y = tan t + cot t,
at -at
d) x = e ; y = e .
[Answers: a) cot 1 t ( t 2k ) , b) cot 1 (a l)t,
2 2
1 -2at
d) cot 2t ( t k ) , d) 2 e .]
2
17) The following functions are defined parametrically
3 3
a) x = a cos t ; y = b sin t ,
3 3
b) x = t + 3 t + 1 ; y = t 3 t + 1,
c) x = a (cos t + t sin t) ; y = a (sin t t cos t) ,
t t
d) x = e cos t ; y = e sin t .
Find for them the second derivatives of y with respect to x.
2 4 2 3 3
[Answers: a) b/3a cos t sin t, b) 4t/3(t +1) ,c) 1/at cos t ,
t 3
d) 2/e (cos t sin t) .]
18) Find dy/dx for the following implicit functions:
a) x + xy + y = a ,
b) arctan (x/y) = n x 2 + y 2 ,
x -y
c) e sin y e cos x = 0,
y
d) e + x y = e , find y' at the point (0 , 1) .
[Answers: a) (2a 2x y)/(x + 2y2a), b) (xy)/(x+y),
145
x -y x -y
c) (e sin y + e sin x)/(e cos y + e cos x), d) 1/e.]
19) Show that the function y = f(x), defined by the parametric
t t
equations x = e sin t, y = e cos t, satisfies the relation
2
y" (x + y) = 2 (xy' y)
20) Find y', if:

3
x 2 [(1 x)/(1 + x )] sin x cos x ; b) y = ( sin x) ;
2 2 2 x
a) y =
-1 -1
b) y = sin (sin x) ; c) y = sin ( sin x);
1 tan x 1 cos x + sin x
d) y = tan 1 , e) y = tan ,
1 + tan x cos x sin x
1 cos x
g) y = cot 1 , 0 x< .
1 + cos x
2
[Answers: a) y[2/3x 1/(lx) 2x/(1+x ) +2 cot x 2 tan x,
b) y[ n sin x + x cot x], c) 1, d) 1, e) 1, f) 1 , g) 1 ].
2
21) Prove that the first derivatives of the following functions
equal to zero. Why?
2
1 2x 1 1 x
a) tan + sin ,
2 2
1 x 1+ x
2
1 2 x 1 1 + x
b) cot + sec .
2 2
1 x 1 x
22) Find y' if:
-l -l
a) y = tan (sinh x) + cos (tanh x) ,

b) y = sin tanh n [(l + x)/(1 x)] ,
-l -1
c) y = tan (cot x) + cos (cos x),
-1 -1
d) y = sin (tanh x) + sin ( sech x) ,
146
e) y = sinh n [ x + x 2 + 1 ],
-1 -1
f) y = sec x + sin (1/x),
-1 -1
g) y = tan x + tan (1/x),
1 x2 .
-1 -1
h) y = sin x + sin
[Answers: a) 0, b) cos x, c) 0 , d) 0, e) 1, f) 0 , g) 0 , h) 0 . ]
23) Find y' if:
2 4
a) y = (1 x)(1 + x )(1 + x )(1 + x),
2 2
b) y = (1 x)(1 + x)(1 + x + x ) (1 x + x ),
5
c) y = (x 1) /(x 1) ,
d) y = e n x .
7 5 2 3
[Answers: a) -8x , b) 6 x , c) 1 + 2 x + 3x + 4x , d) 1.]
x
24) Prove that the function y = e sin x, satisfies the relationship
y" 2y' + 2y = 0 ;
-x
y = e sin x, satisfies the relationship y" + 2y' + 2y = 0.
4x -x
25) Prove that the function y = e + 2e , satisfies the
relationship y" 13 y' 12 y = 0.
147
Calculus MEAN VALUE THEOREMS Chapter 3
CHAPTER 3
MEAN VALUE THEOREMS
3.1 Mean Value Theorems:

If a continuous curve
intersects the x-axis at x=a
and x = b, and has a tangent at
every point between a and b,
Figure 3.1
then there is at least one point
x = c between a and b where the tangent is parallel to the x-axis.
Theorem 3.1: ( Rolle's Theorem )

If f(x) is continuous in [a , b] and differentiable in (a , b) and if
f(a)=f(b)=K, then there exists a point c in (a,b) such that f '(c) = 0.
Proof:
Without loss of generality we will consider that K = 0.
Case 1: f(x) 0 in [a , b]. Then f ' (x) =0 for all x in (a , b).
Case 2: f(x) 0 in [a , b]. Since f(x) is continuous there are
points at which f(x) attains its maximum and minimum values,
denoted by M and m respectively. ( cf. Theorem 1.7 ).
Since f(x) 0 , at least one of the values m and M is not zero.
Suppose, for example M 0 and f(c) = M.
For this case, f(c + h) f(c).
f ( c + h ) f ( c)
If h > 0 , then 0,
h
147
f ( c + h ) f ( c)
and lim 0. (3.1)
h 0+ h
f ( c + h ) f ( c)
If h < 0 , then 0,
h
f ( c + h ) f ( c)
and lim 0. (3.2)
h 0 h
But by hypothesis f(x) has a derivative at all points in (a ,b). Then
the right hand limit (3.1) must be equal to left hand limit (3.2).
This can happen only if they are both equal to zero, in which case
f'(c) = 0, as required.
Example 3.1:
Find the value of c prescribed in Rolle's Theorem on the interval
2
[0 , 2] for f(x)= x 2x.
Solution:
It is c1ear that f(x) is continuous in [0 , 2] and differentiable in
(0 , 2) and f(0) = f(2) = 0 .
Then f '(x) = 2 x 2 , f '(c) = 0 gives c = 1.
Example 3.2:
Does Rolles Theorem apply to the functions
x 2 4x x 2 4x
i) f(x) = , and ii) g(x) = .
x 3 x+3
148
Solution:
i) f(0) = 0 when x = 0 & x = 4. Since f(x) is discontinuous at
x = 3, a point on the interval (0 ,4) the Theorem does not apply.
ii) g(0) = 0 when x = 0 & x = 4. Here g(x) is discontinuous at
x = 3 , a point not on the interval ( 0 , 4) .
2 2
g'(c) = (x + 6x 12)/(x+3) exists everywhere except at x = 3.
2
Hence the theorem applies and the positive root of x + 6x12 = 0
is c = 21 3 1.58258 (0 , 4), and the negative root is
21 3 7.58258 (0 , 4).
Theorem 3.2 LaGranges Mean-value Theorem

If f(x) is continuous in [a , b] and differentiable in (a , b) , then
there exists a point c in (a , b) such that
f ( b ) f (a )
= f ' (c) , a<c<b (3.3)
ba
Proof:
f ( b ) f (a )
Define F(x) = f(x) f(a) (x a) , (3.4)
ba
Then F(a) = F(b) = 0 and F(x) is continuous in [a , b] and
differentiable in (a , b). Then applying Roll's theorem to the
function F(x), we obtain
f ( b ) f (a )
F'(c) = f '(c) = 0 , a < c < b,
ba
149
f ( b ) f (a )
or f '(c) = ,
ba
a<c<b.
The result (3.3) can be written
in various alternative forms;
Figure 3.2
for example, if x and x0 are in (a , b), then
f(x) = f(x0) + f '(c) (x x0) , (3.5)
c between x0 and x. We can also write (3.5) with b = a + h , in
which c = a + h, where 0 < < 1 .
f(a + h) = f(a) + h f '(a + h). (3.6)
Geometrically, the mean
value theorem means that if we
form a secant to the graph of a
function satisfying the
conditions, there is a point
between the intersections of the Figure 3.3
secant with the graph where the tangent to the curve is parallel to
this secant.
Example 3.3:
Find the value of c prescribed by the mean value theorem, given
2
f(x) = 3 x + 4 x 3, a = 1, b = 3 .
Solution:
f(l) = 4 , f(3) = 36, f '(c) = 6c + 4 , and b a = 2,
150
we have 6c + 4 = 1 (36 4) = 16 i.e. 6c = 12 and c = 2 .

2
Example 3.4:
Use the mean value Theorem to approximate 17 .
Solution:
1
Let f(x) = x , a = 16 , b = 17, f ' (x) = .
2 x
Since f(b) = f(a) + (b a) f '(c),
1
then f(17) = f(16) + , 16 < c < 17.
2 c
Since c is not known then we can define it approximately
1
16 < c < 17 < 25, i.e. 4 < c < 5 and 1 < < 1.
5 c 4
( )( )
Therefore 4 + 1 1 < f(17) =f(16) +
5 2
1
2 c
=<4+ 1 1 .
2 4
( )( )
i.e. 4.1 < 17 < 4.125
A calculator read-out of 17 is 4.1231056 correct to seven
figures.
Cauchy's generalised theorem of the mean.
Theorem 3.3 :
If f(x) and g(x) are continuous in [a , b] and differentiable in
(a , b), then there exists a point c in (a , b) such that
f ( b ) f (a ) f ' (c)
= , a<c<b, (3.7)
g ( b ) g (a ) g ' (c)
151
where we assume g(a) g(b) and f '(x), g'(x) are not

simultaneously zero.
The proof is left to the student as exercise.
Example 3.5:
Find the value of c prescribed by the Cauchy's theorem, given f(x)
2
= 5x + 3 , g(x)= x + 2, 1 x 4.
Solution:
f(1) = 8, f(4) = 23, f '(x) = 5; g(l) = 3, g(4) = 18, g ' (x) = 2x,
f (4) f (1) 23 8 15 f ' (c) 5
To find c, we have = = = 1= = .
g (4) g (1) 18 3 15 g ' ( c ) 2c
Then c = 2.5 (1 , 4).
Theorem 3.4 : Taylor's Theorem

If f (x) is continuous in [a , b] and differentiable in ( a , b ), then
there exists a point c in (a , b) such that
f ' (a ) f " (a ) 2
f(b) = f(a) + (ba) + (ba) ++
1! 2!
(n ) ( n +1)
f (a ) n f ( c) n+1
+ (ba) + (ba) (3.8)
n! (n + 1)!
The proof is left to the student.

The result (3.8), can be written in various alternative forms; for
example, if b is replaced by the variable x, then
152
f ' (a ) f " (a ) 2
f(x) = f(a) + (xa) + (xa) ++
1! 2!
( n +1)
f ( n ) (a ) n f ( c) n+1
+ (xa) + (xa) , (3.9)
n! (n + 1)!
where c between a and x. This is called a Taylor series for f(x)
f ( n +1) (c) n+1
with a remainder Rn = (xa) , and is used to
(n + 1)!
approximate f(x) by a po1ynomial, in which case Rn is the error
term.
If lim Rn , the infinite series obtained is called a Taylor series
n
for f(x) about x = a. If a = 0, the series is called a Maclaurin
series. Such series, called power series, generally converge for
all values of x in some interval, called the interval of convergence,
and diverge for all x outside this interval. Further discussion of
such convergence shall given in the next year.
Example 3.6:
x x2 x3 x4
Prove that e = 1 + x + + + + (3.10)
2! 3! 4!
Solution:
x x
Let f(x) = e . Then all derivatives of f(x) are equal to e . If a = 0,
(k) 0 (k+1) c
then f(0) = f (0) = e = 1, while f (c) = e , so that Taylor's
(Maclaurin) formula becomes
x x2 x3 x4 xk x k +1 c
e =1+x+ + + ++ + e ,
2! 3! 4! k! (k + 1)!
153
where c is between 0 and x .

x k +1 c
Let Rk = e , we can prove that lim Rk = 0, and we may
(k + 1)! k
write
x x2 x3 x4 xk
e =1+x+ + + ++ + , x R (3.11)
2! 3! 4! k!
x xn

e = , x R.
n =0 n!
Example 3.7:
(x) = sin (x +n ),
(n)
If f(x) = sin x, then f
2
n 0 for n = 2k,
f ( n ) (0) = sin =
2 (-1) k for n = 2k + 1,
(c) = sin[c + (n+1)].
(n+1)
and f
2
Taylor's formula in powers of x is thus written
2k 1
x3 x5 k +1 x
sin x = x + + (1) + R2k(x),
3! 5! (2k 1)!
x 2k +1
where R2k(x) = sin[ c + (2k+1) ] 0 as k .
(2k + 1)! 2
Therefore
2k 1
x3 x5 x7 k +1 x
sin x = x + ++ (1) +, x R (3.12)
3! 5! 7! (2k 1)!
2n +1
n x
sin x = (1) , x R.
n =0 (2n + 1)!
If y = cos x, then we can obtain in a similar way that
154
x2 x4 x6 x 2k 2
cos x = 1 + ++ (1) k +1 +,x R (3.13)
2! 4! 6! (2k 2)!
x 2n
cos x = (1) n , x R.
n =0 (2n )!
The function y = An (l + x) has the following Taylor's formula
An (l + x) =
x2 x3 x4 xk
=x + ++ (1) k+1 + , 1< x 1. (3.14)
2 3 4 k
n
n +1 x
An (l + x) = (1) , 1< x 1 .
n =1 n
The function y = An (l x) has the following Taylor's formula
x2 x3 x4 xk
An (l x) = x , 1 x < 1 (3.15)
2 3 4 k
xn
An (l x) = , 1 x < 1.
n =1 n
1 + x x3 x5 x 2k 1
Hence An = 2[x + + ++ + ] , 1< x < 1.
1 x 3 5 2k 1
-1 1 1 + x x3 x5 x 2k 1
i.e. tanh x = An =x+ + ++ +.
2 1 x 3 5 2k 1
x -x x -x
Since cosh x = 1 ( e + e ) , sinh x = 1 ( e e ) , then
2 2
3 5 7 2k 1
x x x x
cosh x = x + + + ++ +, x R (3.16)
3! 5! 7! (2k 1)!
x2 x4 x6 x 2k 2
sinh x = 1 + + + ++ +, x R. (3.17)
2! 4! 6! (2k 2)!
We next list, for reference, some important Maclaurin series.
These series are important because of their uses in applications.
155
x x2 x3 x4 xk
e =1+x+ + + ++ +, x R
2! 3! 4! k!
2k 1
x3 x5 x7 k +1 x
sin x = x + ++ (1) +, x R
3! 5! 7! (2k 1)!
2k 2
x2 x4 x6 k +1 x
cos x = 1 + ++ (1) +, x R
2! 4! 6! (2k 2)!
x3 x5 x7 x 2k 1
cosh x = x + + + ++ +, x R.
3! 5! 7! (2k 1)!
x2 x4 x6 x 2k 2
sinh x = 1 + + + ++ +, x R.
2! 4! 6! (2k 2)!
x2 x3 x4 k+1 x
k
An (l + x) = x + ++ (1) + , 1< x 1.
2 3 4 k
x2 x3 x4 xk
An (l x) = x , 1 x < 1.
2 3 4 k
2k 1
-1 x3 x5 x7 k +1 x
tan x = x + ++ (1) + , 1 x 1.
3 5 7 2k 1
-1 1 + x x3 x5 x 2k 1
tanh x = 1 An = x + + ++ + , 1<x<1.
2 1 x 3 5 2 k 1
m m(m 1) 2 m(m 1)(m 2) 3
(1+x) =1 +m x + x + x +,1<x<1.
2! 3!
xn xn
= (1) n
x -x
e = , x R. e , x R.
n =0 n! n =0 n!
2n +1 2n
n x n x
sin x = (1) , cos x = (1) ,
n =0 (2n + 1)! n =0 (2n )!
x R. x R.
156
x 2n +1 x 2n
sinh x = , x R. cosh x = , x R.
n =0 ( 2n + 1)! n =0 ( 2n )!
n xn
n +1 x
An (l + x) = (1) , An (l x) = ,
n =1 n n =1 n
1< x 1. 1 x < 1.
2n 1 x 2n 1
-1 n +1 x -1
tan x = (1) , tanh x = ,
n =1 2n 1 n =1 2n 1
1 < x < 1. 1 < x < 1
(1+x) =
m
1 + x x 2n 1
An =2 ,
m( m 1)...(m n + 1) x n 1 x n =1 2 n 1
,
n =0 n! 1 < x < 1
1<x<1.
3.2 Evaluation Of Indeterminate Forms:

The laws of the mean for derivatives and Taylors formu1a
we have established provide some powerful techniques of
differential calculus which make it possible to compute
automatically many limits, namely those which lead, when
ordinary rules are applied, to the indeterminate forms of the type
0
, , 0. , 0 , and 1 .
0 0
,
0
L'Hospital's Rules:
If lim f(x) = L and lim g(x) = M where L and M are either both
xc xc
f (x)
zero or both infinite, lim is often called an indeterminate of
xc g ( x )
157
0
the form , respectively. The following theorems, called
0
L'Hospital's rules, faci1litate evaluation of such limits.
1. If f(x) and g(x) are differentiable in the interva1 (a , b) except
possibly at a point c in this interval, and if g'(x) 0 for x c, then
f (x) f ' (x )
lim = lim , (3.18)
xc g ( x ) xc g ' ( x )
whenever the limit on the right can be found.
In case f '(x) and g'(x) satisfy the same conditions as f(x), and
given above, the process can be repeated.
2.If lim f(x) = and lim g(x) = , the result (3.18) is also valid.
xc xc
These can be extended to cases where x or x .
Notice that to apply L'Hospital's rules to f(x)/g(x), we
divide the derivative of f(x) by the derivative of g(x). Do not fall
into the trap of taking the derivative of the quotient f(x)/g(x). The
quotient to use is f ' /g ', not (f/g)'.
Limits represented by the so-called indeterminate , 0. ,
0 , and 1 , can be evaluated on replacing them by equiva1ent
0 0
1imits, for which the above rules are applicable.

f (x)
To find lim , by L'Hospital's rule, we proceed to
xc g ( x )
differentiate f (x) and g(x) so long as we still get the form 0/0 or
/ as x c. But as soon as one or the other of these derivative
is different from zero as x = c, we stop differentiating. L'Hospital's
158
rule does not apply when either the numerator or denominator has
a finite nonzero limit.
Example 3.8:
1 cos x e 2x 1
Evaluate: i) lim , ii) lim ,
x0 sin x x0 x
x sin x cos x
iii) lim . iv) lim
x0 cos x 1 x0 x
Solution:
All of these have the "indeterminate form" 0/0.
i) Both the numerator and denominator have the limit 0 as x 0.
Hence the quotient has the indeterminate form 0/0 as x 0.
1 cos x sin x
lim = lim = 0,
x0 sin x x0 cos x
e 2x 1 2e 2 x
ii) lim = lim = 2,
x0 x x0 1
Sometimes it is necessary to use L'Hopital's rule several times in
the same problem, as illustrated in the next limit
x sin x 1 cos x
iii) lim = lim ,
x0 cos x 1 x0 sin x
provided the second limit exists. Because the last quotient has the
indeterminate form 0/0 as x 0, we apply L'Hopital's rule a
second time, obtaining ( cf. (i) )
x sin x 1 cos x sin x
lim = lim = lim = 0.
x0 cos x 1 x0 sin x x0 cos x
159
cos x
iv) lim .
x0 x
The quotient does not have either of the indeterminate form 0/0, or
/ as x 0. It is easy to see that lim cos x = 1 , lim x = 0,
x0 x0
cos x
it follows that lim = .
x0 x
If we had overlooked the fact that the quotient does not have the
indeterminate form 0/0 or / as x 0 , and had (incorrectly)
applied L'Hopital's rule, we would have obtained
sin x
lim = 0.
x0 1
This would have given us the (wrong) conclusion that the given
limit exist and equals 0.
It is extremely important to verify that a given quotient has the
indeterminate form 0/0 or / before using L'Hopital's rule. If
we apply the rule to a form that is not indeterminate, we may
obtain an incorrect conclusion, as illustrated in part (iv) of
Example 3.8.
Example 3.9:
2 -x
i) lim x e , An sin 2x
Evaluate: ii) lim .
x x0 An sin 3x
Solution:
2 -x
i) The expression x e , does not have either of the indeterminate
form 0/0, or / as x . The indeterminate form is 0. .
160
This expression can be rewriting as quotient and applying

2 -x x2
L'Hopital's rule. lim x e = lim . Now the quotient has the
x x e x
indeterminate form / , as x , we apply L'Hopital's rule:

2 -x x2 2x 2
lim x e = lim x
= lim
x
= lim
x
= 0.
x x e x e x e
An sin 2x
ii) lim .The indeterminate form is / , we apply
x0 A n sin 3x
L'Hopital's rule:
An sin 2x 2 cos 2 x / sin 2x
lim = lim =
x0 An sin 3x x0 3 cos 3x / sin 3x
2 cos 2 x sin 3x
= lim . . =
x0 3 cos 3x sin 2x
2 cos 2x sin 3x
= lim lim =
3 x0 cos 3x x0 sin 2x
2 sin 3x 2 3cos 3x
= lim = lim =
3 x0 sin 2x 3 x0 2cos 2x
2 3
= . = 1.
3 2
Types 0. and :
These may be handled by first transforming to one of the types 0/0
or / . L'Hopital's rule is also valid for one-sided limits, as
illustrated in the following example.
Example 3.10:
2
Evaluate lim x An x (This is type 0. )
x 0 +
161
Solution:
2 2
As x 0+, x 0 , An x . Then ( An x)/(l/x ) is
indeterminate of type / .
An x 1/ x
= lim 1 x 2 = 0.
2
lim x An x = lim = lim
2
x 0 + x 0 + 1 / x 2 x 0 + 2 / x 3 x 0 +
Example 3.11:
1 1
Evaluate lim (This is type )
x0 x e x 1
Solution:
1 1 ex 1 x
It is clear that =
x x
e 1 x (e x 1)
This is indeterminate of type 0/0.
1 1 ex 1 x ex 1
lim = lim = lim =
x0 x e x 1 x0 x (e x 1) x0 xe x + e x 1
ex 1
= lim = .
x0 xe x + 2e x 2
Types 0 , and 1 :
0 0
g(x) g(x)
If lim f(x) is one of these types, then let y = f(x) .
xc
Take the natural logarithm of both sides, obtaining
An y = g(x) An [f(x)], then An y is indeterminate form of type 0. .
An[f ( x )]
It follows that An y = g(x) An [f(x)]= is indeterminate
1 / g(x )
form of type 0/0 or / , and we can apply L'Hopital's rule.
162
If lim An y = L , then L = lim An y = An lim y and
xc xc xc
L g(x) L
lim y = e . i.e. lim f(x) =e .
xc xc
Example 3.12:
1
Evaluate lim x ( x 1)
(This is type 1 .)
x1
Solution:
1
( x 1)
Let y = x .
Then An y = [ An x]/[x 1] is indeterminate of type 0/0
An x 1/ x
lim An y = lim = lim = 1.
x1 x1 x 1 x1 1
Since An y 1 as x 1, y e .
1
( x 1)
Thus the required limit is lim x = e.
x1
Example 3.13:
sin x x
i) lim x ii) lim (sin x) 0
Evaluate: x 0 + x 0 + type 0
Solution:
sin x
i) Let y = x . Thus An y = sin x [ An x]= [ An x]/ csc x,
and this is indeterminate of type / .
1/ x
lim An y = lim [ An x]/ csc x = lim =
x 0 + x 0 + x 0+ csc x cot x
sin 2 x 2 sin x cos x
= lim = lim = 0,
x 0+ x cos x x 0+ x sin x cos x
Since An y 0 as x 0+, y 1. Thus the required limit is 1.
163
sin x
i.e. lim x = 1.
x 0 +
x
ii) Let t = (sin x) . Thus An t = x [ An sin x]= [ An sin x]/(1/x),
and this is indeterminate of type / .
cos x / sin x
lim An t = lim [ An sin x]/(1/x) = lim 2
=
x 0 + x 0 + x 0 + 1/ x
2
x cos x
= lim =
x 0 + sin x
x 2 sin x + 2 x cos x
= lim = 0,
x 0 + cos x
Since An t 0 as x 0+, t 1. Thus the required limit is 1.
x
lim (sin x) = 1.
x 0 +
sin x x
Thus lim [ x +(sin x) ] = 2.
x 0 +
Example 3.14:
cos x
lim (tan x) 0
Evaluate: x type
2
Solution:
cos x
Let y = (tan x) .
Then An y = cos x An (tan x) = An (tan x)/ sec x , is of type / .
lim An y = lim An (tan x)/ sec x =
x x
2 2
sec 2 x / tan x cos x

= lim = lim = 0.
sec x tan x 2
x
2
x
2
sin x
164
Since An y 0 as x , y 1.
2
cos x
Thus the required limit is lim (tan x) =1.
x
2
Remark: The existence of the second limit in (3.18) implies the

existence of the first limit equa1 to the former, but the converse is
not true. It is clear that, the limit
x sin x sin x
lim = lim 1 = 1, exists, while the limit of the
x x x x
1 cos x
ratio , of the derivatives does not exist as x .
1
Example 3.15:
cot x
Evaluate: lim .
x0 cot 2 x
Solution:
It is clear that
cot x csc 2 x csc 2 x cot x
lim = lim = lim ,
x0 cot 2 x x0 2 csc 2 2 x x0 4 csc 2 2 x cot 2x
Here each application of the rule results in an indeterminate form
of type / . We try a trigonometric substitution:
cot x tan 2x 2 sec 2 2 x
lim = lim = lim = 2.
x0 cot 2 x x0 tan x x0 sec 2 x
Example 3.16:
x2 + 2
Evaluate: lim .
x x
165
Solution:
x2 + 2 x x2 + 2
lim = lim = lim , etc.
x x x 2
x +2 x x
x2 + 2 x2 + 2 2
However, lim = lim = lim + 1 = 1.
x x x 2 x 2
x x
Example 3.17:
x tan 1 x
Evaluate: lim .
x0 x sin x
Solution:
Although L'Hopital's rule is applicable here, its successive use
becomes involved. Using Taylor's theorem of the mean, however,
the limit is obtained quickly and easily. We use the results
2k 1
-1 x3 x5 x7 k +1 x
tan x = x + ++ (1) + , 1 x 1.
3 5 7 2k 1
2k 1
x3 x5 x7 k +1 x
sin x = x + ++ (1) +, x R
3! 5! 7! (2k 1)!
x3 x5 x7
-1 x3 5
x tan x = + = + Px ,
3 5 7 3
x3 x5 x7 x3 5
x sin x = + = +Qx ,
3! 5! 7! 3!
where P and Q are two power series
x tan 1 x x 3 / 3 + Px 5 1 / 3 + Px 2
lim = lim 3 = lim =2.
x0 x sin x x0 x / 6 + Qx 5 x0 1 / 6 + Qx 2
166
3.3 Curve Tracing:

The student is already familiar with the following important
definitions:
Definition 3.1 ( Monotonic Functions )
A function is called monotonic increasing in an interval if for any
two points xl and x2 in the interval such that xl < x2 , f(xl) f(x2).
If f(xl)< f(x2) the function is called strictly increasing.
Similarly if f(xl) f(x2) whenever xl < x2 , then f(x) is monotonic
decreasing; while if f(xl) > f(x2), it is strictly decreasing.
Definition 3.2: (Maxima and Minima)
If x0 is a point of an interval such that f(x) f(x0) [or f(x) f(x0)]
for all x in the interval, then f(x) is said to have an absolute
maximum [or absolute minimum] in the interva1 at x = x0 of
magnitude f(x0).
If this is true only for x in some deleted neighbourhood of x0
where > 0, then f(x) is said to have a relative maximum [ or
relative minimum ] at x0.
To find the relative maximum (minimum) value
( hereinafter called maximum ( minimum ) va1ue ), of function
f(x) which, together with their first derivatives, are continuous:
First derivative test:
1. Solve f '(x) = 0 for the critical values.
2. Locate the critical values on a number scale, there by
establishing a number of intervals.
167
3. Determine the sign of f '(x) on each interval.

4. Let x increase through each critical value x = x0; then
f(x) has a maximum value [ = f(x0)] if f '(x) changes from + to .
f(x) has a minimum va1ue [ = f(x0)] if f ' (x) changes from to +.
f(x) has neither a maximum value nor a minimum value at x = x0
if f '(x) does not change sign.
Direction of bending:
An arc of a curve y = f(x) is called concave upward if, at
each of its points the arc 1ies above the tangent at the point. As x
increases, f '(x) either is of the same sign and increasing or
changes sign from negative to positive. In either case, the slope
f '(x) is increasing and f "(x) > 0 .
An arc of a curve y = f(x) is called concave down ward if,
at each of its points, the arc1ies below the tangent at the point. As
x increases, f '(x) either is of the same sign and decreasing or
changes sign from positive to negative. In either case, the slope
f '(x) is decreasing and f "(x) < 0 .
A point of inflection:
A point of inflection is a point at which a curve is changing from
concave upward to concave downward, or vice versa.
A curve y = f(x) has one of its points x = x0 as an inflection point
if f "(x0) = 0 or is not defined and if f '' (x) changes sign as x
increases through x = x0.
168
The latter condition may be replaced by f "'(x0) 0 when f "'(x0)

exists.
A second derivative test for maxima and minima:
1. Solve f '(x) = 0 for the critical values.
2. For a critical value x = c;
f(x) has a maximum value [ =f(c) ] if f "(c) < 0,
f(x) has a minimum value [ =f(c) ] if f "(c) > 0,
the test fails if f "(c) = 0 or becomes infinite.
In the latter case, the first derivative method must be used.
Now let us consider the general problem of tracing the
graph of a function y = f(x) with some attention to its critical
points and in a relatively economica1 manner. First of all, we
shou1d observe what the domain of the function is, i.e. for what
values of x it is defined. For instance, f(x)=l/(xl), is defined for
x 1, f(x) = x for all x 0. We should also observe what its
range is, i.e. what values f(x) can take on. For example, the range
of y = sin x is l x 1, while that of y = x is all y 0 and that
3
of y = x is all real numbers.
Next we should determine a few points of the graph, and
one usually, finds those where it crosses the axes. It will of course
cross the y- axis when, x = 0, y = f(0). Sometimes finding where it
crosses the x-axis, i.e., where f(x) = 0, is considerably harder, and
must be estimated. The totalities of such points are called the
intercepts of the graph.
Then one shou1d determine the turning points, i.e. ,
relative maxima and minima and points of inflection. By the
169
location of the maxima and minima and by the behaviour of f(x)

for x very far positive and very far negative, it is possible to see in
what direction the curve crosses its tangent at the points of
inflection. It is also useful to determine in what regions f "(x)> 0
and f "(x) < 0, to see in what direction the curve is concave. In this
process, some points may occur where the first or second
derivative does not exist . They should be plotted separately, and
special attention should be paid to the behaviour of the curve near
them.
Finally, one should look for the asymptotes of the curve,
which are, roughly speaking, lines approached by the curve.
Vertical asymptotes will often occur at points where the function
is undefined for example, the line x =1 is a vertical asymptote to
y = 1/( x 1). Horizontal asymptotes will occur when f(x)
approaches a constant as x goes very far positive or very far
negative. The line y = 0 is, for instance. A Horizontal asymptote to
y = 1/( x 1), here both for x far negative and far positive. A
suspected oblique asymptote can be treated by the test for
horizonta1 asymptotes by taking its equation y = m x + b and
subtracting from f(x) to get the new function g(x)= f(x) [mx + b].
Then y = m x + b is an asymptote for f(x) if and only if y = 0 is an
asymptote for g(x).
By these considerations, one can make a sketch which wi1l
revea1 the shape of the curve , since the behaviour between the
critical points can be plotted smoothly with attention only to the
concavity in these regions. As an example, let us consider f(x) = x
170
2/3
(1x). This is defined for all x, becomes far negative as x
becomes positive, far positive as x goes far negative, and takes on
all values between. Thus its range is all real numbers. We see that
f(0) = 0, f(1) = 0. Thus the intercepts are (0,0) and (1,0). Now f '
1/3 2/3
(x) = (2/3)x (lx) x , where this is defined. We see from
the first term that f '(0) is undefined. But for x either slightly
positive or slightly negative, f(x) > 0 = f(0) . Therefore x = 0 is a
relative minimum. In the remaining cases, setting f '(x) = 0 gives
-1/3 2/3 -1/3 2/3 1/3
0 = (2/3)x (1x) x = (2/3)x (5/3) = (2 5x) /3x ,
or x = 2/5 is the only solution of
f ' (x) = 0. Now f "(x) =
-4/3 -1/3
=(2/9)x (1 x) (2/3) x =
-4/3
= 2x (1+5x)/9 , x 0.
Figure 3.4
Thus f "(2/5)< 0, and x = 2/5 is a relative maximum. If f "(x) = 0,
then x = 1/5, and f "(x) > 0, x < 1/5, f "(x) < 0, x > 1/5, x 0.
Since the curvature changes sign at 1/5, x = 1/5 is a point of
inflection, the curve is concave upward for x < 1/5, concave
downward for x >1/5. There are no apparent asymptotes. In the
critical region, then, the curve is shown in Figure 3.4.
Example 3.18:
4 3 2
Given y = x +2x 3x 4x + 4, find
i) the intervals on which y is increasing and decreasing, and
ii) the maximum and minimum values of y.
171
Solution:
3 2
y' = 4x + 6x 6x 4 = 2(x 1)(x + 2)(2x + 1).
Setting y' = 0 gives the critical values x = l ,2 , 1 .
2
i) When x < 2, y' is negative, and y is decreasing,
when 2 < x < 1 , y' is positive, and y is increasing,
2
when 1 < x < 1 , y' is negative, and y is decreasing,
2
when x > 1 , y' is positive, and y is increasing.
ii) Test the critical values x = 1,
1 , 2 for maxima and minima.
2
As x increases through 1,
y' changes from to + ;
hence at x = l, y has a
Figure 3.5
minimum value 0.
As x increases through 1 , y' changes from + to ;

2
hence at x = 1 , y has a maximum value 81/16.
2
As x increases through 2, y' changes from to +;
hence at x= 2, y has a minimum value 0.
Example 3.19:
3
Show that the curve y = x 27 has no maximum or minimum
value.
172
Solution:
2
y' = 3 x . Setting y' = 0, gives the critical value x = 0. When x<0
and when x > 0, y' >0 . Then y has no maximum or minimum
value. At x = 0; the curve has a point of inflection.
Example 3.20:
2/3
Locate the maximum and minimum values f(x) = x + 1, and the
intervals on which the function is increasing and decreasing.
Solution:
1/3
f ' (x) = 2/(3x ). The critical value is x = 0, since f '(x) becomes
infinite as x approaches 0.
When x < 0 , f ' (x) is
negative, and f(x) is
decreasing.
When x > 0, f ' (x) is
positive, and f(x) is
increasing.
Figure 3.6
Hence at x = 0 the function has a minimum value 1.
173
3.4: Tangents and Normal:

As you know, the derivative of a function f(x) at a point represents
the slope of the tangent line drawn to the curve y = f(x) at the
point.
To get the equation of the tangent to the curve y = f(x) at the point
dy
(a , b) : let m = , then y b = m (x a) is the equation of
dx (a ,b)
the tangent. Equation of the normal at (a , b) is y b = (x a)/m,

i.e. x a = m (y b) .
Example 3.21:
Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve
2
y = x +3 at the point (1 , 4).
Solution:
2
Since y = x +3, then y' = 2 x .
Hence m = 2, the slope of the tangent at (1,2).
So the equation of the tangent is
y 4 = 2 (x 1) or y = 2 x + 2.
The slope of the normal = 1 .
2
So the equation of the normal is (y 4) = 1 (x 1).
2
i.e. 2 y + x 9 = 0 .
174
EXERCISES 3
1) Do the following functions satisfy the conditions of Rolle's
theorem ?
3
a) f(x) = 1 x 2 ; in [1 , 1],
b) f(x) = An sin x ; in [ , 5 ],
6 6
c) f(x) = 1 | x | ; in [ 1 , 1 ] .
If they do not, explain why ?
[Answers: a) and c) No. since the derivative is non-existent
at the point o. b) Yes. ]
5
2) Prove that the equation 3x + 15x 8 = 0, has only one real
root..
2
3) Does the function f(x) = 3x 5, satisfy the conditions of
Lagrange theorem in the interval [0 , 2]? If it does, then find
the point c which figures in the Lagrange formula
f ( b ) f (a )
= f ' (c). [Answer : c = 1 ]
ba
4) Apply the Lagrange formula to the function f(x) = An x, in
the interva1 [1 , e] and find the corresponding value c.
[Answer : c = e 1]
2 3
5) Prove that the functions f(x) = x 2x + 3 and g(x) = x
2
7x + 20x 5, satisfy the conditions of the Cauchy theorem
in the interval [1 , 4] and find the corresponding value of c.
[Answer: c = 2]
175
x 2 2
6) Do the functions f(x) = e and g(x) = x /(1+x ), satisfy the
conditions of the Cauchy theorem in the interval [3,3]?
[Answer : No, since g(3) = g(3) ]
3
7) On the curve y = x find the point at which the tangent line is
parallel to the chord through the points A(1,1) and B(2
,8). [Answer : M(1,1) ]
8) Taking advantage of the test for the constancy of a function,
deduce the following formulas known from elementary
mathematics:
a) arcsin x + arccos x = ,
2
2 1
b) sin x = [1 cos 2x],
2
2
1 x
c) arccos = 2 arctan x ; where 0 x <
2
1 + x
,
2 arctan x; where x 1,

2x
d) arcsin = 2 arctan x; where - 1 x 1,
1 + x 2 2 arctan x; where x 1.

x x
9) As is known, (e )' = e for all x. Are there any more
functions that coincide with their derivatives everywhere ?
10) Check whether the Lagrange formula is applicable to the
following functions:
2
a) f(x) = x on [3 , 4],
b) f(x) = An x on [ 1 , 3 ],
3 2
c) f(x) = 4x 5x + x 2 on [0 , 1],
176
d) f(x) = 5 x 4 ( x 1) on [ 1 , 1 ].
2 2
If it is, find the values of c appearing in this formula.
[Answers: a) c = 7/2, b) c = 2/ An 3 , c) ( 10 52 )/24,
d)It is not applicable, since the function has no derivative at
the point x = 0.]
11) Applying the L'Hospital find the limits of the following
functions:
e ax e 2ax 3 1 + 2x + 1
a) lim , b) lim ,
x 0 An ( x + 1) x 1 2+x +x
e x e x 2x An (1 + x 2 )
c) lim , d) lim ,
x 0 x sin x x 0 cos 3x e x
sin 3x 2
2
e) lim , e1 / x 1
f) lim .
x 0 An cos(2 x 2 x ) x 2 arctan x 2
[Answers: a) 3a , b) 4/9, c) 2, d) 0, e) 6, f) 1/2 . ]
12) Prove that:
1 1 1
a) lim = , b) lim [ cot x
x 1 An x x 1 2 x 0
1/x ]= 0 ,
1 1 1
c) lim = .
x x
x 0 e 1 2
13) Prove that:
n
a) lim x An x = 0 ( n > 0 ),
x 0
2 2
b) lim [ An ( 1+ sin x ) . cot An (1+x) ] = 1.
x 0
14) Prove that:
177
sin x 1
a) lim (1/x) =1,
x 0 + An (e x 1)
b) lim x =e.
x 0 +
15) Prove that:
tan x x
a) lim (sin x) =1, b) lim x = 1 .
x x 0
2
16) Prove that:

cot x
a) lim (tan x) =1, x 2 1 + An x 3
x b) lim = .
2 x 1 ex e e
17) Prove that:
x sin x 1 2
b) lim x An x = 0
a) lim = ,
x 0 3 6 x 0
x
x
c) lim [sin x] = 1.
x 0
18) Prove that:
2cos x
a) lim [ tan x] = 1, b) lim (1 + x ) An x = 1,
x x 0
2
e x e x
c) lim = 2.
x 0 A n (1 + x )
19) Prove that:
2 arctan x
a) lim =
x e 3/ x
1 2 (e x + e x ) cos x 1
b) lim = ,
2 4 3
, x 0 x
3
e 3x 3x 1 sin 3x 3xe x + 3x 2
c) lim =0.18. d) lim =18.
x 0 2 x 0 arctan x sin x x 3 / 6
sin 5x
20) Prove that:
178
An ( x a ) An x
a) lim =1, b) lim =0, ( n > 0)
x a An (e x e a ) x x n
c) lim
An x
= 1, tan x
2
x 0 1 + 2An sin x
2 d) lim =,
x 1 An (1 x )
An (1 x )
e) lim = 0.
x 1 cot x
21) Prove that:
a) lim (x . cot x) = 1/, b) lim ( arcsin x . cot x) = 1,
x 0 x 0
c) lim (1 cos x). cot x = 0.
x 0
22) Prove that:
1 1 p q pq
a) lim = 1 , b) lim = ,
2
x 1 x 1 An x x 1 1 x p q
1 x 2
1
c) lim cot 2 x = 2 .
3
x 0 x 2
23) Prove that:
cos x 2
a) lim ( 2x) = 1,
b) lim (cos 2 x ) 3 / x = e ,
-6
x x 0
2
x 1/x 1/ x 2
c) lim (x + 2 ) =2. tan x 1/3
x d) lim =e .
x 0 x
24) Discuss the existence of the following limits:
x 2 sin 1 2 + 2 x + sin 2 x
a) lim x
, b) lim ,
sin x
x 0 sin x x ( 2 x + sin 2 x ) e
c) lim [ tan x / sec x] ,
x
2
Can the L'Hospital rule be applied in computing them? Does

its formal application lead to the correct answer?
179
[Answers: a) 0 and not applicable, b) not exist and 0, c) 1,

no useful result.]
3
25) Find the points on the curve y = x 3x + 5 at which
the tangent line:
a) is parallel to the straight line y = 2x;
b) is perpendicular to the straight line y = x /9;
c) forms an angle of 45 with the positive direction of the
x-axis.
[Answers: a) (1/ 3 , 5+8 3 /9), (1/ 3 , 58 3 /9)
b) (2,3) , (2,7), c) (2/ 3 , 5+10/3 3 ), (2/ 3 , 510/3 3 ).]
Find the equations of the tangent and the normal to
26)
the following curves:
3 2 2 2
a) 4x 3xy + 6x 5xy 8y + 9x + 14 = 0,
at the point (-2,3);
5 5
b) x + y 2xy = 0 at the point (1,1).
[Answers: a) y 3 = 9(x + 2)/2 & y3 = 2(x+2)/9,
b) x + y 2 = 0, y = x .]
5 4 3 2
27) Expand the po1ynomia1 P(x) = x 2x + x x + 2x 1, in
powers of the binomial x 1 using the Taylor formula
5 4 3
[Answers: P(x) = (x1) +3(x1) +3(x1) .]
28) Compute the approximate value of 4 83 accurate to six
decimal places. [Answer: 3. 018350 .]
5 3
29) Prove that the function y = x +2x + x , increases
3
everywhere and the function y = 1 x decreases
everywhere.
180
30) Using the first derivative, find the extrema of the following
functions:
4 3 2
a) f(x) = (3/4) x x 9x + 7 ;
4 3 2
b)f(x) = x 8x + 22x 24 x +12;
3 2
c)f(x) = x (x+1) (x3) ;
x 2 3x + 2
d)f(x) = .
2
x + 2x + 1
[Answers: a) minimum at 2 & 3, maximum at 0,
b) minimum at f(l) = f(3) = 3, maximum at f(2) = 4,
c) minimum at 1 (3 17 ) & 3 , maximum at 1 (3+ 17 ),
4 4
d) minimum f(7/5) = -1/24 ]
31) Investigate the following functions for extrema :
2
a) f(x) = x 4 e x ; b) f(x) = sin 3x 3 sin x,
2
[Answers: a) minimum f(0)=0 , maximum f( 2 ) = 4/e ,
b) on the interval [0 , 2]; minimum f( )= 4;
2
maximum f(3/2) = 4]
32) Find the maxima and minima of the fol1owing functions:
2 x 2 2
a) f(x) = x e b) f(x) =x An x , c) f(x) = x An x .
2
[Answers: a) The minimum is f(0) = 0, the maximum f(2) = 4e ,
1/2
b)The maximum f (e ) = 1/2e,
2 2
c) The minimum is f(1) = 0, the maximum f(e ) = 4e . ]
4 3 2
33) Expand the polynomial x 5x + x 3x + 4, into a series in
powers of the binomial x 4.
4 3 2
[Answers: (x 4) +11(x 4) +37(x 4) +21(x 4)56. ]
181
3 2
34) Expand the polynomial x +3 x 2x + 4, into a series in
powers of the binomial x + 1.
3
[Answers: (x + 1) 5 (x + 1) +8. ]
th
35) a) Write Taylor's formula (Maclaurin's formula) of the n
x
order for the function y = x e at x0 = 0.
th
b) Write Taylor's formula of the n order for the functions:
3
i) y = x An x at x0 = 1, ii) y = 1/ x at x0 = 1,
2
iii) y = sin x at x0 = 0, n = 2m .
x 2 3 n
[Answers: a) x e = x + x + x /2! ++ x /(n1)!+
n+1
+[x /(n+1)!](x+n+1)ex , where 0 < < 1.
3 2 3
i) x An x = (x1) + 5 (x1) /2! + 11 (x1) /3! + 6(x
4 n n
1) /4!+ ++ (1) 6(x1) /[(n3)(n2)(n1)n]+
n+1 n+1 n2
+(1) 6(x1) /[(n2)(n1)n(n+1)[1+(x1)] ,
where 0 < < 1.
2 n
ii) 1/x = 1(x+1)(x+1) (x+1) +
n+1 n+1 n+2
+(1) (x+1) /[1+(x+1)] , where 0 < < 1.
2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
iii) sin x = 2x /2! 2 x /4!+2 x /6!2 x /8!++
n1 2n1 2n n 2n 2n+1
+(1) 2 x /(2n)!+ (1) 2 x sin2x/(2n+1)!,
where 0 < < 1.
36) Prove that:
tanh ax sinh ax
a) lim =a, b) lim = a,
x 0 x x 0 x
sinh ax a e ax e bx
c) lim = , d) lim = ab ,
x 0 sinh bx b x 0 x
182
tanh ax sinh ax tanh ax a
e) lim = lim = lim = ,
x 0 sinh bx x 0 tanh bx x 0 tanh bx b
tanh 1 x sinh 1 x
f) lim = lim = 1,
x 0 x x 0 x
An[ x + x 2 + 1] An[ x + x 2 + 1]
g) lim = lim =1,
x 0 x x 0 sinh 1 x
An (1 + x ) An (1 x ) An (1 + x ) An (1 x )
h) lim = lim = 2,
x 1
x0 x0 sinh x
An (1 + x ) An (1 x ) An (1 + x ) An (1 x )
i) lim = lim = 2,
2 1
x0 An[ x + x + 1] x0 sinh x
An[ x + x 2 + 1] sinh 1 x
j) lim = lim = 1.
1 x0 tanh 1 x
x0 tanh x
183
Calculus INTEGRALS Chapter 4
CHAPTER 4
INTEGRALS
4.1 Indefinite integrals:
If f(x) is given, then any function F(x) such that F'(x) = f(x), is
called an indefinite integral or antiderivative of f(x).
Clearly if F(x) is an indefinite integra1 of f(x), so also F(x)+C,
where C is any constant since [F(x)+C]' = F'(x) = f(x). Thus all
indefinite integrals differ by a constant. The operation of
integration necessitates a symbol to indicate it. The one chosen is
, which is the old fashioned elongated "S, " and is selected as
being the first letter of the word "Sum, " which; as wi1l be seen
later, is another aspect of integration. The differential dx is
written by the side of the function to be integrated in order to
indicate the independent variable with respect to which the
original differentiation was made, and with respect to which we
are to integrate.
Thus f(x) dx , means that f(x) is to be integrated with
respect to x .
It is important to remember that the variable in the function
to be differentiated and in the differential must be the same. Thus
yn dx , could not be obtained as it stands. It would first be
necessary if possible to express yn as a function of x.
184
The student is already familiar with the concept of integration. We

provide here a summary of the basic integration rules studied so
far. In this chapter we will study several techniques that greatly
expand the set of integrals to which these rules can be applied.
4.2 Integrals of elementary functions:
The fol1owing results can be demonstrated by
differentiating both sides to produce an identity. In each case
arbitrary constant C, should be added.
1) f ' (x)dx = f (x) + C , (4.1)
2) [f (x)+g (x)] dx = f (x)dx + g (x)dx, (4.2)
3) A f(x)dx = A f(x)dx, A any constant, (4.3)
n x n +1
4) x dx = + C ; n 1, (4.4)
n +1
dx
5) = An | x | + C, (4.5)
x
x ax x
6) a dx = + C = a Aog a e + C, (4.6)
An a
x x
7) e dx = e + C , (4.7)
8) sin x dx = cos x + C , (4.8)
9) cos x dx = sin x + C , (4.9)
2
10) sec x dx = tan x + C, (4.10)
2
11) csc x dx = cot x + C, (4.11)
12) sec x tan x dx = sec x + C, (4.12)
13) csc x cot x dx = csc x + C, (4.13)
185
14) sinh x dx = cosh x + C , (4.14)

15) cosh x dx = sinh x + C , (4.15)
2
16) sech x dx = tanh x + C, (4.16)
2
17) csch x dx = coth x + C, (4.17)
18) sech x tanh x dx = sech x + C, (4.18)
19) csch x coth x dx = csch x + C, (4.19)
dx 1 x
20) 2 2
= sin
a
+C, (4.20)
a x
dx 1 x
21) 2 2
= cos
a
+C, (4.21)
a x
dx 1 1 x
22) 2 2 a
tan=
a
+C, (4.22)
a +x
dx 1 1 x
23) 2 = cot +C, (4.23)
a + x2 a a
dx 1 1 x
24) = sec
a
+C;a>0, (4.24)
2
x x a 2 a
dx 1 1 x
25) 2 2
= csc
a a
+C, (4.25)
x x a
dx 1 x
26) 2 2
= sinh
a
+C, (4.26)
x +a
dx 1 x
27) 2 2
= cosh
a
+C, (4.27)
x a
dx 1 1 x 1 a+x
28) = tanh +C= An + C, (4.28)
2
a x 2 a a 2a a x
186
dx 1 1 x 1 xa
29) = coth +C= An + C, (4.29)
x2 a2 a a 2a x + a
dx 1 1 x
30) = sech
a
+C , (4.30)
2
x a x 2 a
dx 1 1 x
31) 2 2
= csch
a a
+C. (4.31)
x a +x
Methods Of Integration
4.3 Integration by Substitution:
In this section we demonstrate technique that extends our
use of the fundamental integration formulas. This technique of
substitution involves a change of variable which permits us to
rewrite an integrand in a form to which we can apply a basic
integration rule. The mechanics of this technique are easy enough
to master. However, the question as to what substitution changes
an unmanageable integral into a manageable one is not so easily
answered. First, let's consider an example that demonstrates the
substitution procedure.
Example 4.1: ( The Power Rule)

n
Evaluate i) I = [f(x)] f '(x) dx , n 1,
f ' (x)
ii) J = dx .
f (x)
187
Solution:
Consider the substitution u = f(x). Then du = f '(x) dx. We now
substitute for f(x) and f ' (x) dx as follows:
n n u n +1
I = [f(x)] f '(x) dx = u du = +C,
n +1
substituting back again to variable x, we have
n n [f ( x )] n +1
I = [f(x)] f '(x) dx = u du = + C , n 1.
n +1
f ' (x) du
ii) J = dx = = An | u | + C = An | f(x) | + C.
f (x) u
As a direct application to Example 4.1
From (i):
n sin n +1 x
sin x cos x dx = + C , n 1 ,
n +1
n cos n +1 x
cos x sin x dx = + C , n 1 ,
n +1
n 2 tan n +1 x
tan x sec x dx = + C , n 1 ,
n +1
n+1 sec n +1 x
sec x tan x dx = + C , n 1 ,
n +1
n sinh n +1 x
sinh x cosh x dx = + C , n 1 ,
n +1
n cosh n +1 x
cosh x sinh x dx = + C , n 1 ,
n +1
188
n 2 tanh n +1 x
tanh x sech x dx = + C , n 1 ,
n +1
n+1 sec h n +1 x
sech x tanh x dx = + C , n 1 .
n +1
From (ii):
sin x
tan x dx = dx = An | cos x | + C =
cos x
= An | sec x | + C .
cos x
cot x dx = dx = An | sin x | + C ,
sin x
sinh x
tanh x dx = dx = An | cosh x | + C ,
cosh x
cosh x
coth x dx = dx = An | sinh x | + C .
sinh x
Example 4.2:
If f(u) du = F(u) + C , evaluate f (a x + b) dx .
Solution:
1
Let u = a x + b . Then dx = du , and
a
1 1 1
f (a x + b) dx = f (u) du = [ F(u) + C ] = F(a x + b) +B .
a a a
As a direct application to Examples 4.1 and 4.2 , we get
n (ax + b) n +1
( a x + b) dx = + C , n 1,
a (n + 1)
189
dx 1
ax + b = a An | a x + b | + C , n 1,
2 n ( x 2 + b) n +1
(x +b) x dx = +C,
2(n + 1)
x dx 2
2 = 1 An | x + b | + C .
2
x +b
Example 4.3:
ex
Evaluate I = dx .
2x
1+ e
Solution:
x x
Let e = u . Then e dx = du , and
ex du 1 1 x
I= dx = = tan u + C = tan e + C .
1 + e 2x 1+ u2
Example 4.4:
x dx
Evaluate: i) x 1 + x dx , ii) J = .
2 2
x +a
Solution:
Let 1 + x = u . Then dx = du ,
3 1
x 1 + x dx = (u 1 ) u du = u 2 du u 2 du =
5 3
= 2u 2 2u 2+C=
5 3
5 3
= 2 (1 + x ) 2 2 (1 + x ) 2 + C.
5 3
2 2
ii) Let x + a = u . Then 2 x dx = du ,
190
x dx du 2 2
J= = 1 = 1 An | u| + C = 1 An [x + a ]+C.
2 2 2
x2 + a2 u
Example 4.5:
x 2 + 2x
Evaluate: I = dx.
3 2
x + 3x + 4
Solution:
3 2 2 2
Let x +3x +4 = u . Then (3x +6x )dx = du ,i.e. 3(x +2x )dx = du,
du 1 3 2
I= 1 = An | u | + C = 1 An | x + 3x + 4 | + C.
3 u 3 3
Example 4.6:
An x
Evaluate: i) I= dx ,
x
[ An x ] n dx
ii) J = dx , iii) K = .
x x An x
Solution:
Let An x = u , then dx / x = du and
An x 2 2
i) I = dx = u du = 1 u + C = 1 [ An x] + C .
x 2 2
[ An x ] n n u n +1 [An x] n +1
J= dx = u du = +C= +C=
x n +1 n +1
An ( n +1) x
= + C.
n +1
dx du
i) K= = = An | u | + C = An | An x | + C.
x An x u
191
Example 4.7:
Evaluate: I = sec x dx .
Solution:
1 cos x cos x
We have sec x = = = .
cos x cos 2 x 1 sin 2 x
Let sin x = u . Then cos x dx = du and using (4.22), we get
du 1 1
I = sec x dx = = 1 + du =
2 1 + u 1 u
1 u2
1+ u
= 1 An | 1 + u | 1 An | 1 u | + C = 1 An +C=
2 2 2 1 u
1 + sin x
= 1 An +C.
2 1 sin x
Multiplying numerator and denominator by 1 + sin x , we have
2
1 + sin x 1 + sin x 1 + sin x 1 + sin x 2
= . = = sec x + tan x
1 sin x 1 sin x 1 + sin x cos x
Therefore
sec x dx = An | sec x + tan x | + C .
To evaluate this integral one has seen the following trick!. If we
multiply both numerator and denominator by ( sec x + tan x ) the
new numerator is the derivative of the new denominator.
Therefore
sec x[sec x + tan x ]
I = sec x dx = dx = An | sec x + tan x | + C.
sec x + tan x
192
Example 4.8:
Evaluate: J = csc x dx .
Solution:
It is easy to see that J = An | csc x cot x | + C .
Also it is clear that
dx dx sec 2 x
2
J = csc x dx = = = 1 dx =
sin x x x 2 x
2 sin cos tan
2 2 2
= An | tan x | + A .
2
Now, we can evaluate I = sec x dx by another substitution as
I = sec x dx = csc[ x + ]dx = An | tan ( x + ) | + A .
2 2 4
Two results, obtained by different methods, may appear to differ,
but may only differ by a constant, which is permissible in
integration.
Prove that An | tan ( x + ) | + B = An | sec x + tan x | .
2 4
Example 4.9:
tan[An x ]
Evaluate: I = dx .
x
Solution:
Let An x = u . Then du = dx / x , and
tan[An x ]
I= dx = tan u du = An | sec u | + C =
x
193
= An | sec [ An x] | + C .
Example 4.10:
cos 2 x
Evaluate: J = dx .
2
sin 2 x
Solution:
Let sin 2x = u . Then 2 cos 2x dx = du , and
cos 2 x du 1 1
J= dx = 1 = +C= +C=
2
sin 2 2 x u2 2u 2 sin 2 x
= 1 csc 2x + C .
2
Example 4.11:
4dx
Evaluate: i) I = ,
x2 + a2
4 x dx 4 x 2 dx
ii) J = , iii) K = ,
x2 + a2 x2 + a2
Solution:
4dx dx 4 1 x
i) I = =4 = tan + C . [ See ( 4.22) ].
2 2 2 2 a a
x +a x +a
4 x dx 2 x dx 2 2
ii) J = = 2 = 2 An [ x + a ] + C .
x2 + a2 x2 + a2
4 x 2 dx 4a 2 2 dx
iii) K = = 4 dx = 4 dx 4a =
2 2 2 2 2 2
x +a x + a x +a
1 x
= 4 x 4a tan +C.
a
194
4.4 Transformation of
Trigonometric Function:
Certain trigonometrical formulae may be frequently be used
with advantage to change products or powers of trigonometric
functions into sums of other functions. Examples of this were
given in the applications of Example 4.1, by changing tan x to
(sin x / cos x) and cot x to cos x / (sin x ), the integrals
tan x dx and cot x dx , were found .
Squares of the trigonometric functions :
Among the formulae which are commonly employed are
the following :
2 2
sin x = 1 [ 1 cos 2x ], cos x = 1 [ 1 + cos 2x ].
2 2
2
Hence sin x dx = 1 [1 cos 2x ] dx =
2
= 1 [ x 1 sin 2x ] + C , (4.32)
2 2
2 1
Similarly cos x dx = [1 + cos 2x ] dx =
2
= 1 [ x + 1 sin 2x ] + C. (4.33)
2 2
It will lie noticed that the formula employed in each case enabled
us to change a power of this function into a sum when integration
was immediately possible. The fo11owing are two further
examples:
2 2
tan x = sec x 1, (4.34)
2 2
hence tan x dx = (sec x l)dx = tan x x + C. (4.35)
195
By the same device

2 2
cot x dx = (csc x l)dx = [cot x + x] + C. (4.36)
Also it is easy to see that
2
sec x dx = tan x + C, (4.37)
2
csc x dx = cot x + C. (4.38)
Squares of the hyperbolic functions:
Similarly, we can integrate the squares of hyperbolic
functions.
2
sinh x dx = 1 [cosh 2x 1 ] dx = 1 [ 1 sinh 2x x] + C =
2 2 2
= 1 sinh 2x 1 x + C , (4.38)
4 2
2
cosh x dx = 1 [cosh 2x +1 ] dx = 1 [ 1 sinh 2x +x] + C =
2 2 2
1 1
= sinh 2x + x + C , (4.39)
4 2
2 2
tanh x dx = (1 sech x)dx = x tanh x + C. (4.40)
2 2
coth x dx = (1 + csch x)dx = x coth x + C. (4.41)
2
sech x dx = tanh x + C, (4.42)
2
csch x dx = coth x + C. (4.43)
4.5 Powers Of Trigonometric functions:
The formula
n u n +1 /(n + 1) + C, n - 1,
u du = (4.44)
An u + C , n = - 1 .
may used to evaluate certain integra1s involving powers of

trigonometric functions, as illustrated by the following examples.
196
The student should pay attention to the method rather than trying
to remember specific results.
Example 4.12:
n n
Evaluate: I = sin ax cos ax dx , J = cos ax sin ax dx .
Solution:
If we let sin ax = u , then a cos ax dx = du, and
u n +1 / a (n + 1) + C, n - 1,
n 1 n
I = sin ax cos ax dx = u du = An u
a + C , n = -1 .
a
n (n+1)
i.e. I = sin ax cos ax dx = [sin ax] / a(n+1) + C , n 1,
1
I = cot ax dx = An | sin ax | + C , n = 1 .
a
Similarly
n 1 n
J = cos ax sin ax dx = [cos ax] d[cos ax]=
a
(n+1)
= [cos ax] / a(n+1) + C , n 1,
sin ax - 1 d[cos ax ]
J = tan ax dx = dx = =
cos ax a cos ax
1 1
= An | cos ax | + C = An | sec ax | + C , n = 1 .
a a
Note that the success of the method depended upon having
cos ax (or sin ax ) to go with the dx as part of du.
Example 4.13:
3
Evaluate: I = sin x dx .
197
Solution:
The method of the previous example does not work because there
is no cos x to go with dx to give du , if we try letting u = sin x .
3 2 2
But if we write sin x = sin x sin x = ( 1 cos x) sin x
and let cos x = u , sin x dx = du we have
3 2 2
I = sin x dx = ( 1 u ) du = (u 1) du =
3 3
= u /3 u + C = 1 cos x cos x + C .
3
This method may be applied whenever an odd power of sin x or
cos x is to be integrated. For example, any positive odd power of
2n+1 2n 2 n
cos x has the form cos x = cos x cos x = [cos x ] cos x =
2 n
= [1 sin x ] cos x , with n an integer 0.
Then , if we let sin x = u , cos x dx = du ,we have
2n+1 2 n 2 n
cos x dx = [1 sin x ] cos x dx = [1 u ] du
2 n
The expression [1 u ] may now be expanded by the binomial
theorem and the result evaluated as a sum of individual integrals
m
of the type u du.
Example 4.14:
4
Evaluate: I = tan x dx .
Solution:
2 2
Since tan x = sec x 1 , then
198
4 2 2
I = tan x dx = tan x [sec x 1]dx =
2 2 2
= tan x sec x dx tan x dx =
2 2 2
= tan x sec x dx [ sec x 1 ] dx =
2 2 2
= tan x sec x dx sec x dx + dx .
In the first two of these, we let
2
tan x = u , sec x dx = du , and we have
2 2 2 2
I = tan x sec x dx sec x dx + dx = u du du + dx =
3 3
= 1 u u + x + C = 1 tan x tan x + x + C .
3 3
The method works for any even power of tan x, but what is
sti1l better is a reduction formula, derived as follows:
n n2 2
In = tan x dx = tan x [sec x 1]dx =
n2 2 n2
= tan x sec x dx tan x dx =
tan n 1 x n2 tan n 1 x
= tan x dx = In2 .
n 1 n 1
n
This reduces the problem of integrating In = tan x dx , to the
n2
problem of integrating In2 = tan x dx. Since this decreases the
exponent on tan x by 2, a repetition with the same formula will
reduce the exponent by 2 again, and so on. Applying this to the
problem above, we have
4 3
n = 4 : I4 = tan x dx = 1 tan x I2 ,
3
2
n = 2 : I2 = tan x dx = tan x I0 ,
0
n = 0 : I0 = tan x dx = dx = x + C .
Therefore
199
4 1 tan3 x [ tan
I4 = tan x dx = x{x+C}]=
3
3
= 1 tan x tan x + x + C .
3
This reduction formula works whether the origina1 exponent n is
even or odd. For example,
3 2 2
I3= tan x dx = 1 tan x tan x dx = 1 tan x + An | cos x| + C .
2 2
Example 4.15:
6
Evaluate: I = sec x dx .
Solution:
6 4 2 2 2 2
I = sec x dx = sec x sec x dx = sec x (1 + tan x) dx
2
Let tan x = u , sec x dx = du , then
6 2 2 2 4
I = sec x dx = (1 + u ) du = [ 1 + 2u + u ] du =
3 5 3 5
= u + 2 u + 1 u + C = tan x + 2 tan x + 1 tan x + C.
3 5 3 5
The method works for any even power of sec x . The even powers
2n
of sec x, say sec x , can all be reduced to powers of tan x by
2 2
employing the substitution sec x = 1 + tan x , and then using the
reduction formula for integrating powers of tan x after expanding
2n 2 n
sec x = [1 + tan x] , by the binomial theorem. In general we
have
2n 2n2 2 2 n 1 2
sec x dx = sec x sec x dx = [sec x] sec x dx =
2 n1 2 2 n 1
= [1 + tan x] sec x dx = [1 + u ] du , ( u = tan x ).
200
2 n 1
When [1 + u ] is expanded by the binomial theorem, the
resulting polynomia1 in u may be integrated term by term. For
integrals involving powers of the cotangent and cosecant we
follow a similar strategy by making use of the identity
2 2
csc x = 1 + cot x .
4.6 Even Powers Of Sines and Cosines:

In the last article 4.5, we saw how we could evaluate
integrals of odd powers of sines and cosines. Indeed, any integral
of the form
m n
sin x cos x dx , (4.45)
in which at least one of the exponents m and n is a positive odd
integer may be evaluated by these method.
Example 4.16:
5 2/3
Evaluate: I = cos x sin x dx .
Solution:
Here we have cos x to an odd power. So we put one factor of cos x
4
with dx and the remaining cosine factors, namely cos x, can be
expressed in terms of sin x without introducing any square roots,
4 2 2 2 2
as follows : cos x = [cos x] = [1 sin x ] .
201
The cos x goes well with dx when we take u = sin x ,

du = cos x dx, and evaluate the integral as follows:
5 2/3 2/3 2 2
I = cos x sin x dx = sin x [1 sin x ] cos x dx =
2/3 2 2 2/3 2 4
=u [1 u ] du = u [1 2u + u ] du =
2/3 8/3 14/3
=[u 2u +u ] du =
5/3 11/3 17/3
=3u 6 u +3 u +C=
5 11 17
5/3 11/3 17/3
= 3 sin x 6 sin x + 3 sin x + C =
5 11 17
5/3 2 4
= sin x [ sin x + 3 sin x] + C.
3 6
5 11 17
If both the exponents m and n in the integral (4.45) are even
integers, the method illustrated above won't work. So we use one
or both of the following trigonometric identities:
2 2
sin x = 1 ( 1 cos 2x) , cos x = 1 ( 1 + cos 2x ).
2 2
Example 4.17:
4
Evaluate: J = sin x dx .
Solution:
4 2 2 2
J = sin x dx = [sin x] dx = [ 1 ( 1 cos 2x)] dx =
2
2
= 1 [1 2 cos 2x + cos 2x)]dx =
4
= 1 [1 2 cos 2x + 1 ( 1 + cos 4x )]dx =
4 2
= 3x 14 sin 2x + 1 sin 4x + C .
8 32
4 2
Remark: An integral such as sin x cos x dx , which involves
even powers of both sin x and cos x , can be changed to a sum of
202
integrals each of which involves only powers of one of them. Then

these may be handled by the method illustrated above.
Example 4.18:
4 2
Evaluate: J = sin x cos x dx .
Solution:
4 2 4 2
J = sin x cos x dx = sin x [ 1 sin x] dx =
4 6
= sin x dx sin x dx ,
4
We evaluated sin x dx above in Example 4.17, and
6 2 3 3
sin x dx = [sin x] dx = 1 ( 1 cos 2x) dx =
8
2 3
= 1 [ 1 3 cos 2x + 3 cos 2x + cos 2x ] dx .
8
we now know how to handle each term of this integral. The
student may supply the details and show that the result is
6 5 x 1 sin 2x + 3 sin 4x + 1 sin3 2x + A.
sin x dx = 16 4 64 48
Therefore
4 2 4 6
J = sin x cos x dx = sin x dx sin x dx =
= 83 x 14 sin 2x + 32
1 sin 4x
5 x + 1 sin 2x 3 sin 4x 1 3
16 4 64 48
sin 2x + B .
= 1 x 1 sin 4x 1 sin3 2x + B .
16 64 48
Another method:
4 2 2 2
J = sin x cos x dx = [sin x cos x] sin x dx =
203
2
= [ 12 sin 2x] 12 ( 1 cos 2x) dx =
= 1 12 ( 1 cos 4x) ( 1 cos 2x) dx =
8
1 [1 cos 2x cos 4x + cos 2x cos 4x] dx =
= 16
1 [1 cos 2x cos 4x + 1 {cos 6x + cos 2x}]
= 16 dx =
2
= 32 [2 cos 2x 2 cos 4x + cos 6x] dx =
1
= 321 [ 2x 1 sin 2x 1 sin 4x + 1 sin 6x ] + C .

2 2 6
Occasionally we encounter integrals involving the product of sines

and cosines of two different angles. In such instances we use the
product identities. The fol1owing formula are useful for changing
products of sines and cosines into sums of these functions:
sin sin = 12 [ cos ( ) cos ( + )],
cos cos = 12 [ cos ( ) + cos ( + )],
sin cos = 12 [ sin ( ) + sin ( + )],
cos sin = 12 [ sin ( ) + sin ( + )].
Example 4.19:
Evaluate: J = sin 5x cos 4x dx .
Solution:
J = sin 5x cos 4x dx = 12 [ sin 9x + sin x ] dx =
= 12 [ 19 cos 9x cos x ] + C = 1 cos
18
9x 12 cos x + C .
Example 4.20:
204
sec x
Evaluate: I= dx .
2
tan x
Solution:
it is easy to see that
2
sec x 1 cos x 2
I= dx = dx = sin x cos x dx =
2 cos x sin x
tan x
1
= [sin x] + C = csc x + C .
Remark:
m m
Although sin x = [sin x] for all m 1, there are a great
1 1
difference between sin x and [sin x] = csc x.
4.7 Integration by Parts:
Recall the rule [u(x) . v(x)]' = u ' (x) v (x) + u (x) v '(x).
Now suppose that we try to find the indefinite integral f(x) dx,
where f(x) can be written in the form u (x) v' (x) . It may perhaps
be easier to find v(x)u'(x)dx, than to find u (x) v' (x)dx = f(x)dx.
By linearity
[u(x) . v(x)]' dx = u ' (x) v (x) dx + u (x) v '(x)dx ,
or u(x) . v(x) = u ' (x) v (x) dx + f(x) dx ,
i.e. f(x) dx = u(x) . v(x) u ' (x) v (x) dx
or u (x) v '(x)dx = u(x) . v(x) u ' (x) v (x) dx. (4.46)
Thus an indefinite integral of f(x) found by subtracting from
u(x)v(x) an indefinite integral of u'(x) v(x).
205
Note that the integration by parts formula express the original

integral in terms of another integral. Depending on the choices for
u and v', it may be easier to evaluate the second integral than the
original one. Since the choice for u and v' are critical in the
integration by parts process, we provide the following general
guidelines:
1) Let v' be the most complicated portion of the integrand that can
be "easily" integrated.
2) Let u be that portion of integrand whose derivative u' is a
"simpler" function than u itself.
These are only suggested guidelines and they should not be
fol1owed blindly or without some thought. It is usually best to
consider the guidelines above in the stated order, giving greater
consideration to the first one. Finally by proper choice of u and
dv, the second integral may be simpler than the first.
Since u' dx = du and v' dx = dv , we may write (4.46) in the
following form:
u d v = u . v v d u. (4.47)
When applying (4.46) or (4.47) , we begin by choosing one part of
the integrand correspond to dv ( or v' dx ) . After selecting dv, we
designate the remaining part of the integrand by u and then find du
( or u' dx). Since this process involves splitting the integrand into
206
two parts, the use of (4.46) or (4.47) is referred to as integration

by parts.
Remark: By replacing v by v + A (where A is any constant ) in
the general formula ( 4.46), we get
u (x) v '(x)dx = u .[v + A] u ' [v + A] dx =
= u .v + u .A u ' v dx A u ' dx =
= u .v + u .A u ' v dx A u = u .v u ' v dx .
Thus we may drop this constant of integration when integrating by
parts. It is understood that a constant of integration must still be
added in the final result. It is therefore customary to drop the first
constant of integration when determining v as dv
Example 4.21:
x 2 x
Find i) I = x e dx. ii) J = x e dx
Discussions:
x x 2
i) Let u = e , v' = x . Then u' = e , v = 12 x and
x 2 x 2 x
I = x e dx = 12 x e 12 x e dx . (4.48)
x
It is clear that the first integral x e dx , is more easier to evaluate
2 x
than the second x e dx . Since the exponent associated with x
2 x
has increased, the integral on the right x e dx is more
x
complicated than the given integral x e dx . This indicates that
we have made an incorrect choice for v'. Equation (4.48) is
207
correct, but the integral on the right is more complicated than the
original.
x x
Now, let u = x , v' = e . Then u' = 1 , v = e and
x x x x x
I = x e dx = x e e dx = x e e + C. (4.49)
2 x x
ii) Let u = x , v' = e . Then u' = 2x , v = e and
2 x 2 x x
J = x e dx = x e 2x e dx , (4.50)
The integral on the right is similar to the original integral, except
we have reduced the power of x from 2 to 1. If we could now
reduces it from 1 to 0, we could see success ahead, we must again
integrate by parts. Proceeding exactly as in (4.49) leads to
2 x 2 x x x
J = x e dx = x e 2[x e e + C]=
x 2
= e [x 2x + 2] + B .
In the light of formula (4.47), we can rewrite (4.49) and (4.50).
x x x x x x
I = x e dx = x d [e ] = x e e dx = x e e + C.
2 x 2 x x
J = x d [e ] = x e 2x e dx =
2 x x 2 x x x
= x e 2 x d [e ] = x e 2 [x e e dx] =
2 x x x
= x e 2x e +2e + C
Remarks:
The two relations (4.48) and (4.50) are equivalent and correct. The
2 x 2 x
first gives I = 12 x e 12 J , i.e. 2I = x e J , which is correct,
208
but the integral on the right J is more complicated than the original
I, and we can not use it.
2 x
The second gives J = x e 2I, which is also correct, and
the integral on the right I is more easier than the original J, and we
can use it.
Sometimes it is necessary to use integration by parts more
than once in the same problem, as illustrated in the next example.
Example 4.22:
Evaluate: i) x sin x dx , ii) An x dx .
Solution:
i) Let u(x) = x, v'(x) = sin x , then u'(x) = 1, v (x) = cos x ,
and substituting gives
x sin x dx = x cos x ( cos x)dx =
= x cos x + cos x dx = x cos x + sin x + C.
ii) At first it may appear that integration by parts does not apply.
However, if we let u(x) = An x , v' (x) = l.
Then u'(x) = 1/x , v(x) = x and
An x dx = x An x dx = x An x x + C.
Sometimes it is necessary to perform the procedure several times.
It often happens that the original integral will recur with a
coefficient other than 1, in which case we solve for it.
209
Example 4.23:
2
Evaluate: x An x dx .
Solution:
2
In this case x is more easily integrated than An x , therefore, we
2 3
choose u = An x , v'= x . Then u' = 1/ x , v = 13 x ,
and it follows that

2 1 x3 x3 1
x An x dx = 3
An x dx =
3 x
3 2 3 3
= 13 x An x 13 x dx = 13 x An x 19 x + C .
Example 4.24:
Evaluate: arcsin x dx .
Solution:
At first it may appear that integration by parts does not apply.
However, if we let u(x) = arcsin x , v' (x) = l , then
u' = 1 / 1 x 2 and v = x . Therefore, we have
x dx
arcsin x dx = x arcsin x =
2
1- x
1
= x arcsin x + 1 (1 x 2 ) 2 (2 x )dx =
2
= x arcsin x + 1 x 2 + C .
210
We encourage you to drive the remaining formulas. For

convenience we list next the integral of inverse trigonometric
functions and inverse hyperbolic functions.
Inverse Trigonometric Functions:
x + 1 x 2 + C,
1 1
1) sin x dx = x sin (4.51)
cos x dx = x cos x 1 x 2 + C,
1 1
2) (4.52)
1 1 2
3) tan x dx = x tan x 1 An (1+x ) + C, (4.53)
2
x An | x + x 2 1 |+ C,
1 1
4) sec x dx = x sec (4.54)
csc x dx = x csc x + An | x + x 2 1 |+ C,
1 1
5) (4.55)
1 1 2
6) cot x dx = x cot x + 1 An (1+x )+ C, (4.56)
2
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions:
x 1 + x 2 + C,
1 1
1) sinh x dx = x sinh (4.57)
cosh x dx = x cosh x x 2 1 + C,
1 1
2) (4.58)
1 1 2
3) tanh x dx = x tanh x + 1 An (1x )+ C, (4.59)
2
1 1 1
4) sech x dx = x sech x + cosh x+C= (4.60)
x + An | x + x 2 1 |+ C,
1
= x sech (4.60')
1 1 1
5) csch x dx = x csch x sinh x+C= (4.61)
= x csch x + An | x + 1 + x 2 |+ C,
1
(4.61')
1 1 2
6) coth x dx = x coth x + 1 An (1x )+ C, (4.62)
2
It may happen that a particular integral requires repeated
application of integration by parts. This is demonstrated in the
next Example.
211
Example 4.25:
2
Evaluate: x sin x dx .
Solution:
2
We may consider x and sin x to be equally easy to integrate ;
2
however , the derivative of x becomes simpler while the
2
derivative of the sin x does not. Therefore, our choices are u = x
and v' = sin x . Then u' = 2x and v = cos x and it follows that
2 2
x sin x dx = x cos x + 2 x cos x dx .
Now we apply integration by parts to the new integral and, with
the same considerations in mind, we let u = 2x and v' = cos x .
Then u' = 2 and v = sin x and it follows that
2x cos x dx = 2x sin x 2 sin x dx =
= 2x sin x + 2 cos x + C .
Therefore
2 2
x sin x dx = x cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x + C .
When making repeated application of integration by parts, we
need to be careful not to interchange the substitutions in
successive applications. By switching substitutions we returned to
our original integral. There are two things to keep in mind when
making repeated application of integration by parts:
1) Be careful not to switch the choices for v' and u in successive
applications.
212
2) After each application watch for the appearance of a constant

multiple of the original integral. The latter situation is illustrated
in the following Example.
Example 4.26:
x x
Evaluate: i) I = e cos x dx , ii) J = e sin x dx .
Solution:
x
i) Both e and cos x are easily integrated and neither of there
derivatives is simpler than the function itself. Thus our choice for
x
v' is arbitrary and we let u = cos x , v' = e . Then u' = sin x ,
x
v = e and it follows that
x x x x
I = e cos x dx = e cos x + e sin x dx = e cos x + J .
Making the "same" choice for the next application of integration
x x
by parts, we let u = sin x and v' = e . Then u' = cos x and v = e
and it follows that
x
J = e sin x I , and therefore
x x x
I = e cos x dx = e cos x + e sin x I .
Notice that the negative of our original integra1 has appeared on
the right. By adding this integral to both sides, we obtain
x x x
2I =2 e cos x dx = e cos x + e sin x.
and then dividing by 2 yields the result
x x
I = e cos x dx = 12 e [cos x + sin x] .
213
Since this integral is an indefinite integral, we add an arbitrary
constant C, therefore we get
x x
I = e cos x dx = 12 e [cos x + sin x] + C
x x
ii ) Since J = e sin x dx = e sin x I =
x x x
= e sin x 12 e [cos x + sin x] = 12 e [sin x cos x]+ A.
x 1 ex
i.e. J = e sin x dx = 2
[sin x cos x] + A .
In each case arbitrary constant should be added .

When dealing with integration by parts, the original
integral sometimes occurs in the resu1t , and hence can be found
by algebraic methods as shown in the following Example:
Example 4.27:
3
Evaluate: I = sec dx .
Solution:
2
Since sec x can be easily integrated, then we let u = sec x
2
and v' = sec x , then u' = sec x tan x and v = tan x and we obtain
3 2
I = sec dx = sec x tan x sec x [ tan x] dx =
2
= sec x tan x sec x [ sec x 1] dx =
3
= sec x tan x sec x dx + sec x dx .
Therefore, 2 I = sec x tan x + sec x dx and
I = 12 sec x tan x + 12 sec x dx =
= 12 sec x tan x + 12 An | sec x + tan x | + C .
214
4.8 Successive Integration By Parts :

(n+1)
Integral of the form u (x) v(x) dx , in which v(x) can
(m) (n+1)
be differentiated repeatedly to become v (x) or zero and u (x)
can be integrated repeatedly without difficulty are natural
candidates for integration by parts.
(n+1) (n) (n)
In+1 = u (x) v(x) dx = u (x) v(x) u (x) v'(x) dx ,
(n) (n1) (n1)
In = u (x) v'(x) dx = u (x) v'(x) u (x) v"(x) dx ,
(n+1)
i.e. In+1 = u (x) v(x) dx =
(n) (n1) (n1)
= u (x) v(x) u (x) v'(x) + u (x) v"(x) dx,
and so on
(n+1)
In+1 = u (x) v(x) dx =
(n) (n1) (n2)
= u (x) v(x) u (x) v'(x) + u (x) v"(x) +
n (n) n+1 (n+1)
+ (1) u(x)v (x) + (1) u(x)v (x)dx
r =n
= (1) r u ( n r ) v ( r ) +(1)
n+1 (n+1)
u(x)v (x)dx. (4.63)
r =0
(n+1)
If v (x) 0 , therefore
(n+1)
In+1 = u (x) v(x) dx =
(n) (n1) (n2)
= u (x) v(x) u (x) v'(x) + u (x) v"(x) +
r =n
+ (1) u(x)v (x) = (1) r u ( n r ) v ( r ) .
n (n)
(4.64)
r =0
If many repetitions are required, however, the calculations can be
cumbersome. There is a way to organize the calculations in
215
situations like this, called successive integration by parts or tabular

integration, that saves a great deal of work.
n n+1
sign + + (1) (1)
(n+1) (n) (n1) (n2) (n3) (0)
u u u u u u u
(0) (1) (2) (3) (n) (n+1)
v v v v v v v
(n) (0) (n1) (1) (n2) (2) (n3) (3)
(n+1).
u v u v +u v u v + +
u vdx= n (n) n+1 (n+1)
+(1) u v +(1) u(x)v (x)dx .
The products of the functions in the same column connected by
(n+1)
the arrows are added, to obtain the result. If v (x) 0 ,
n+1 (n+1)
therefore the last term (1) u(x)v (x)dx would replaced by
a constant.
Example 4.28:
4 x 4 x
Evaluate: I = x e dx , J = x e dx .
Solution:
(n) x 4
i) Take u = e , v = x .
sign + + +
x x x x x x x
e dx e e e e e e
4 4 3 2
Dx x 4 x 12 x 24 x 24 0
4 x 3 x 2 x x x
Sum +x e 4x e +12x e 24x e +24 e 0
the arrows are added, to obtain
4 x x 4 3 2
I = x e dx = e [x 4x + 12x 24x + 24 ] + C
216
(n) x 4
i) Take u =e ,v=x .
sign + + +
x x x x x x x
e dx e +e e +e e +e
4 4 3 2
Dx x 4 x 12 x 24 x 24 0
4 x 3 x 2 x x x
Sum x e 4x e 12x e 24x e 24 e 0
The products gives us:
4 x x 4 3 2
I = x e dx = e [x + 4x + 12x + 24x + 24 ] + C
Example 4.29:
3 3
Evaluate: I = x sin x dx , J = x cos x dx .
Solution:
(n) 3
i) Take u = sin x , v = x .
sign + + +
sin x dx cos x sin x cos x sin x cos x
3 3 2
Dx x 3 x 6 x 6 0
3 2
Sum x cos x +3x sin x +6xcos x 6 sin x 0

3 3 2
I = x sin x dx = x cos x + 3x sin x + 6 x cos x 6 sin x + C .
217
(n) 3
i) Take u = sin x , v = x .
sign + + +
cos x dx sin x cos x sin x cos x sin x
3 3 2
Dx x 3 x 6 x 6 0
3 2
Sum +x sin x +3x cos x 6xsin x 6 cos x 0
3 3 2
J = x cos x dx = +x sin x + 3x cos x 6xsin x 6 cos x + C.
4. 9 Some Trigonometrical and
Hyperbolic substations:
We can evaluate integrals involving the radicals
x2 a2 , a 2 + x 2 and a 2 x 2 , by using the fol1owing
substitutions:
For integral involving Let then
1) p = a2 x2 x = a sin p = a cos
2) q = a2 + x2 x = a tan q = a sec
3) t = x2 a2 x = a sec t = a tan
Figure 4.1
This method is called trigonometric substitution. Our objective
with trigonometric substitution is to eliminate the radicals in the
integrand.
218
Example 4.30:
dx dx
Evaluate: I= , J= ,
2 2 2 2 2
a x x a x
K = a 2 x 2 dx , dx
L = .
2 2
a x
Solution:
We make the substitution x = a sin , then
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a x = a a sin = a cos , dx = a cos d.
dx 1 x 1 x
I= = d = +C = sin + C = cos + C`.
2
a x 2 a a
dx 1 2 1
J= = csc d = cot + C =
2 2 2 2 2
x a x a a
1 1 x a2 x2
= cot [sin ]+C= +C.
a2 a a 2x
K = a 2 x 2 dx = a cos d =
2 2 2
1
2
a [ 1 + cos 2] d =
1 x
+ 12 x a 2 x 2 + C .
2 2
= 12 a [ + 12 sin 2 ] + C = 1
2
a sin
a
dx 1 1
L = sec d = An | sec + tan | + C =
=
a2 x2 a a
1 a+x 1 1 x
= An + C = tanh +C.
2a a x a a
219
Example 4.31:
dx dx
Evaluate: I= , J= ,
2 2 2 2 2
a +x x a +x
K = a 2 + x 2 dx , dx
L = .
2 2
a +x
Solution:
We try the substitution x = a tan , then
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a + x = a + a tan = a sec , dx = a sec d.
dx
I= = sec d = An | sec + tan | + C =
2 2
a +x
1 x
= An | x + a 2 + x 2 | An | a | + C = sinh + C.
a
dx 1 sec 1
J= = d = csc + C =
2 2 2 2 2 2
x a +x a tan a
a2 + x2
= + C . ( See Example 4.20 )
a 2x2
K = a 2 + x 2 dx = a sec d =
2 3
[ From Example (4.27)]
2
= 12 a [ sec tan + An | sec + tan | ]+ C =
= 12 x a 2 + x 2 + 12 a An | x + a 2 + x 2 | + C' .
2
dx 1 1 1 1 x
L = = d = + C = tan + C.
a2 + x2 a a a a
220
Example 4.32:
dx dx
Evaluate: I= , J= ,
2 2 2 2 2
x a x x a
K = x 2 a 2 dx , dx
L = .
2 2
x a
Solution:
We try the substitution x = a sec ,
then
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x a = a sec a = a tan , dx
= a sec tan d.
Figure 4.2
dx
I= = sec d = An | sec + tan | + C =
2 2
x a
1 x
= An | x + x 2 a 2 | An | a | + C = cosh + C.
a
dx 1 1
J=
2 2 2
=
2 cos d = 2
sin + C =
x x a a a
x2 a2
= +C.
2
a x
K = x 2 a 2 dx = a tan sec d = a tan d(sec )=
2 2 2
2 3
= a [ sec tan sec d ] = [ From Example (4.27)]
2
= a [sec tan 12 sec tan 1
2
An | sec + tan | ]+ C =
2
= 12 a [sec tan An | sec + tan | ]+ C =
= 12 x x 2 a 2 12 a An | x + x 2 a 2 | + C' .
2
221
dx 1 1
L = csc d = An | csc cot | + C =
=
x2 a2 a a
1 xa 1 1 x
= An + C = coth +C.
2a x+a a a
The following is a table of suggested substitution for certain types
of integrals, and the bold substitutions are the more usual ones
used when more than one substitution is given.
Integrand containing Suggested substitution

x = a sin , a cos ;
1) a2 x2
x = a tanh z , a sech z .
x = a sinh z , a csch z ;
2) a2 + x2
x = a tan , a cot .
x = a cosh z , a coth z ;
3) x2 a2
x = a sec , a csc .
r
x = z , where r is the L.C.M. of the
4) Expression containing
denominators of the fractional
fractional powers of x
indices.
2 2
5) x f(x ) x =z.
2
6) f(x & ax + b ) ax + b = z i.e z = ax+ b.
7) f(x & [ x a ][ x b] ) x b =z x-a.
8) f(x & [b x ][ x a ] ) bx =z x-a.
9) f( x & x 2 + bx + c ) x + x 2 + bx + c = z
222
2 2 n
Note: when dealing with (x +a ) dx ,
where n is positive, it is advisable to use x = a sinh z ,
and when n is negative, use x = a tan .
4.10 Completing the Squares:

Eight of the 31 fundamental integration formulas listed in
4.2 involve the sum or difference of two squares. We can extend
the application of these formulas by the use of the technique of
completing the square. This technique provides a means for
writing any quadratic polynomial as the sum or difference of two
squares. The general quadratic polynomial can be reduced to the
2
form (x) = a x + b x + c, a 0, ( for if a = 0 the polynomial (x)
would not contain the term of second degree in x). (x) can be
2 2
reduced to the form a (u B ) by completing the square, as
2
follows: Dividing by the coefficient of x . Adding and subtracting
the square of half the coefficient of x. Resolving into factors. i.e.
2 2 b
(x) = a x + b x + c = a[x + x] + c =
a
2b b2 b2 b 2 4ac b 2
= a[x + x + ]+c = a [x + ] + =
a 4a 2 4a 2a 4a
2
b 2 b 4ac 2 2
= a [x + ] =a[u B ],
2a 4a
b 2 b 2 4ac
where u = x + , B = .
2a 2
4a
223
2 2 2
If b 4ac , then B is real, and (x) = a [ u B ] and in this case
2 2
(x) = a [ u B ]= a ( u B)( u + B) , which means that (x) can
be factorized into two real factors.
2 2 2 2
If b 4ac , then B is negative and if write A = B
b 2 4ac 4ac b 2
2
then A = = is positive and
4a 2 4a 2
2 2
(x) = a [ u + A ], which means that (x) can not be factorized
into two real factors.
Example 4.33:
Express each polynomial as the sum or difference of squares:
2 2
i) 4 x + 4 x + 2 , ii) 3 x x ,
2 2
iii) x 6 x + 5 , iv) x + 8 x + 25 .
Solution:
By completing the square we obtain
2 2 2 2 2
i) 4x +4x+2 = 4[ x + x ]+2 = 4[ x + x + ( 12 ) ]+24[( 12 ) ]=
2
= ( x + 12 ) + 1.
2
Note that the two roots of 4x + 4x +2 = 0 are 1 i .
2 2 2 3 2 3 2
ii) 3 x x = [ x 3x] = [ x 3x + ( ) ]+ ( ) =
2 2
3 2 9 9 3 2
=(x ) + = (x ) =
2 4 4 2
= x ( 3 x) [ can be factorized ].
224
2 2 2 2
iii) x 6 x + 5 = [ x 6 x + (3) ] + 5 (3) =
2
= (x 3) 4
= (x 5)(x 1) [ can be factorized ].
2 2 2 2
iv) x + 8 x + 25 = [x + 8 x + (4) ] + 25 (4)
2 2 2
= ( x + 4) + 9 = ( x + 4) + (3) .
2
Note that the two roots of x + 8x +25 = 0 are 4 3i .
Example 4.34:
dx dx
Evaluate: i) I = , ii) J = ,
2 2
4x +4x+2 3x x
dx dx
iii) K = , iv) L = .
2 2
x 6x + 5 x + 8x + 25
Solution:
Using the results of Example 4.33, we obtain
dx dx dx
i) I= = = 1
4 x 2 + 4 x + 2 4( x + 1 ) 2 + 1
2
4
( x + 1)2 + 1 2
2
(2 )
Considering u = x + 1 and a = 12 , we can use Formula (4.22)
2
dx 1 1 u 1
I= 1 = 1 tan + C = 12 tan (2x+1) + C .
4 4 a
u2 + a2 a
dx dx
ii) J = = .
3x x 2 3 2
(2 )
3
(x )
2
2
3 3
Putting u = x and a = , and using Formula (4.20), we get
2 2
225
dx 1 u 1 2 x 3
J= = sin + C = sin + C.
2
a u 2 a 3
dx dx
iii) K= = .
2 2 2
x 6x + 5 ( x 3) 2
Putting u = x 3 and a = 2 , and using Formula (4.29),we get
du 1 1 u 1 ua
K= = coth +C= An +C
2
u a 2 a a 2 a u + a
x 32 x 5
= 1 An + C = 1 An + C.
4 x 3+ 2 4 x 1
dx dx
iv) L = =
x 2 + 8x + 25 ( x + 4) 2 + 3 2
Putting u = x +4 and a = 3 , and using Formula (4.29),we get
du 1 u
L= = sinh +C=
2
u +a 2 a
= An | u + u 2 + a 2 | An |a| + C= An | u + u 2 + a 2 | + C'.
1 x + 4
= sinh + C = An | x + 4 + x 2 +8x + 25 | An 3 + C =
3
= An | x + 4 + x 2 + 8x + 25 | + C'.
Example 4.35:
Evaluate: x dx x dx
i) I = , ii) J = .
2 2
x + 2x 5+4x x
Solution:
x dx x dx
i) I= = .
2 2
x + 2x (x + 1) 1
226
Putting u = x +1 and a = 1 , we get

I=
(u 1)du 1
2
= u 1
2
(
2 12
)
(2u ) du
du
2
.
u 1 u 1
The first integral fits the power rule, and apply Formula (4.27) to
the second integral, we obtain
u 2 1 cosh x 2 + 2x cosh (x+1) +C =
1 1
I= u+C=
= x 2 + 2x An | x+1 + x 2 + 2x | +C.
x dx x dx
ii) J= = ,
2 2 2
5+4x x 3 ( x 2)
Putting u = x 2 and a = 3 , we get
J=
(u + 2)du
2 2 2
( 1
)
= 1 3 2 u 2 2 (2u )du + 2
2
du
2
.
3 u a u
The first integral fits the power rule, and apply Formula (4.20) to
the second integral, we obtain
1 u
J = a 2 u 2 +2 sin +C=
a
x 2
= 5 + 4 x x 2 +2 sin 1 + C.
3
4.11 Simplification before integration:
As in differentiation, it is sometimes necessary to simplify
the integrand before integrating. If the integrand consists of
ax + b
, the simplification done by multiplying the numerator
cx + d
and denominator by ax + b , and if the integrand has a surdic
denominator it is done by rationalizing the denominator.
227
Example 4.36:
a+x
Evaluate: I= dx .
ax
Solution:
Multiplying the numerator and denominator by a + x , we get
a+x (a + x ) dx a dx x dx
I= a x dx = 2 2 = 2 2

2 2
=
a -x a -x a -x
x
a 2 x 2 + C.
1
= a sin
a
4.12 Miscellaneous Substitutions:
In the fol1owing examples, we demonstrate several special types
of substitutions and provide some suggestions for their use.
Example 4.37:
dx
Evaluate: I= .
x 3 x
Solution:
We eliminate all radicals in the integrand, if we consider the
common root u = 6 x , then
1 3 1 2 6 5
3
x = x 2= u , x =x 3= u , u = x , and 6 u du = dx.
Therefore,
dx 6u 5 du
u 3 du u3 1 + 1
I= = =6 = 6 du =
x 3 x 3
u u 2 u 1 u 1
1
= 6 [u 2 + u + 1 +
3 2
]du = 6[ 1 u + 1 u + u + An |u 1|] +C =
u 1 3 2
228
=2 x + 3 3 x + 6 6 x + An | 6 x 1 | + C.
Example 4.38:
3
x 4 dx
Evaluate: J= .
2( x + 1)
Solution:
1 4 3 3 3 2 1
4
Let u = x= x 4, u = x , 4 u du = dx , u = x 4 and u = x 2.
3
x 4 dx u 3 .4u 3 du u 6 du (u 6 + 1 1)du
J= = = 2 = 2 =
2( x + 1) 2 2 2
2(u + 1) u +1 u +1
4 2 1 5 3 1
= 2 [ u u +1 ]du = 2[ 1 u 1 u + u tan u]+C=
5 3
u2 +1
5 3 1 1 1
= 2 x 4 2 x 4 + 2x 4 2 tan x 4 + C .
5 3
Occasionally we encounter rational expressions of sin x and
cos x that do not fit any of our procedures for integrating
trigonometric functions. In such cases there is a substitution that
converts the integrand into a rational expression in the variable u.
sin x 2 sin x cos x
2 2
This substitution is u = = = tan x .
1 + cos x 1 + [2 cos x 1]
2 2
2
Using this substitution it follows that
2
2 sin x 1 cos 2 x 1 cos x
u = = = .
1 + cos x (1 + cos x ) 2 1 + cos x
229
1 u2
Solving for cos x in this equation, we have cos x = .
1+ u2
To find sin x, we write
sin x
u= ,
1 + cos x
sin x = u [ 1 + cos x ] =
1 u2 Figure 4.3
=u[1+ ]=
1+ u2
1 + u 2 + 1 u 2 2u
i.e. sin x = u = .
2 2
1+ u 1 + u
Finally, to find dx ,
1 2du
we write u = tan x and x = tan u , hence dx = .
2 2
1+ u2
In summary, for integrals involving rationa1 functions of the sine
sin x
and cosine, use the substation u = = tan x ,
1 + cos x 2
1 u2 2u 2du
which implies that cos x = , sin x = ,dx = .
1+ u2 1+ u2 1+ u2
Example 4.39:
dx
Evaluate: J= 1 + sin x cos x .
Solution:
sin x 2du
Let u = = tan x , dx = ,
1 + cos x 2 2
1+ u
230
1 u2 2u
cos x = and sin x = , then
1+ u2 1+ u2
dx 2du /(1 + u 2 )
J= = =
1 + sin x cos x 1 + [2u /(1 + u 2 )] [(1 u 2 ) /(1 + u 2 )]
2du 2du du
= = = .
2
(1 + u ) + 2u (1 u )2
2u + 2 u 2 u (1 + u )
1 1 1
Using partial fractions we get = ,
u (u + 1) u 1 + u
du du u
I= = An | u | An |1 + u| + C= An +C=
u 1+ u 1+ u
sin x
= An + C.
1 + sin x + cos x
It is important to note that since the six trigonometric functions
can be written as rationa1 combinations of the sine and cosine,
then the substitution u = tan x , will work for rational integrands
2
invo1ving any of the six trigonometric functions .
Example 4.40:
dx
Evaluate: I= sin x tan x .
Solution:
1 cos x
Since = ,
sin x tan x sin x cos x sin x
sin x 2du
we use the substitution u = = tan x , dx = ,
1 + cos x 2 2
1+ u
231
1 u2 2u
cos x = , and sin x =
, and write
1+ u2 1+ u2
dx cos x dx
I= = =
sin x tan x sin x cos x sin x
(1 u 2 )(2du ) (1 u 2 )du
= = =
2u (1 u 2 ) 2u (1 + u 2 ) u (2u 2 )
1 u2 du du
=1 du = 1 [
2
]=
2
u3 u3 u
1
=1[ An | u | ] + C =
2 2
2u
2
1 1 + cos x 1 An sin x
= + +C.
4 sin x 2 1 + cos x
The following three examples demonstrate additional types
of substitutions that are of occasional use.
Example 4.41:
x 3 dx
Evaluate: I = 3 2
.
9x
Solution:
3
If we let u = 9 x2 ,
3 2 2 3 2
then u = 9 x , x = 9 u , 2xdx = 3u du . Therefore
x 3 dx (
(9 u 3 ) 3 u 2
2
) du
I= 3 2
= u
9x
= 3 [9u u ] du = 3 [ 9 u 2 1 u 5 ] + C =
4
2 2 2 5
232
5
2 2
= 3 (9 x 2 ) 3 27 (9 x ) 3+ C.
10 4
Example 4.42:
dx
Evaluate: J = x
.
1 e
Solution:
1 e x = u , then 1 e = u , u 1= e
x 2 2 x
Let
x 2udu 2udu
2u du = e dx. Therefore dx = = and
ex u2 1
dx 2udu du
J= = =2 =
x 2 2
1 e u (u 1) 1 u
1 1 u 1 1 ex 1
= du = An u + 1 + C = An + C.
u 1 u + 1 x
1 e +1
Example 4.42:
dx
Evaluate: I= 2 2
.
x x + 2x
Solution:
1 1 du 1
First, let u = , then x = , dx = , and x 2 = .
x u 2 2
u u
Therefore,
dx (du / u 2 ) udu
I= 2 2
= 2 2
=
1 + 2u
.
x x + 2x (1 / u ) 1 / u + 2 / u
Now, for the square root of a 1inear expression, we let
233
2 2
z = 1 + 2u , and then z = 1 + 2u , 1 (z 1) = u , z dz = du.
2
Therefore,
(z 2 1) z dz 1 2 3
I= = [ 1 z ]dz = 1 z z /6 + C .
2z 2 2
Resubstituting for z gives us

3
I = 1 1 + 2u 1 (1 + 2u ) 2 + C =
2 6
= 1 1 + 2u [ 3 (1+2u)] = 1 1 + 2u [1u] + C ,
6 3
and finally, resubstituting for u , we get
2 1 ( x 1)
I = 1 1 + [1 ] + C = x 2 + 2x + C.
3 x x 3x 2
4.13 Integration by the method of
partial fractions:
In algebra you learned how to combine fractions over a
common denominator. Also, it is desirable to reverse the process
and split a fraction into a sum of fractions having simpler
denominator. The technique of doing this known as the method of
partial fractions.
Resolution of rational functions into partial fractions:

If the given rational function is improper, it should first be
expressed as the sum of a polynomial and a proper fraction. We
now have the following rules:
234
Decomposition of f(x)/g(x) Into Partial Fractions:

Rule 1) If f(x)/g(x) is not a proper rational function [that is, if the
degree of g(x) is not greater than the degree or f(x)], then divide
f(x) by g(x) to obtain f(x)/g(x) = (a polynomial)+ f1(x)/g(x)
and apply Rules 2, 3, and 4 to the proper rational function
f1(x)/g(x).
Rule 2) Completely factor f(x) into factors of the form
m 2 n 2
(p x + q) and (a x + b x + c) , where a x + b x + c is
irreducible.
m
Rule 3) For each factor of the form (p x + q) , the partial fraction
decomposition must include the following sum of m fractions:
1 2 m
+ ++ .
(px + q) (px + q ) 2 (px + q ) m
2 n
Rule 4) For each factor of. the form (ax + b x + c) , the partial
fraction decomposition must include the following sum of n
fractions:
1 x + 1 2x + 2 n x + n
+ ++ .
2 2 2 2 n
ax + bx + c (ax + bx + c) (ax + bx + c)
For example, if f(x) is a polynomial of degree less than 8, then the
3 2 2
partial fraction decomposition of f(x)/ (x1)(x2) (x +x+1)
f (x)
has the form =
3 2 2
( x 1)( x 2) ( x + x + 1)
235
1 2 3 x + 1 x + 2
+ + + + 1 + 2 .
x 1 ( x 2) ( x 2) 2 ( x 2) 3 ( x 2 + x + 1) (x 2 + x + 1) 2
The 's, 's and 's are constants i.e. are independent of x.
Now, If the integrand is of the form f(x)/g(x), and f(x) and
g(x) are rational, integral, algebraical functions of x, and the
integral does not come under the standard integrals, it will be
necessary, where possible, to express the integrand in partial
fractions before proceeding to determine its value.
Example 4.43:
dx
Evaluate: I= 2
.
1 x
Solution:
1 1 1
By partial fractions = + .
1 x2 2(1 x ) 2(1 + x )
Therefore,
I=
dx
= 1
1
+
1
dx = 1 An 1 + x + C.
2 1 x 1 + x 2 1 x
1 x2
Example 4.44:
( x + 7)dx
Evaluate: I= 2
.
x x6
Solution:
( x + 7) 2 1
By partial fractions = . Then
x2 x 6 x 3 x+2
236
( x + 7)dx 2 1
I= 2 = x 3 x + 2 dx =

x x6
( x 3) 2
=2 An | x3| An | x+2| + C = An + C.
x+2
Example 4.45:
(2 x 3 4 x 8)dx
Evaluate: J = .
( x 2 x )( x 2 + 4)
Solution:
2 2 2
Since (x x)(x +4) = x (x 1)(x +4).
2x 3 4x 8 2 2 2x + 4
=+ =
x ( x 1)( x 2 + 4) x x 1 x2 + 4
2 2 2x 4
= + +
x x 1 x2 + 4 x2 + 4
Therefore,
(2 x 3 4 x 8)dx 2 2 2x 4
J= 2 2
= [
x x 1
+
2
+
2
]dx =
( x x )( x + 4) x +4 x +4
2 1
= 2 An | x | 2 An | x 1| + An (x + 4) + 2 tan x + C =
2
x 2 ( x 2 + 4) 1
= An + 2 tan x + C.
2
( x 1) 2
Example 4.46:
(2 x 5 5x )dx
Evaluate: I = 2 2
.
( x + 2)
237
Solution:
Since the numerator is of greater degree than the denominator, we
first divide to obtain
2 x 5 5x 8x 3 + 13x
= 2x .
2 2 2 2
( x + 2) ( x + 2)
and using the rules of partial fractions we find
8x 3 + 13x 8x 3x
= , and it follows that
2 2 2 2 2
( x + 2) x +2 ( x + 2)
2 x 5 5x 8x 3x
= 2x + , and hence
2 2 2 2 2
( x + 2) x +2 ( x + 2)
(2 x 5 5x )dx 8x 3x
I= = [ 2x + ] dx =
( x 2 + 2) 2 x 2 + 2 ( x 2 + 2) 2
2 2 3
= x 4 An (x + 2) +C.
2
2( x + 2)
Note:
You should be aware that there will sometimes be more
than one way to calculate an integral. In such case, it will
obviously be to your advantage to choose the easiest method. Only
experience and practice can give you the insight to do this
consistently.
238
EXERCISES 4
1) Evaluate:
x 3 1 + cos(e 2 x )
a) dx,
2
b) dx ,
9x + 4 e 2x
x2
c) 6
dx , d) cot x. An (sin x ) dx ,
16 x
dx dx
e) 2
, f) 2
,
x 4x + 7 2x x 3
dx
g) 2
.
( x 1) x 2 x 2
[Answers: a) 1 9 x 2 + 4 An [ 3x + 9x 2 + 4 ] ,
9
-2x 1 -2x 3 2
b) e sin(e ) , c) 1 arcsin 1 x , d) 1 [ An (sin x)] ,
1
2 2 3 4 2
x2 2x 3 | x 1|
e) 1 arctan , f) 1 An , g) 1 arcsec .]
3 3 5 2x + 2 3 3
In each case arbitrary constant C should be added.
2) Evaluate:
2x 1
a) dx , b) x x 1dx ,
2
x + 2x
dx dx
c) , d) ,
3 x +1 x+2 x
5x 2 + 20x + 6 f)
x+7
dx ,
e) dx , 2
x 3 + 2x 2 + x x x6
2x 3 4x 8 2 x 5 5x
g) dx , h) dx .
(x 2 x)(x 2 + 4) ( x 2 + 2) 2
239
[Answers: a) 2 x 2 + 2x 3 An | (x+1) + x 2 + 2x | ,
3
b) 2 ( x 1) 2 (3x + 2) , c) 2 x 2 An (3 x +1),
15 3 9
1
3 3 x6 9
d) [( x + 2) + x ] , e) An
2 2 , f) 2 An |x3| An |x+2|,
3 x +1 x +1
x 2 ( x 2 + 4) 2 2 2
1
g) 2 arctan x + An , h) x 4 An (x +2) 3 (x +2). ]
2 2 2
( x 1)
3) Evaluate:
x2
a) 2 2
dx , 2
b) sin x cos x dx,
5
( x + 1)
tan 3 x
4
c) cos x dx, d)
sec x
dx ,
4 4
4
e) sec 3x tan 3x dx ,
3 f) csc 1 x cot 1 x dx .
2 2
2 5 7 3
[Answers: a) 1 [ arctan x x/(x +1)], b) 1 sin x 2 sin x+ 1 sin x,
2 3 5 7
3/2 1/2
c) 3x/8 + 1 sin 2x + 32
1 sin 4x , d) 2 (sec x) + 2 ( sec x) ,
4 3
4 6 5 7
e) 1 [ 1 tan 3x + 1 tan 3x], f) 2 cot 1 x 2 cot 1 x .]
3 4 6 5 2 7 2
4) Evaluate:
dx dx
a) 3
, b) 3
,
2 2
(9 x + 16) 2 ( x 4x ) 2
2
c) x sin x dx, d) sin x An ( cos x ) dx ,
dx dx
e) , f) .
sin x tan x 2
x x + 2x2
x (2 x )
[Answers: a) , b) ,
2 2
16 9 x + 16 4 x 4x
240
2
c) x cos x + 2 x sin x + 2cos x, d) cos x An (cos x) +cos x,
2 2
e) 1 1 + cos x
+ 1 An sin x , f) ( x 1) x + 2 x .]
4 sin x 2 1 + cos x 3x 2
5) Evaluate:
dx
a) , b) cos 4x cos 7x dx,
2 2
sin x cos x
dx
c) cos x cos 2x cos 5x dx, d) 2
,
4 x 4x
dx
e) ,
1 + ex
[Answers: a) tan x cot x , b) 1 sin 3x + 1 sin 11x,
6 22
c) 1 sin 2x + 1 sin 4x + 1 sin 6x + 1 sin 8x ,
8 16 24 32
2 2+x+2 x
d) 1 An , e) x An ( 1 + e ) .]
4 2 2 2x2
6) Evaluate:
dx sin 2 x
a) , b) dx ,
(arccos x ) 5 1 x 2 1 + sin x 2
1 + An x
c) dx , 3
d) x An x dx,
3 + x An x
e) cos ( An x) dx , f) x An [1 + 1 ] dx .
x
4 2
[Answers: a) 1 arccos x , b) An ( 1 + sin x), c) An | 3 + x An x | ,
4
4 4
d) x An x 1 x , e)
1 1 x{ cos ( An x) + sin ( An x)],
4 16 2
1 2 1 x2 An x + 1 x.]
f) (x 1) An (x+1)
2 2 2
241
7) Evaluate:
x 4 3x 2 3x 2 2 x 2 3x + 3
a) dx , b) dx ,
x 3 x 2 2x x 3 2x 2 + x
sin x
4
c) sin x cos x dx,
6 d) dx ,
1 + sin x
An x dx
e) dx , f) ,
2 2
x (1 + x ) x x
3
g) cosh x dx .
2
[Answers: a) 1 x + x + An |x| 2 An |x2| 1 An |x+1| ,
2 3 3
2 3x sin 4 x sin 8x sin 5 2 x
b)3 An |x| An |x 1|, c) + + ,
x 1 256 256 2048 320
An x 1 2( x 1)
d)sec xtan x +x, e) , f) ,g) sinh x + 1 sinh3x.]
x x 1 x 3
8) Evaluate:
ex x arctan x
a) 2x 2
dx , b) 2
dx ,
(1 + e ) 1+ x
x x
c) e An ( e + 1 ) dx .
x 2x x
[Answers: a) e /2(1+e ) + 1 arctan e ,
2
b) 1 + x 2 .arctan x An [ x + x 2 + 1 ],
x x x
c) e An (1+e ) + x An (1+e ).]
9) Evaluate:
x5 1 b) e An x dx ,
a) dx ,
x 1
2 4
c) (1 x)(1 + x )(1 + x )(1 + x)dx,
242
2 2
d) (1 x) (1 + x) (1+x + x ) (1x + x ) dx,
2 4 8
e) (x +1)( x +1)( x +1 ) ( x +1 ) dx.
x5 x4 x3 x2 x2 x9
[Answers: a) + + + +x , b) , c) x ,
5 4 3 2 2 9
x7 16 x i
d) x , e) .]
7 i =1 i
10) Prove that
-1 -1
a) [ tan (sinh x) + cos (tanh x)] dx = 1 x + C,
2
1+ x
b) sin [ tanh ( An )] dx = cos x + C,
1- x
-1 -1
c) [tan x + tan (1/x) ] dx = 1 x + C,
2
-1 -1
d) [sec x + sin (1/x) ] dx = 1 x + C,
2
11) Find the fallacy in the following solution
dx 1 1 1 dx
x x
= (1) dx = u v dx = (x)
2 ( x ) dx = 1+ x.
x x
Hence 0 = 1 !!.
12) Is there a fallacy in the following solution of An (x+5)dx ?
Let u = An (x+5) and v = 1, then u = 1/(x + 5) and v = x + 5.
Thus, by parts,
An (x+5)dx = (x+5) An (x+5) dx =
= (x+5) An (x+5) x + C .
243
Calculus DEFINITE INTEGRALS Chapter 5
CHAPTER 5
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
5.1 The definite Integral:
Let us consider a function y = f(x) defined in a finite closed
interval [a , b] and divide the interval into n subintervals hl , h2 ,
,hn by the insertion of (nl) points xl , x2 , ,xn1 : where
a = x0 < xl < x2 < < xn1 < xn = b .
Denote the length of the
subinterval hi by xi = xi xi1;
on each subinterval hi select a
point i and form the sum
n
Sn = f ( i )x i . (5.1)
i =1 Figure 5.1
Consider lim Sn , where the limit is taken so that the number n of
n
the subdivisions increases without limit and such that the length of
the longest subinterval x k , approaches zero. i.e. max xk0.
b
If this limit exists it is denoted by a f ( x )dx . The symbol
b
a f ( x )dx is read the definite integral of f(x), with respect to x,
from x= a to x = b. The function f(x) is ca11ed the integrand

whi1e a and b are called respectively the lower and upper limits (
boundaries ) of integration.
244
5.2 Upper and Lower Riemann Sums:

Let the function f (x) be bounded on the closed interval [a, b] and
Pn be a partition of the interval by points a = x0< x1<x2<<xn=b .
Let us denote by Mi and mi, respectively, the least upper bound
(maximum value when f(x) is continuous) and the greatest lower
bound (minimum value when f(x) is continuous) of that function
on the interval [xi-1,xi]. The sums
i =n
Un = M1x1 + M2x2 + + Mn xn= M i x i , (5.2)
i =1
and
i =n
Ln = m1x1 + m2x2 + + mn xn= m i x i . (5.3)
i =1
Figure 5.2 the upper Riemann sum Figure 5.3 the lower Riemann sum
are called the upper and the lower sum, respectively, of the
function f(x) for the given partition P of the interval [a, b].
Observe that all other Riemann sums associated with a given
partition must lie between the lower and upper sums for that
partition. i.e. Ln Sn Un . (5.4)
245
Theorem 5.1:
For the function f(x) bounded on the closed interval [a,b] to be
integrable on that interval , it is necessary and sufficient that for
any positive there should be a partition Pn of the interval [a,b]
for which Un Ln .
b
If lim Un = lim Ln = I, then the integral f ( x )dx exist
n n a
and equal to I. This is always happens for continuous functions.
The concepts of the upper and lower sums become especially clear
if we make use of geometric representation. For the sake of
simplicity, we shall consider a positive and continuous function
f(x) and a curvilinear trapezoid defined by that function (Figures
5.3 and 5.4). If Pn is a partition of the interval [a, b], then the
numbers Mi, and mi are, in the case of the continuous function
f(x), the maximum and minimum values of that function on the
subinterval [xi-l, xi] of partition Pn. Therefore, the upper sum Un is
equal to the area of the stepped figure hatched in Figure 5.2 which
contains the curvilinear trapezoid while the lower sum s is equal to
the area of the stepped figure hatched in Figure 5.3 which is
contained in the curvilinear trapezoid (the trapezoid is shown in
bold line in Figures 5.2 and 5.3).
246
As has been pointed out, it is clear from geometric

interpretation that the integral is numerically equal to the area of
the curvilinear trapezoid. It is evident, on the other hand, that if
the difference between the upper and the lower sum can be made
arbitrarily small, then these sums may become arbitrarily close to
the area of the curvilinear trapezoid, and, therefore, it may be
hoped that for the function to be integrable it is necessary and
sufficient that the difference between the upper and the lower sum
could be arbitrarily small.
Example 5.1:
Sketch the graph of the function f(x)= 1 x, in the interval [0 , 1].
Divide the interval into n = 10 subintervals each of length 0.1,
compute the upper and lower Riemann sums and compare it by
1
(1 x )dx .
0
Solution:
It is easy to see that f(x) = 1 x , is decreasing function, then in
any subinterval [ , ], M = f() , m = f().
Divide the interval into n = 10 subintervals each of length 0.1 , by
inserting the points x1= 0.1 , x2= 0.2 , x3= 0.3 , x4= 0.4 , x5= 0.5 ,
x6= 0.6 , x7= 0.7 , x8= 0.8 , x9= 0.9 .
247
Figure 5.4 lower Riemann sum Figure 5.5 upper Riemann sum
Interval max. Mi min. mi

[0.0 , 0.1] 1 0.9
[0.1 , 0.2] 0.9 0.8
[0.2 , 0.3] 0.8 0.7
[0.3 , 0.4] 0.7 0.6
[0.4 , 0.5] 0.6 0.5
[0.5 , 0.6] 0.5 0.4
[0.6 , 0.7] 0.4 0.3
[0.7 , 0.8] 0.3 0.2
[0.8 , 0.9] 0.2 0.1
[0.9 , 1.0] 0.1 0.0
U10 = 0.1 [1 + 0.9 + 0.8 + 0.7 + 0.6 + 0.5 + 0.4 + 0.3 + 0.2 + 0.1]=
= 0.1 [ 5.5] = 0.55 ,
248
L10 = 0.1 [ 0.9 + 0.8 + 0.7 +0.6 + 0.5 + 0.4 + 0.3 + 0.2 + 0.1 + 0]=
= 0.1 [ 4.5] = 0.45.
1
It is easy to see that (1 x )dx = 0.5 and
0
1
L10 = 0.45 (1 x )dx = 0.5 U10 = 0.55
0
n 1 n +1 n 1
Ln= , Un = , lim Ln= lim = 0.5 ,
2n 2 n n n 2 n
n +1
lim Un = lim = 0.5
n n 2 n
1
i.e. lim Un = lim Ln = (1 x )dx = 0.5 .
n n 0
5.3 Connection between
definite and indefinite integrals:
Definite and indefinite integrals are related by the following
theorem:
Fundamental Theorem Of Calculus
Theorem 5.2 :
d
If f(x) = F(x), then
dx
b bd b
a f ( x ) dx = a dx F ( x ) dx = F(x) |
a
= F(b) F(a).
The process of finding integrals is ca11ed integration
249
b
To evaluate a definite integral such as a f ( x )dx , by using
Theorem 5.2
1) Find the indefinite integral f(x) dx, viz. F(x).
2) Substitute for x in this the upper limit b, F(b).
3) Substitute for x in this the lower limit a, F(a).
4) Subtract F(a) from F(b).
In practice the fol1owing notation and arrangement is found
convenient:
b b b
a f ( x )dx = [ F(x) ]
a
or F(x) |
a
= F(b) F(a).
The result of substituting the limits in the integra1 are respectively

F(b) + C, and F(a) +C. Consequently on subtraction the constant
C disappears, hence the term definite.
Example 5.2:
b 2 d b
Evaluate: i) I = a x dx , ii) J = x 2 dx , iii) K = t 2 dt .
c a
Solution:
b 2 1 3 b b3 a 3
i) I = x dx = x | = ,
a 3 a 3
d 2 1 3 d d3 c3
ii) J = x dx = x | = ,
c 3 c 3
b 3 b b3 a 3
iii) K = t 2 dt = 1 t | = .
a 3 a 3
250
5.4 Properties Of Definite Integrals:

1) Since a definite integral depends only on the 1imits of
integration, we can use any variable as the symbol of integration.
b b b
For example, a f ( x )dx = a f(t) dt = a f(u) du , etc.
For this reason the variable is often called a dummy variable.

b a
2) a f ( x )dx = b f ( x )dx .
a
3) a f ( x )dx = 0 .
b c b
4) a f ( x )dx = a f ( x )dx + c f ( x )dx .
provided f(x) is integrable in [a , c] and [c , b].
b b
5) | a f ( x )dx | a f ( x ) dx , if a < b.
6) If m f(x) M in a x b , where m and M are

b
constants, then m (b a) a f ( x )dx M (b a).
b b
7) If f(x) g(x) in a x b , then a f ( x )dx a g( x )dx .
a a
8) 0 f ( x )dx = 0 f (a x )dx .
Let x = a u or a x = u , then dx = du.
Now, if in definite integration the variable is changed the 1imits
wi1l also be changed and the new 1imits must determined. Thus,
when x = a, u = 0, and when x = 0 , u = a. Therefore, when x is
replaced by a = u in the first integral, the limits must be changed
to those found above, then
a 0 a a
0 f ( x )dx = a f (a u )du = 0 f (a u )du = 0 f (a x )dx .
251
Example 5.3:

2 2 2
sin x dx = sin ( 2 x ) dx = cos x dx .
0 0 0

2 2
In general f (sin x ) dx = f (cos x ) dx .
0 0
b
9) If f(x) 0 , then f ( x )dx geometrically represents an area
a
bounded by the curve y = f(x), the xaxis and the two ordinates
x = a, x = b.
Example 5.4:
Find the area between the curve of y = 1 x2, the x axis, and the
2
straight line x = 2.
Solution:
2 2
Area = 0 12 x dx =
1 3 2
= 6
x| =
0
= 8 = 4 square units .
6 3 Figure 5.6
Example 5.5:
Find the area under one arch of the curve y = sin x.
252
Solution:

Area = 0 sin xdx =

= cos x | = cos + cos 0 =
0
Figure 5.7
=2 square units .
5.5 Sign of an area:
If the graph of y = f(x), a x b, is partly below and partly
above the xaxis, as in the figure, then
Figure 5.8
b
a f ( x )dx , is the algebraic sum of signed areas, positive areas
above the xaxis, negative area below the xaxis.

If the absolute values of the areas between the curve and the x
axis in the figure are Al, A2 , A3, and A4 , then the definite integral
b
of f(x) from a to b is equal to a f ( x )dx = Al A2 + A3 A4.
Thus, if we wanted the sum of the absolute values of these signed
b
areas, that is A = Al + A2 + A3 + A4 , i.e. a f ( x ) dx ,then we
should need to find the abscissas c, d and e of the points P1 , P2 ,
253
P3 where the curve crosses the xaxis. We would then compute,

separately,
c d
Al = a f ( x )dx , A2 = c f ( x )dx ,
e b
A3 = d f ( x )dx , A4 = e f ( x )dx .
and add their absolute values.
Example 5.6:
3
Find the total area bounded by the curve y = x 4 x , and the
xaxis .
Solution:
The graph, shown in the
figure, lies above the xaxis
from 2 to 0, below from 0 to 2.
3
The polynomia1 x 4 x
factors as
3
x 4 x = x (x2)(x+2).
Figure 5.9
It is easy to determine the sign of the product from the sign of the
three factors
0 0
3 4 2
A1 = ( x 4x )dx = [ 14 x 2x ]| 2
=0(48)=4,
2
254
2
2 2
A2 = ( x 3 4 x )dx = [ 14 x 2x ]| = ( 4 8 ) 0 = 4 .
4
0
0
The total area = A1 + A2 = 4 + 4 = 8 sq. units
Example 5.7:
2
Find the area enclosed between the curve y = x 3 x + 2 , and the
x axis.
Solution:
2
Since x 3 x +2 =
= (x 1)(x 2).
The graph, shown in the figure,
lies above the xaxis from 0 to
1 below from 1 to 2 .
Figure 5.10
1 1
A1= ( x 2 3x + 2)dx = [ 1 x 3 x + 2x ]| =
3 2
3 2 0
0
= 1 3 +2 = 5 ,
3 2 6
2 2
A2= ( x 2 3x + 2)dx = [ 1 x 3 x + 2x ]| =
3 2
3 2 1
1
= ( 8 6 + 4) ( 1 3 +2) = 2 5 = 1
3 2 3
3 6 6
The total area = A1 + A2 = 5 + 1 = 1 sq. units.
6 6
255
Example 5.8:
a 2 a f(x)dx, if f(x) is an even function,
Prove that I = f ( x ) dx = 0
a 0 if f(x) is an odd function.
Solution:
a 0 a
I= f ( x ) dx = f ( x ) dx + f ( x ) dx .
-a -a 0
In the first integral, put x = t , when x = a , t = a ;
when x = 0 , t = 0.
0 0 a
Then f ( x ) dx = f ( t )dt = f ( x )dx .
-a a 0
a
Then I = [f ( x ) + f ( x )]dx
0
If f(x) is an even function i.e. f(x)= f(x) , hence
a a
I = [f ( x ) + f ( x )]dx = 2 f ( x )dx .
0 0
If f(x) is an odd function i.e. f(x) = f(x) , hence
a a
I = [f ( x ) + f ( x )]dx = [f ( x ) + f ( x )]dx = 0 .
0 0
256
5.6 The Arc Length:

Definition 5.1
The arc length of an arc AB is understood as the limit of the length
of the polygonal line inscribed into this arc as the number of its
segments increases indefinitely and the length of the greatest
segment tends to zero.
Figure 5.11
Figure 5.12
A curve is said to be smooth if this curve is continuous and
has a tangent at each point which continuously changes its
position from point to point. Obviously, a curve will be smooth if
its equation can be written in the form
y = f (x) (a x b),
where the function f (x) is continuous and has a continuous
derivative f '(x) on a given segment [a , b].
257
Theorem 5.3:
Any smooth curve has a definite finite arc length.
Proof:
We inscribe into the given smooth curve a polygonal line
M0,M1,M2, ..., Mn (Figure 5.11, where M0 = A (a, f (a)) and Mn =
= B (b, f (b)). Projecting the segments M i 1M i (i = 1, 2, ..., n) of
the polygonal line on the x-axis, we obtain the subdivision of the
segment [a , b] into a system of segments xi. Let yi be the
increment of the given function y = f (x) on the segment xi
(Figure 5.11). By the Pythagorean theorem, we have
M i 1M i = (x i ) 2 + (y i ) 2 ,
Applying LaGranges theorem about the finite increment of a
function (Theorem 3.2), we get yi = xi f ' (i ),
where i is an intermediate point of the segment xi .
[Geometrically, i is the point of the segment xi at which the
tangent to the graph of the function y = f (x) is parallel to its chord
M i 1M i .] Hence M i 1M i = 1 + [f ' ( i )] 2 x i , and,
consequently the length of the entire polygonal line M0M1... Mn,
n
(i.e. its perimeter) is equal to Ln = 1 + [f ' ( i )] 2 x i .
i =1
To find the length L of our curve y = f(x) we have to pass
to the limit in the last expression assuming that n and
258
n 2
max xi 0. Thus, L = lim 1 + [f ' ( i )] x i
max x i 0 i =1
n
We have obtained the limit of an integral sum for the continuous

function g(x) = 1 + [f ' ( x )] 2 = 1 + [ y' ] 2 .
Therefore
b b
L = 1 + [f ' ( x )] dx = 1 + [ y' ] 2 dx ,
2
(5.5)
a a
where y' = f ' (x).
dy
Since y' = , we have dL = (dx ) 2 + (dy) 2 , (5.6)
dx
this formula represents the Pythagorean theorem for an infinitely
small triangle MTP. (see figure 5.12).
Example 5.9:
Let us compute the arc length of a segment of a catenary (the
plane curve in which a uniform flexible cable hangs when
x
suspended from two points).y = a cosh , where a is a certain
a
positive number (a is the parameter of the catenary)
The lowest point A (0, a) of the catenary curve is called its vertex
(Figure 5.13). Let us compute the length of the arc AB of the
catenary assuming that the abscissa of the point B is equal to b,
259
x
and its ordinate to h i.e. B (b , h). Differentiating y = a cosh , we
a
x
have y' = sinh . Then we derive
a
2 2x 2x
1 + y' = 1+ sinh = cosh .
a a
x
Hence, 1 + [ y' ] 2 = cosh .
a
Whence, we obtain
b x
L = AB = cosh dx =
0 a
Figure 5.13
x b b b
= a sinh = a [sinh sinh 0] = a sinh .
a 0 a a
The formula for the arc length AB attains a simpler form if its
right-hand member is expressed in terms of the ordinate h of the
b
point B. Indeed, obviously, h = a cosh .
a
2 b 2 b
By virtue of the identity, cosh sinh =1
a a
b b
we have L = a sinh = a cosh 2 1 = h 2 a 2 .
a a
2 2 2
i.e. L = h a
i.e. the arc AB is equal to the leg OC of the right-angled triangle
OAC (Figure 5.13) whose hypotenuse AC = h, the other leg being
equal to OA = a.
260
Note. To find the arc length L of a curve represented

parametrically: x = (t), y = (t) , t1 t t2 ,
where (t) and (t) are continuously differentiable functions on
[t1 , t2 ]. We can prove that
t2 2 2 t2
d d 2 2
L = + dt = x + y dt , (5.7)
t1 dt dt t1
dx d dy d
where x = = , y = = .
dt dt dt dt
Example 5.10:
Find the length of the arc of the circle x = a cos t, y = a sin t , from
t = 0 to t = .
Solution:
dx
Here x = = a sin t ,
dt
dy
y = = a cos t,
dt
2 2
therefore x + y =
= a 2 sin 2 t + a 2 cos 2 t = a ,
and
Figure 5.14
2 2
L = x + y dt = a dt = a[ 0 ] = a
0 0
i.e. The length of arc subtends angle of measure is equal a,
261
and, consequently, in case of whole circle = 2 , the

circumference of a circle of radius a is 2a.
Example 5.11:
2 2 2
Find the length of the curve of the asteroid x 3 +y 3 =a 3.
Solution:
The equation of the asteroid can be rewritten in the form
2 2 2
13 13 13
x + y = a . (5.8)
It is natural to introduce a
parameter t, putting
1 1
x 3= a 3 cos t,
1 1
y 3 = a 3 sin t.
Hence, we get the parametric
equations of the asteroid
2 2
x = a cos t , y = a sin t , where
0 t 2. Figure 5.15
The curve is symmetrical about both the axes. It meets the x-axis
and y-axis in the first quadrant at the points (a , 0) and (0 , a).
Since (5.8) is a symmetrical curve, it is sufficient to find 1 of the
4
are length L corresponding to the change of the parameter L from
0 to . We have
2
262
dx dy
x = = 3a cos t sin t , y =
2 2
= 3a sin t cos t
dt dt
2 2
Whence x + y = 9a 2 cos 4 t sin 2 t + 9a 2 sin 4 t cos 2 t =
= 3a cos t sin t .
Integrating this expression between the limits t = 0 and t = we
2
get

2 2
L = 4 3a sin t cos t dt = 6a sin 2 t dt =
0 0

2
= 3a cos 2 t = 3a [cos cos 0]= 3a [11]= 6 a .
0
5.7 Volume of a Solid :
Knowing the law of variation of the area of a cross section of a
solid, to find the volume V of this solid (Figure 5.16).
Let Ox be a certain chosen
direction and S = S(x), the area
of a cross section perpendicular
to the axis Ox at the point with
the abscissa x. We shall assume
that the function S (x) is known
and continuously varying with a
change of x. Besides, we shall
Figure 5.16
263
assume that in a sense the contour of the section changes also

"continuously", Projecting the solid on the axis Ox, we obtain a
segment [a, b] which yields the linear dimension of the solid. in
the direction of the axis Ox.
We then divide the segment [a , b] into a large number of
small parts xi (i = 1, 2, ..., n) and through the points of division
pass planes perpendicular to the axis Ox. These planes separate
our solid into n layers each of which may be taken for a cylinder.
th
Since the volume of the i layer is approximately equal to
S(xi)xi, where xi is some point of the segment xi (Figure 5.16),
we obtain the following expression for the volume V of the solid:
i =n
V S( x i )x i . (5.9)
i =1
If n and max |xi | 0, then approximate equality (5.9)
becomes more and more exact, until the following limit is
obtained
i=n
V = lim S( x i )x i . (5.10)
n i =1
(5.10) represents an integral sum for the continuous function S(x),
and its limit is the corresponding definite integral.
b
Therefore V = S( x ) dx . (5.11)
a
Example 5.12:
264
Find the volume V of a pyramid whose base is B and the altitude

is H (Figure 5.17).
Solution:
For the axis Ox we shall take a straight line passing through the
vertex O of the pyramid perpendicular to its base and directed
from vertex to base.
Let S be the area of the section
by the plane passing at a
distance x from the vertex.
Since the areas of parallel
sections of a pyramid are to
each other as the squares of
their distances from the vertex,
Figure 5.17
S x2 B 2
we have = ; hence S = x .
B H2 H2
From formula (5.11) we obtain
H H B B 3 H 1
V = S dx = x 2 dx = x = BH , (5.12)
2 2 3
0 0 H 3H 0
which is concordant with the known geometrical formula.
Example 5.13:
265
We shall compute the volume of a solid which is bounded by the

surface of a right circular cylinder, by the half-disc lying in a
plane perpendicular to the axis
of the cylinder and by the part
of an oblique plane passing
through the diameter of the disc.
The solid is shown in Figure
5.18; it has the form of a
"hoof". Since the triangles ABC Figure 5.18
and A'B'C' are similar according to Figure 5.18, the area of the
section which is shaded in Figure 5.18 is equal to
2
R x2 R2 x2
S= 1RH = H
2
R2 2R
consequently, by formula (5.11), we have
R R R2 x2
V = 2 S( x ) dx = 2 Hdx =
0 0 2R
H R 2 2 H R R
[ R x 1 x3 ] =
2
= (R - x )dx =
R 0 R 0 3 0
H 3 3 2
= [ R 1 R ]= 2 H R . (5.13)
R 3 3
Note that the number does not enter into the answer!
5.8 The Volume of a Solid of Revolution:
266
To find the volume Vx of a solid obtained by rotating about the x-

axis a curvilinear trapezoid aABb bounded by a given continuous
line y = f (x) (f (x) 0),
the segment a x b of the x-axis and two vertical lines x = a
and x = b (Figure 5.19).
This problem represents a
particular case of the problem
considered in the preceding
section.
Here the area of the variable
cross-section S = S(x)
corresponding to the abscissa x Figure 5.19
2
is a circle of radius y, therefore S(x) = y .
Hence, by formula (5.11) , we have
b b
Vx = y 2 dx = [f(x)]2 dx , (5.14)
a a
where y = f (x) is the given function.
Formula (5.14) can be obtained directly applying the differential
method. The element of volume dVx, obviously represents a
cylinder with the base S and altitude dx . [dVx is the principal
linear part of the increment of the variable volume Vx ,as the
cross-section S(x) displaces by an infinitely small quantity dx.]
2
Consequently, dVx = y dx.
267
Hence, integrating between the limits x = a and x = b, we get

formula (5.14).
Note. Let a curvilinear trapezoid cCDd bounded by a continuous

function x = g(y), a segment
c y d of the y-axis, and two
parallels y = c and y = d revolve
about the y-axis (Figure 5.20).
Then the volume of the solid of
revolution thus obtained, by
analogy with formula obtained Figure 5.20
(5.14), will be equal to
d d
Vy = x 2 dy = [g(y)]2 dy , (5.15)
c c
where x = g (y) 0 is the given function.
Example 5.14:
Determine the volume of a solid bounded by a surface obtained by
x2 y2
revolving the ellipse + =1 (5.16)
a2 b2
about the major axis a (the x-axis) (Figure 5.21).
Solution:
268
Since the given ellipse is

symmetrical about the
coordinate axes, it is sufficient
to find the volume obtained by
rotating about the axis OX the Figure 5.21
area OAB which is equal to a quarter of the area of the ellipse in
Figure 5.22 and to double the result obtained.
Let us denote the volume of a solid of revolution by Vx; then by
a
(5.14) we have Vx = 2 y 2 dx ,
0
where 0 and a are the abscissas of the points B and A. From the
2 2 x2
equation of ellipse we find y = b (1 ). Whence
2
a
2 x2
a a
Vx = 2 y 2 dx = 2 b 1 dx =
2
a
0 0
a a x2 a b2 x3 a
=2 b2 dx 2 b2 dx = 2 b2 x 2 . =
2 0 2 3
0 0 a a 0
2 2 2 2
= 2b a b a = 4 a b .
3 3
2
Consequently, we finally have Vx = 4 a b .
3
Analogously, when ellipse (5.16) is rotated about the minor axis b,
the volume of the solid of revolution thus obtained is equal to
2
Vy = 4 b a .
3
269
Setting a = b, we get the volume of a sphere of radius a:

3
V = Vy = Vy = 4 a .
3
Compare the above deduction of the formula with the long and
artificial procedure applied to deducing the formula of the volume
of a sphere in elementary mathematical courses.
5.9 The Area of a Surface of Revolution:

Computation of the area of a surface of revolution can be
discussed now.
Let a curve y = f (x) > 0 rotate
about the x-axis (see Figure
5.22). Let us draw a plane
perpendicular to the x-axis and
passing through the point x
where x is considered to be
variable. Take the area of the
portion of the surface of
Figure 5.22
revolution lying to the left of
the plane. If the plane is translated by the distance dx to the right
the area of the portion is increased by the surface element which is
shaded in Figure 5.22. The element has the form of a ring-shaped
270
surface of width dL with the circumference (length) 2y because

the radius of the ring is equal to y. Consequently, we have
dS = 2 y dL = 2 y 1 + [ y' ] 2 dx
and thus
b b
S = 2 y dL = 2 y 1 + [y' ] 2 dx . (5.17)
a a
Example 5.15:
As an example, let us compute
the area of the portion of a
paraboloid of revolution
intercepted by a plane
perpendicular to the axis of
revolution (see Figure 5.23). Let
the radius R of the base and the
altitude H be given. Figure 5.23
The surface being generated by the revolution of a parabola whose

axis coincides with the x-axis, the equation of the curve has the
2
form x = k y . The constant k must be chosen so that the parabola
2
should pass through the point (H, R). This implies H = k R , i.e. k
2
= H / R . Finally, the equation of the curve is
2 2 x
x = k y = H2 y or y = R .
R H
271
R R22 4Hx + R 2
y' = , 1 + [y'] = 1 + = ,
2 Hx 4Hx 4Hx
x 4Hx + R 2 R
y 2
1 + [y' ] = R = 4Hx + R 2 ,
H 4Hx 2H
consequently, by formula (5.17), we have
b R H
2 2
S = 2 y 1 + [y' ] dx = 4Hx + R dx =
a H 0
3 H
R (4Hx + R 2 ) 2 R 2 2 32
= = ( 4 H + R ) R3.
H 4H 3 2 2
0 6H
Example 5.16:
Let us compute the area of a spherical segment generated by the
rotation of an arc of a circle, with centre at the origin and radius a,
about Ox.
2 2 2 2 2 2
The equation x + y = a of the circle implies y = a x and
y y'= x ; hence,
x2
S = 2 a2 x2 1+ dx =
2 2
a x

= 2 a dx = 2 a [ ] = 2 a H,

where H is the altitude of the spherical segment. For H = 2a,
2
obtain the surface area of the sphere: S = 4 a .
272
5.10 Simple Differential Equations:

An applied problem may be stated in terms of a
differential equation-that is, an equation that involves derivatives
or differentials of an unknown function. A function f is a solution
of a differential equation if it satisfies the equation that is, if
substitution of f for the unknown function produces a true
statement. Sometimes, in addition to the differential equation, we
may know certain values of f or (and) f ', called initial conditions.
Any function that satisfies the equation is a (particular)
solution. To solve a differential equation means to find all
solutions, and the set of all solutions is called the general solution.
Some differential equations are easy to solve; others are very
difficult. In this book we discuss only the simpler ones.
Indefinite integrals are useful for solving certain differential
equations, because if we are given a derivative f '(x), we can
integrate and use Formula (4.1) to obtain an equation involving
the unknown function f:
f '(x) dx = f(x) + C
If we are also given an initial condition for f, it may be possible to
find f(x) explicitly, as in the next example.
Example 5.17:
273
2
Solve the differential equation f '(x) = 2cos x +6x + x 5 subject
to the initial condition f(0) = 2.
Solution:
2
We proceed as follows: f ' (x) = 2cos x +6x + x 5
2
f '(x) dx = [2cos x +6x + x 5 ] dx =
3 2
= 2 sin x + 2x + 1 x 5x + C,
2
3 1 2
i.e. f(x) =2 sin x + 2x + x 5x + C.
2
for some number C. (It is unnecessary to add a constant of
integration to each side of the equation.) Letting x = 0 and using
the given initial condition f(0) = 2 gives us C = 2 .
Hence the solution f of the differential equation with the initial
3 2
condition f(0) = 2 is f(x) = 2 sin x +2x + 1 x 5x + 2.
2
If we are given a second derivative f "(x), then we must
employ two successive indefinite integrals to find f(x). First we
use Formula (4.1) as follows:
d
f "(x)dx = [f ' (x)] dx = f ' (x)+ C.
dx
After finding f '(x), we proceed as in Example 5.17.
Example 5.18:
Solve the differential equation f "(x) = 3 cos x + 4 sin x,
subject to the initial conditions f(0) = 2 and f ' (0) = 8.
274
Solution:
We proceed as follows:
f "(x) = 3 cos x + 4 sin x ,
f "(x)dx = [3 cos x + 4 sin x]dx
f '(x) = 3 sin x 4 cos x + C.
Letting x = 0 and using the initial condition f '(0) = 8 gives us
f '(0) = 3 sin 0 4 cos 0 + C
8 = 0 4 (1) + C, or C = 12.
Thus, f ' (x) = 3 sin x 4 cos x + 12.
We integrate a second time:
f '(x) dx = [3 sin x 4 cos x +12]dx =
= 3 cos x 4 sin x + 12 x + D,
f(x) = 3 cos x 4 sin x + 12x + D.
Letting x = 0 and using the initial condition f(0) = 2, we find that
f(0) = 3 cos 0 4 sin 0 + 12 ( 0) + D
2 = 3 0 + 0 + D, or D = 5.
Therefore, the solution of the differential equation with the given
initial condition is
f(x) = 3 cos x 4 sin x + 12 x + 5.
Suppose that a point P is moving on a coordinate line, if
the position is given , you can find the velocity and acceleration
by differentiation. Now, thanks to your experience in solving
275
differential equations, you can also work backwards; given the

acceleration, solve a = s"(t) for v = s'(t) and s = s(t).
Suppose that a point P is moving on a coordinate line with
an acceleration a(t) at time t, and the corresponding velocity is
v(t). We know that, a(t) = v' (t) and hence
a(t) dt = v' (t) dt = v (t) + C ,
for some constant C.
Similarly, if we know v(t), then since v(t) = s'(t), where s is
the position function of P, we can find a formula that involves s(t)
by indefinite integration: v (t) dt = s (t) + D ,
for some constant D. In the next example, we shall use this
technique to find the position function for an object that is moving
with a given acceleration function a(t).
Example 5.19:
A particle moving along a coordinate line at time t = 0 is at a
position 3 cm from the origin and travelling at a velocity of
7 cm/sec. If the acceleration of the particle is given by
3
a(t) = 3 cos t 2(t+1) ,
find the velocity and the position of the particle as functions of t.
Solution:
Since the velocity v(t) = v'(t) dt = a(t) dt, we have
3 2
v(t)= [3 cos t 2(t+1) ] dt = 3 sin t + (t +1) +C,
276
for some number C. Substituting 0 for t and using the fact that v(0)
= 7 gives us 7 = 0 + 1 + C, or C = 6.
2
Consequently, v(t) = 3 sin t + (t + 1 ) +6.
Since s'(t) = v(t), we obtain
-2
s'(t) = 3 sin t + (t + 1) + 6
-2
s'(t) dt = [3 sin t + (t + 1) + 6 ] dt =
-1
= 3 cos t (t + 1) + 6t + D,
-1
i.e. s(t) = 3 cos t (t + 1) + 6t + D,
for some number D. Using the fact that s (0) = 3 gives
3 = 3 1 + 0 +D, or D = 7. Thus, the position of the particle from
the origin at time t is given by
-1
s(t) = 3 cos t (t + l) + 6 t + 7 cm,
and the particle travels at a velocity of
-2
v(t) = 3 sin t + (t + l) + 6 cm/sec.
Example 5.20:
2
Find the solution of y' = 4 + sec x- with boundary condition y(/4)
=.
Solution:
Integrating we get, the general solution
y = 4x + tan x + C. Every solution is of this form.
To find the constant C, using the condition y(/4) = .
277
= y(/4) = 4(/4) + tan (/4) + C i.e. = + l + C.

Therefore. C = 1, and y = 4x + tan x 1 is the only solution that
satisfies the equation and the boundary condition.
5.11 Improper Integrals:

b
Our definition of the definite integral f ( x )dx requirements that
a
the interval [a, b] is finite and that f is bounded on [a, b].
Furthermore, the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, by which we
have been evaluating definite integrals, requires f to be continuous
on [a, b] . In this section we discuss a limit procedure for
evaluating integrals that do not satisfy these requirements because
either:
1) One or both of the limits of integration are infinite, or
2) f(x) has a finite number of infinite discontinuities on the
interval [a, b].
Integrals possessing either of properties 1 and 2 are called
improper integrals.
dx dx
For instance, the integrals 2 and 2
1x 1 + x
are improper because one or both of their limits of integration are
infinite. On the other hand, the integrals
278
3 dx 5 dx
and
x 1 4
1 3 ( x + 1)
are improper because their integrands are infinite somewhere in

1
the interval of integration [ is infinite at x = 1 while
x 1
4
1/(x+1) is infinite at x = 1].
To get an idea how we might
evaluate an improper integral,
b dx
consider the integral
2
1x
which we can interpret as the
area of the shaded region shown
in Figure 5.24 Evaluating the
integral we have
b dx 1 b 1 1
2 = = +1 = 1 .
1x x 1 b b Figure 5.24
Now if. we let b , then we have

b dx 1 b 1
lim 2 = lim = lim (1 ) = 1 .
b 1 x b x 1 b b
dx
We denote this limit by the improper integral and we can
2
1x
2
interpret it as the area of the unbounded region under y = 1/x ,
above the x-axis, and to the right of x = 1.
279
More generally, we describe improper integrals having infinite

limits of integration as follows:
Improper integrals (Infinite limits of integration)
1) If f is continuous on the interval [a , ) then
b
f ( x )dx = lim f(x)dx
a b a
2) If f is continuous on the interval ( , b] then

b b
f ( x )dx = lim f(x)dx
a a
3) If f is continuous on the interval ( , ) then

c
f ( x )dx = f(x)dx + f(x)dx ,
c
where c is any real number.
In each case above, if the limit exists, then the improper
integral is said to converge; otherwise the improper integral
diverges. This means that in the third case the integral will
diverge if either one of the integrals on the right diverges.
Example 5.21:
dx
Evaluate and determine if the integral converges or diverges.
1 x
280
Solution:
dx b dx b
= lim = lim An x = lim (An b 0 ) = ,
1 x b 1 x b 1 b
and thus the integral diverges.
Figure 5.25
Figure 5.26
dx
A comparison of the improper integrals , which
2
1x
dx
converges to 1, and , which diverges, suggests the somewhat
1 x
2
unpredictable nature of improper integrals. The functions y = 1/x
and y = 1/x have similar-looking graphs, as shown in Figures 5.25
2
and 5.26, yet the shaded region under y = l/x to the right of x = 1
has finite area, whereas the corresponding region under y = 1/x
has infinite area (see Example 5.21).In Example 5.21 we were
careful to use limit notation to determine the divergence of the
281
dx
improper integral . However, in practice we can use the
1 x
same notation that we use for definite integrals, provided we keep
in mind that a limit is involved. For instance, the solution to
Example 5.21 could be written as
dx
= A n x = (An () An (1) ) = 0 = .
1 x 1
Example 5.22:
0 dx
Evaluate the improper integral 3
.
(1 2 x ) 2
Solution:
0 dx 1 0 1 1
= = =10=1.
(1 2 x ) 2
3
1 3x 1
Consequently, this improper integral converges.
Example 5.23:
ex
Evaluate the improper integral dx .
2x
1 + e
Solution:
ex
dx = arctan e x =
1 + e
2x
= arctan() arctan(0) = 0 = .
2 2
282
A second general type or improper integral includes those

whose integrands are infinite at or between the limits of
integration such integrals are described in the following definition:
Improper integrals (Infinite integrands )
1) If f is continuous on the interval [a , b) then and become infinite
b c
at b, then f ( x )dx = lim f(x)dx ,
a c b a
2) If f is continuous on the interval (a , b]and become infinite at a,

b b
then f ( x )dx = lim f(x)dx
a ca c
3) If f is continuous on the interval [a , b], except for some c in

( a , b ) at which f is infinite, then
b c b
f ( x )dx = f(x)dx + f(x)dx .
a a c
Example 5.24:
2 dx
5 x 1
1
Solution:
Since the integrand becomes infinite at x = 1, we write
2 dx 5 3 2 5 3 3 5
5 dx = ( x 1) 5 = [(1) 5 (0) 5 ] = ,
1 x 1 3 1 3 3
and the integral converges.
283
Example 5.25:
3 3
2
1 x 3x
Solution:
By separating the integrand into its partial fractions, we obtain
3 3 3 1 1 3
2 dx = dx = [An | x 3 | An | x |] =
1 x 3x 1 x 3 x 1
= () An (3) An (2) + An (1) = () ,
and the integral diverges.
Example 5.26:
3 dx
3
1 (x 2)
Solution:
This integral is improper because the integrand is infinite at x = 2,
which lies between the limits of integration. Thus we must write
3 dx 2 dx 3 dx
dx = dx + dx =
3 3 3
1 (x 2) 1 (x 2) 2 (x 2)
1 2 1 3 1 1
= + = + =
2( x 2) 2 1 2( x 2) 2 2 2 2
= ( + )
284
2 dx
Since both of the improper integrals dx and
3
1 (x 2)
3 dx
dx diverge, it follows that the original integral
3
2 (x 2)
diverges. (Actually, the divergence of either integral is sufficient

to make the original one diverge.)
Had we not recognised that the integral in Example 5.26
was improper, we would have obtained the incorrect result
3 dx 1 3 1 1
dx = = + = 0. !!!
3 2 1 2 2
1 (x 2) 2( x 2)
Improper integrals in which the integrand is infinite at some point
between the limits of integration are quite often overlooked, so
keep alert for such possibilities.
Example 5.27:
dx
0 x (1 + x)
Solution:
The integral is improper because its upper limit of integration is
infinite and because the integrand is infinite at the lower limit of
integration. Nevertheless we write
285
dx 2 d( x )
dx = = arctan x = 2 0 = ,
x (1 + x) 2 0 2
0 0 [1 + ( x ) ]
and the integral converges.
Example 5.28:
Use the Integral formula for arc length to show that the
2 2
circumference of the circle x + y = 1 is 2.
Solution:
To simplify our work we consider the quarter circle
y = 1 x 2 ,where 0 x 1, Thus we have
x
y' = .
2
1 x
Note that y' is continuous on [0, 1) but is infinite when x = 1. Thus
our formula for arc length results in the improper integral
2
b 1 x 1
L = 1 + ( y' ) 2 dx = 1 + dx = dx =
2 0 1 x2
a 0 1 x
1
= arctan x = .
0 2

Since the arc length of this quarter circle is , the circumference
2
of the circle is 4s = 2 .
5.12 Numerical Integration:
286
When we began our discussion of integration techniques,

we mentioned that the search for an antiderivative is not nearly as
straightforward a process as is differentiation. Occasionally we
encounter functions for which we cannot find antiderivatives. Of
course, inability to find an antiderivative for a particular function
may be due to a lack of cleverness on our part. On the other hand,
some elementary functions simply do not possess antiderivatives
that are elementary functions. For example, there are no
elementary functions that have any one of the following functions
as their derivative:
cos x 1 2
1 x3 , 1 + sin 2 x , e x ,
2
, sin(x ) , ,
x An x
x cos x ,etc.
Up to this point we have been evaluating definite integrals by
means of antiderivatives and the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus. However, if we wish to evaluate a definite integral
involving a function whose antiderivative we cannot find, or
which does not exist, the Fundamental Theorem cannot be applied
and we must resort to some other technique we describe two such
techniques in this section.
In this section, we will study several techniques of
numerical integration that help us approximate definite integrals to
any desired degree of accuracy. Evaluating a definite integral
287
b
f ( x )dx by the fundamental theorem of calculus requires having
a
an antiderivative for f. If we cannot obtain an antiderivative, we
may use these numerical methods to obtain very accurate
approximations. To emphasise their geometric nature, we illustrate
these methods for functions with f(x) 0 on [a, b].
5.12.1 Rectangle Rules:
Recalling Definition (5.1) and assuming that the definite integral
b
f ( x )dx exists, we approximate its value, as a sum of areas of
a
rectangles, using any Riemann sum of f. In particular, if we use a
regular partition with x = (b - a)/n, then xk = a + k x for k = 0,
b n
1,2,..., n, and f ( x )dx f ( i )x i ,
a i =1
th
where k is any number in the k subinterval [xk-1,xk] of the
partition. Each term f( k )x in the sum is the area of a rectangle
of width x and height f( k ). The accuracy of such an
b
approximation to f ( x )dx by rectangles is affected by both the
a
location of k within each subinterval and the width x of the
rectangles. By locating each k at a left-hand endpoint xk-1, we
obtain a left endpoint approximation. Alternatively, by locating
288
each k at a right-hand endpoint xk, we obtain a right endpoint

approximation.
For a regular partition of an interval [a, b] with n subintervals,

(b a )
each of width x = , the definite integral
n
b (b a ) i=n
Left rectangle rule f ( x )dx f ( x i 1 ) =
a n i =1
(b a )
= [ f(x0)+ f(x1) + f(x2) + + f(xn-2) + f(xn-1)]. (5.18)
n
b (b a ) i =n
Right rectangle rule f ( x )dx f (x i ) =
a n i =1
(b a )
= [ f(x1) + f(x2) + f(x3) + + f(xn-1) + f(xn)]. (5.19)
n
5.12.2 Trapezoidal Rule:
289
We discussed the approximation of the area of a region by

the use of rectangles. However, our primary purpose for that
particular approximation was theoretical rather than
computational. For computational purposes we can obtain a better
approximation to the area of a region under a curve using figures
other than rectangles. For example, a comparison of Figures 5.27
and 5.28 indicates that the use of a finite number of trapezoids
may yield a better approximation to the area of the region under
the curve than does the use of the same number of rectangles.
In our development of a method for approximating the value of
b
the definite integral f ( x )dx using trapezoids, we assume that f is
a
continuous and positive on the interval [a , b] and that this definite
integral represents the area of a region bounded by f and the. x
axis , from x = a to x = b .
First, we partition the interval [a , b] into n equal
(b a )
subintervals, each of width x = , such that
n
a = x0 <x1 <x2 < < xn-1< xn = b
290
We then form trapezoids for

each subinterval, as shown in
Figure 5.29. The areas of these
trapezoids are given by
area of first trapezoid =
ba
= 1
2 n
[f(x0) + f(x1)],
area of second trapezoid =

Figure 5.29
ba
=1
2 n
[f(x1) + f(x2)] ,
th ba
area of n trapezoid = 1
2 n
[f(xn-1) + f(xn)]
Finally, the sum of the areas of the n trapezoids is

1 b a [f(x ) + f(x ) + f(x ) + f(x )+ + f(x ) + f(x )]=
2 n 0 1 1 2 n-1 n
ba
= 1
2 n
[f(x0) + 2f(x1) + 2f(x2)+ + 2f(xn-1) + f(xn)]=
ba 1
= [ 2 f(x0) + f(x1) + f(x2)+ + f(xn-1) + 12 f(xn)]
n
Thus we arrive at the following approximation, which we call the
Trapezoidal Rule.
b
f ( x )dx
a
ba 1
[ 2 f(x0) + f(x1) + f(x2)+ + f(xn-1) + 12 f(xn)]. (5.20)
n
291
It is easy to see that the average of Left rectangle rule (5.18) and
Right rectangle rule (5.19) gives us the trapezoidal rule. i.e.
b
1 b a [ f(x )+ 2f(x ) +2 f(x ) ++2 f(x )+ f(x )]
f ( x )dx 2 0 1 2 n-1 n
a n
Example 5.29:
Use the Trapezoidal Rule to approximate the definite integral
sin x dx . Compute the results for n = 4 and n = 8.

0
Solution:

When n = 4, we have x = and
4
3
x0= 0, x1 = , x2= , x3 = , x4 = .
4 2 4
Therefore by the Trapezoidal Rule we have
1 3 1
sin x dx [ 2 sin 0 + sin + sin + sin + sin ]=
2
0 4 4 2 4
2 2
= [0+ +1+ + 0] = [ 1 + 2 ] 1.896
4 2 2 4

When n = 8, we have x = and
8
3
x0= 0, x1 = , x2= , x3 = , x4 = ,
8 4 8 2
5 3 7
x5= , x6 = , x7= , x8 = ,and it follows that
8 4 8
292
1 3 5
sin x dx [ sin 0 + sin + sin + sin + sin + sin +
0 8 2 8 4 8 2 8
3 7 1
+sin + sin + sin ]=
4 8 2
2 3 5 2 7
= [0 + sin + + sin + 1+ sin + + sin + 0 ]=
8 8 2 8 8 2 8
3
= [1+ 2 + 2 sin +2 sin ] 1.974
8 8 8
Of course, for this particular example we could have found
an antiderivative and determined that the exact area of the region
is 2.
Although you may not yet be excited about using a rather

lengthy approximation method to evaluate the integral sin x dx ,
0
two important points must be brought to, our attention. First, this
approximation method, using trapezoids, becomes more accurate
as n increases. (For n = 16 in Example 5.29 the Trapezoidal Rule
yields an approximation of 1.994.)
Secondly, though we could have used the Fundamental Theorem
to evaluate the integral in Example 5.29, this theorem cannot be

used to evaluate an integral so simple looking as sin x 2 dx ,
0
2
because sin x has no elementary antiderivative. Yet the
Trapezoidal Rule can be readily applied to this integral.
293
5.12.3 Simpson's Rule:

One way to view an approximation of the definite integral
b
f ( x )dx by rectangles is to say that on each of the n subintervals,
a
we approximate f by a horizontal line, which is a polynomial of
degree zero. With the Trapezoidal Rule we approximation each
subinterval by a first-degree polynomial. And in Simpson's Rule,
which follows. We carry this procedure one step further and
approximate f by a second-degree polynomial.
Before presenting Simpson's Rule, we give the following theorem
for evaluating integrals of second-degree polynomials:
Theorem 5.4
2
If p(x) = x + x + , then
b ba a + b
p( x )dx = [ p(a) + 4 p + p(b)].
a 6 2
Proof
By integrating we have
b b
2
x 3 x 2 b
p ( x ) dx = [ x + x + ]dx = + + x =
a a 3 2 a
(b 3 a 3 ) (b 2 a 2 )
= + + (b a)=
3 2
ba 2 2
= [ 2(a + a b +b ) +3 (b + a) + 6].
6
294
By regrouping, we obtain
b
2
[x + x + ]dx =
a
ba 2
= [ ( a + a + ) +
6
2
b+a b+a
+4{ + + }+
2 2 Figure 5.30
2
+ ( b + b + )]=
ba a + b
= [ p(a) + 4 p + p(b)]
6 2
Therefore, we have
b ba a + b
p( x )dx = [ p(a) + 4 p + p(b)].
a 6 2
To develop Simpson's Rule for approximating the value of the
b
definite integral f ( x )dx , we again partition the interval [a , b]
a
into n equal parts each of width (b a)/n. However, this time we
require n to be even and then group the subintervals into pairs
such that
a= x0 < x1< x2 < x3 < x4 << xn-2<xn-1 <xn= b
[x0 , x2] [x2 , x4] [xn-2 , xn]
Then. on each subinterval [xi-2 , xi], we approximate f by a second-
degree polynomial that passes through the points
(xi-2 , f(xi-2)), (xi-1 , f(xi-1)) , (xi , f(xi))
295
Under these conditions, with i = 2, it follows that

x2 x2
p( x )dx f ( x )dx ,
x0 x0
where p is a second-degree polynomial that passes through the

points (x0 , f(x0)), (x1 , f(x1)) , and (x2 , f(x2)) . (See Figure 5.30)
Now by Theorem 5.4 we know that
x2
x2 x0 x + x2
p( x )dx = [ p0(x0) + 4 p 0 + p(x2)] =
x0 6 2
ba
= [ p(x0) + 4 p(x1) + p(x2) ]
3n
And since f(x) = p(x) for x = x0 , x = x1 , and x = x2 , we have
x2 ba
p( x )dx = [ f(x0) + 4 f(x1) + f(x2) ].
x 3n
0
Therefore, it follows that

x2 ba
f ( x )dx [ f(x0) + 4 f(x1) + f(x2) ].
x 3n
0
Repeating this procedure on each subinterval [xi-2 , xi] of interval

[a , b] results in the formula
b ba
f ( x )dx [{ f(x0) + 4 f(x1) + f(x2)}+ { f(x2) + 4 f(x3)+
a 3n
+f(x4)} ++ { f(xn-2) + 4 f(xn-1) + f(xn)} ].
By grouping like terms we obtain the following approximation
formula, known as Simpsons Rule:
296
b ba
f ( x )dx [ f(x0) + 4 {f(x1) + f(x3) + f(x5) + + f(xn-1)}+
a 3n
+2{ f(x2) + f(x4) + f(x6) ++ f(xn-2) } + f(xn) ].
In Example 5.29 we used the Trapezoidal Rule to estimate
sin x dx . In the next example we see how well Simpsons Rule

0
does for the same integral.
Example 5.30:
Use the Simpsons Rule to approximate the definite integral
sin x dx . Compute the results for n = 4 and n = 8.

0
Solution:
When n = 4, we have
3
sin x dx [sin 0 + 4 sin +2 sin +4sin + sin ]=
0 12 4 2 4

= [4 2 + 2] = [2 2 + 1] 2.005
12 6
When n = 8, we have

sin x dx [sin 0 + 4 sin + 2 sin +
0 24 8 4
3 5
+ 4 sin +2 sin + 4 sin +
8 2 8
297
3 7
+2sin
+ 4 sin +sin ]=
4 8
3
= [2 + 2 2 + 8 sin + 8 sin ] 2.0003
24 8 8
In Examples 5.29 and 5.30 we were able to calculate the
exact value of the integral and compare that to our approximations
to see how good they were. Of course, in practice we would not
bother with an approximation if it were possible to evaluate the
integral exactly. However, if it is necessary to use an
approximation technique to determine the value of a definite
integral, then it is important to know how good we can expect our
approximation to be. The following theorem, which we list
without proof, gives the formulas for calculating the error
involved in the use of Simpson's and the Trapezoidal Rules.
Theorem 5.5:
If f is continuous on the interval [a , b], then there exist c1, c2 in [a
b
, b] such that the error in approximating f ( x )dx is precisely, for
a
(b a ) 3
the Trapezoidal Rule, f "(c1),
2
12n
(b a ) 5 (4)
and for Simpsons Rule f (c2).
4
180n
298
Although this theorem identifies the exact difference

b
between the approximation and the value of the integral f ( x )dx ,
a
in practice this error is difficult to calculate and we are content to
find an upper bound for the error. We can accomplish this by
(4)
finding the extreme values for f"(x) and f (x) on the interval [a ,
b] for the Trapezoidal and Simpson's Rules, respectively.
Example 5.31:
1 2
Using the Trapezoidal rule, estimate the value of e x dx .
0
Determine n so that the approximation error is less than 0.01.
Solution:
2 2 2
If f(x) = e x , then f '(x) = 2x e x , f "(x) = (2x1)(2x e x ).
By the methods of differential calculus, we can determine that
f "(x) = 2/e is the maximum value of | f "(x)| on the interval
[0 , 1]. Hence for all c in [0 ,1], we have
2 3
| f "(c)| <
e 4
and therefore by Theorem 5.5 we have
(b a ) 3 1 1 3
|exact error | = |f "(c1)| = |f "(c1)| < .
12n 2 12n 2 12n 2 4
To insure that our approximation error is less than 0.01, we must
choose n so that
299
1 3 1
0.01=
12n 2 4 100
Solving this inequality for n yields
2 100 3 25 5
n = i.e. n .
12 4 4 2
Therefore, we choose n = 3 and apply the Trapezoidal Rule to
obtain
1
x 2 1 1 2 2 1
e dx + 1 + 4 + 0.74
6 e0 e 9 e 9 e
0
Finally, with an error no larger than 0.01, we know that
1 2
0.73 < e x dx < 0.75 .
0
Example 5.32:
Use Simpson's Rule to estimate the area represented by
1
2
cos x dx . Determine n so that the approximation error is less
0
than 0.001.
Solution:
According to Theorem 5.5, the error In Simpson's Rule involves
the fourth derivative. Hence by successive differentiation we have
2 2
f(x) = cos x , f '(x) = 2x sin x
2 2 2
f "(x) = 2(2x cos x + sin x )
3 2 2
f '"(x) = 4(2x sin x 3x cos x )
300
(4) 4 2 2 2 2
f (x) = 4(4x cos x + 12x sin x 3 cos x ) =
4 2 2 2
= 4[(4x - 3)(cos x ) + 12x sin x ]
(4)
Since, in the interval [0 , 1], f (x) is greatest when x = 1, we
know that
(4)
|f (c)| 4[cos (l) + 12 sin (1)] 42.6 < 45
for all c in [0 , 1]. Hence for c1 in [0 , 1], we have
(b a ) 5 (4) 1 (4) 45
|exact error | = f (c1) = |f (c1)| < =
180n 4 180n 4 180n 4
1
= .
4
4n
1
Now by choosing n so that < 0.001
4
4n
we can obtain the desired accuracy. Solving for n we have
4 1000 4
n > i.e. n > 250 hence n > 3.97 .
4
Therefore, we choose n = 4 and obtain
1 1
2
cos x dx [ cos 0 + 4 cos 1 + 2 cos 1 + 4 cos 9 + cos 1]
12 16 4 16
0
0.9045 .
1
and we conclude that 0.9035 cos x 2 dx 0.9055
0
Looking back at the examples in this section, you may wonder
why we introduced the Trapezoidal Rule, since for a fixed n,
Simpsons Rule usually gives a better approximation. The main
301
reason for including the Trapezoidal Rule is that its error can be
more easily estimated than the error involved in Simpson's Rule.
Certainly an approximation method is of little benefit if we have
no idea of the potential error in the approximation. For instance, if
f(x) = x sin( x + 1) , then to estimate the error in Simpson's Rule,
we would need to determine the fourth derivative of f a
monumental task. Therefore, since the estimation of the error in
Simpson's Rule involves the fourth derivative, we sometimes
prefer to use the Trapezoidal Rule, even though we may have to
use a larger n to obtain the desired accuracy.
302
EXERCISES 5
1) Prove that:
1 -1 -1
a) [ tan (sinh x) + cos (tanh x)] dx = 1 ,
2
0
1+ x
b) sin [ tanh ( An )] dx = 2 ,
0 1- x
2 -1 -1
c) [tan x + tan (1/x) ] dx = 1 ,
2
1
2 -1 -1
d) [sec x + sin (1/x) ] dx = 1 ,
2
1
2
e) | 1 x | dx = 1.
0
2) Evaluate:

2 2 sin 2 x
cos 2 x
a) (sin 2 x )e dx , b) 1 cos 2x
dx ,

0 4
3 3
2 dx 2
c) , d) x 2 3 3 2 x dx ,
0 3x x 2 1
1
3x + 4 6
e) 3
dx , f) sin 5 3x dx ,
0x 2x 4 0
2 2
8
4 x3
g) tan 2x dx , h) 3 2
dx .
0 1 9x
2 1, c) , d) 627/1120 ,
-1
[Answers: a) 1 (1e ), b)
2 2
303
e) 1 An 10, f) 8/45 , g) /8 1/3 = 0.0594 , h) 219/20 .]

2
3) Prove that
2
x2 3 3
a) dx = 1 = 0.0931 ,
3
x 6
3
47
b) x 3 4 x 2 dx = .
0
15
2
4) Find the area of the plane region bounded by y = 1/(x 2) , y
= 0 , x = 0 and x = 1. [Answer: = 0.6232 sq. units]
5) Determine the area of the region bounded by
2
y =10/(x 6x+5), y = 0, x = 2 and x = 4.
[Answer: 5 An 3 sq. units]
6) Find the area of the plane region bounded by y = x / 2x 1 ,
and the x-axis from x = 1 to x = 5. [Answer: 16/3 sq. units]
7) Prove that the area of an ellipse is given by a b , where 2a
and 2b are the 1engths of the major and minor axes,
respectively.
2 2
8) Find the area bounded by y = 9x and x = 9y.
[Answer: 27 sq. units.]
304
2 2
9) Find the area bounded by the parabolas y = 5x+ 6 and x = y.
[Answer: 27/5 sq. units]
2
10) Find the area bounded by the parabolas y = 4x and the line
y = 2x 4. [Answer: 9 sq. units]
11) Compute the Following integrals.
1
a
2
1 + x
a) cos x An 1 x dx , b) sin x f (cos x )dx ,
1 a
2

8
c) x sin 9 x dx . [Answers: a) 0, b) 0 , c) 0 .]
-
12) Prove the following equalities:

2 2 2
a) sin m x dx = cos m x dx , b) f (sin x )dx = 2 f (sin x )dx ,
0 0 0 0

c) x f (sin x)dx = f (sin x )dx .
0
20
13) Prove that

2 sin x
a) dx = ,
0 sin x + cos x 4

sin 2 x
2 1
b) dx = An[ 2 + 1] ,
0 cos x + sin x 2
2
14) The segment of the parabola y = 4ax which is cut off by
latus rectum x = a about the y-axis. Find the volume the
3
annular solid generated. [ Answer: 4a /5 cubic units]
305
2 2 2
15) The area enclosed by the astroid x 3 +y 3 =a 3 ( also it is
called a hypocycloid)is revolved about x-axis. Find the
volume of the solid generated.
2
[ Answer: 324 a /105 cubic units]
16) Find the volume generated by revolving about the x-axis the
2
area cut off from the parabola 9y = 4 (9 x ) by the lines
4x + 3y = 12. [ Answer: 9.6 cubic units]
17) Find the volume generated by revolving about x-axis the
2 2
area bounded by the following curves: x + y =25, 3x = 4y,
y=0 lying in the first quadrant. [Answer: 50 /3cubic units]
18) Find the volume of spherical cap of a sphere whose height is
2 2
h and base has radius b. [Answer:(h/6)[3b +h ]cubic units]
2 3
19) Find the length of the curve y = (2x1) cut off by the line
x = 4. [ Answer: 1022/27]
20) Find the area of the surface generated by revolving about the
3
y-axis the curve x = y from y = 0 to y = 2.
3
[ Answer: [(145) 2 1] sq. units]
27
21) Find the area of the parabolic reflector of a car head light if
2
its diameter 24 cm and its depth 8 cm. [ Answer: 616 cm .]
306
22) Solve the following differential equations subject to the

given conditions:
2
a) f'(x) = 12x 6x+1; f(1) =5 .
dy
b) = 4 x ; y = 21 if x = 4.
dx
c) f"(x) = 4x1 ; f'(2) = 2 , f(1)=3.
d) y" = 3 sin x 4 cos x ; y = 7 and y' = 2 if x = 0.
3 2 8 3 1 3 2
[ Answers: a) 4x 3x +x+3, b) x 2 ,c) 2 x 1 x 8x + 65 ,
3 3 3 2 6
d) 3 sin x + 4 cos x + 5x + 3 .]
23) If a point is moving on a coordinate line with the given
acceleration a(t) and initial conditions, find s(t).
a) a(t) = 2 6t ; v(0) = 5 , s(0) = 4 ,
2
b) a(t) = 12t 30t+14 ; v(0) = 3 , s(0) = 10 ,
c) a(t) = 3 sin t+5 cos t +20 ; v(0) = 2 , s(0) = 2 .
2 3 4 3 2
[Answers: a) s(t) = t t 5t + 4, b) s(t) = t 5t + 7t +3t+10,
2
c) s(t) = 3 sin t 5 cos t +10 t + 5t+3]
24) Find the volume generated by revolving the first quadrant
2
area bounded by the parabola y = 8 x and its latus rectum (x
= 2) about the x-axis. [Answer: 16 cubic units]
2
25) Find the volume generated by revolving the parabola y = 8 x
and its latus rectum (x = 2) about the latus rectum.
[Answer: 256/15 cubic units]
307
2
26) Find the volume generated by revolving the parabola y = 8 x
and its latus rectum (x = 2) about the y-axis.
[Answer: 128/5 cubic units]
27) Find the volume generated by revolving the area cut off
2
from y = 4x x by the x- axis about the line y = 6.
[Answer:1408/15 cubic units]
28) Find the volume of the tours generated by revolving the
2 2
circle x + y = 4 about the line x = 3.
2
[Answer:24 cubic units]
2
29) Find the volume when the plane area bounded by y = 6 x
3x and x + y =3 is revolved a) about x = 3 , b) about y = 0.
[Answers: a) 256/3 cubic units b) 1792/15 cubic units ]
30) A solid has a circular base of radius 4cm. Find the volume of
the solid if every plane section perpendicular to a fixed
3
diameter is an equilateral triangle. [Answer: 256 3 /3 cm ]
2 2
31) A solid has a base in the form of an ellipse x + y = 1.
25 16
Find the volume if every section perpendicular to x-axis is an
isosceles triangle with altitude 6.
[Answer:60 cubic units]
3/2
32) Find the length of the arc of the curve y = x from x = 0 to
x=5. [Answer: 335/27 units]
308
3/2
33) Find the length of the arc of the curve x = 3y 1from
8 3
y = 0 to y = 4. [Answer: [(82) 2 1] units]
243
4
34) Find the length of the arc of the curve 24 xy = x + 48 from
x = 2 to x = 4. [Answer: 17/6 units]
35) Find the area of the surface of revolution generated by
2
revolving about the x-axis the arc of the parabola y = 12x
from x = 0 to x = 3. [Answer: 24[2 2 1] square units]
3
revolving about the y-axis the arc of the curve x = y from

y = 0 to y = 1. [Answer: [10 10 1] square units]
27
2
revolving about the x-axis the arc of the curve y + 4x =
32
= 2An y from y = 1 to y = 3. [Answer: square units]
3
3
revolving about the x-axis the hypocycloid x = a cos ,
3 2
y = a sin . [Answer: 12a /5 square units]
39) Evaluate the following integrals:
1 1+ x 3 dx dx
a) dx b) , c) ,
0 1 x 2
0 ( x 1) 3 0 x
2
+1
1 dx 4 dx
d) 2
, e) , f) e x cos x dx ,
1 x 3 0 4x 0
309

g) e x sin x dx .
0
[ Answers: a) /2+1, b) 3 + 3 3 2 , c) /2 , d) 6, e) 4 , f) 1 , g) 1 ]
2 2

dx dx 3 dx
a) , b) , c) ,
2 x 2
2 x x 1 0 9x
2 dx 4 dx 4 dx
d) , e) , f) ,
0 2 x 0 ( x 1)
2
0
3 x 1
a) g)

2
sec x dx .
0
[ Answers: a) An 2 , b) diverge, c) /2 , d) diverge, e) diverge,
3
f) [3 9 1] , g) diverge.]
2
dx 0
2 cos x b) , c) e 2 x dx ,
a) dx , 2
0 1 - sin x 0 x +4 -
3 dx
d) 2
.
0 ( x 1) 3
[ Answers: a) 2, b) /4, c) 1 , d) 3[1+ 3 2 ].

2
310
1
42) Find dx , a) By Trapezoidal rule where the interval of
2
0 1+ x
integration is subdivided into 8 equal parts.
b) By using Simpsons rule.
Hence obtain the approximate value of in each case.
[Answers: a) 0.784747125, b) 0.785398333]
2
43) Calculate x dx , by the Trapezoidal rule assuming
1
n = 10. [Answer: 1.2188294]
1
44) Approximate I = 1 + x 2 dx by using Simpsons rule,
0
assuming n = 10. [Answer: 1.147793280667]
2 dx
45) Calculate I = , by using Simpsons rule,
0 1+ x 2 4
+x
assuming n = 8 . [Answer: 1.2069285791667]
46) Compute the value of the definite integral
1.4
x
[sin x An x + e ]dx , assuming n = 12
0.2
a) By Trapezoidal rule, b) By using Simpsons rule.
[Answers: a) 4.056172771 , b) 4.05105754667]
1
47) Evaluate dx , by using Simpsons rule, assuming n = 10.
0 x +1
Hence obtain the approximate value of An 2 .
[Answers: 0.693150230667]
311

48) 2
sin x
Calculate e dx , by using Simpsons rule, assuming
0
n = 4. [Answers: 3.10435740837399]
49) Determine the value of n for which a theoretical error less

than can be guaranteed if the integral is estimated using:
a) the trapezoidal rule ; b) Simpsons rule
4 4
i) x dx ; = 0.01 , ii) x dx ; = 0.00001 ,
1 1
3
iii) sin x dx ; = 0.001 , iv) e x dx ; = 0.01.
0 1
[ Answers: i) a) n 8 , b) n 4 , ii) a) n 238 , b) n 19,
iv) a) n 51 , b) n 7 , iv) a) n 37 , b) n 5 .]
50) 12
Estimate x 2 dx , using :
0
a) the left-endpoint estimate , n = 12 .
b) the right-endpoint estimate , n = 12 .
c) the trapezoidal estimate , n = 12 .
d) Simpsons rule , n = 6 ,
e) the fundamental theorem of calculus.
[ Answers: a) 506 , b) 650 , c) 578 , d) 576 , e) 576 ]
312
Calculus Collections
REFERENCES
1) Calculus and Analytic Geometry, By E. Artin.
(A Freshman Honours Course Taught at Princeton University U.S.A.)
2) University Mathematics, By Joseph Blakey.
(A Textbook for Students of Science & Engineering)
3) A problem Book in Mathematical Analysis,
By G. N. Berman.
4) Engineering Mathematics, By H. K. Dass.
5) Calculus, By Frank Ayres.
6) Fundamentals of Mathematical Analysis, parts 1&2.
By v. A. Ilyin and E. G. Poznyak.
7) Problems in Calculus of one variable By I. A. Maron
8) A course of Mathematical Analysis. Volume I & II,
By S. M. Nikolsky.
9) Differential and Integral Calculus, By N. Piskunov.
10) Advanced Calculus, By Murray H. Spiegel.
11) Calculus ( Sixth Edition), By Earl W. Swokowski.
12) Calculus with Analytic Geometry, By A. B. Simon.
13) Calculus and Analytic Geometry, By G. B. Thomas.
14) University Calculus (Subsets of the plane),By Thomas L. Wade
15) High-School Mathematics, G. N. Yakovlev.
16) Calculus ( Sixth Edition), By Salas and Hilles.
313
THE GREEK ALPHABET
Upper case Lower case Name
letters letters
alpha
beta
gamma
delta
epsilon
zeta
eta
theta
iota
kappa
lambda
mu
nu
xi
omicron
pi
rho
sigma
tau
upsilon
phi
chi
psi
omega
314
APPENDEX 1a
FORMULAS FROM GEOMETRY
Triangle: Circle:
2
h = a sin Area = r
Area = 1 bh Circumference=2 r
2
(Law of cosines)
c2 = a2 + b2 2 a b cos
Right Triangle: Sector of Circle:
Pythagorean Theorem ( in radian)
2 2 2
c =a +b 2
Area = 1 r ,
2
L=r
Equilateral Triangle: Circular Ring:
h = 3L p = average radius,
Area = w = width of ring)
2 2
= 3L
2 Area = [R r ]=
= 2 p w
Parallelogram: Sector of
Area = b h Circular Ring:
Trapezoid: Area = p w
[a + b ] p = average radius,
Area = h in radian
2
w = width of ring,
315
APPENDEX 1b
FORMULAS FROM GEOMETRY
Ellipse: Circle:
Area =a b In ellipse if
a=b=r
2
a
2
+b
2 Area = r
Circumference = 2
2 Circumference=2 r
Cone: Right Circular

(A = area of base) Cone:
2
Volume = 1 A h Volume = 1 r h,
3 3
Frustum of Right Lateral Surface Area =

Circular Cone: = r r 2 + h 2
2 2
Volume = 1 h [ r + rR + R ] Sphere:
3 3
Lateral Surface Area = L[r+ R]
Volume = 4 r
3
2
Surface Area =4 r
Right Circular Wedge :

Cylinder: (A = area of upper
2
Volume = r h face,
Lateral Surface B = area of base)
B =A cos
Area = 2 r h A = B sec ,
316
APPENDEX 2
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
1 DEFINTTIONS:
1 1
sin = o = ,
h csc cos ec
1
cos = a = ,
h sec
sin
tan = o = ,
a cos 2 2
cos 1 Since sin + cos =
cot = a = = , 2 2
o sin tan o a
1 = + =
sec = h = , h h
a cos
o2 + a 2 h2
1 = = = 1,
csc cosec = h = . h 2
h 2
o sin
2 PYTHAGOREAN IDENTITIES:
2 2 2 2 2 2
sin + cos = 1 , tan + 1 = sec , 1 + cot = csc .
3 SYMMETRIES:
cos (x) = cos x , sin (x)= sin x, tan ( x) = tan x ,
sec (x) = sec x , csc (x)= csc x, cot ( x) = cot x .
sin ( x) = cos x , cos ( x) = sin x ,

2 2
sin ( + x) = cos x , cos ( + x) = sin x ,
2 2
317
sin ( x) = sin x , cos ( x) = cos x ,

sin ( + x) = sin x , cos ( + x) = cos x ,
4 SUM OR DTFFFRENCE OF TWO ANGLES:
sin (x y) = sin x cos y cos x sin y ,
cos (x y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y ,
tan x tan y
tan ( x y) = .
1 tan x tan y
5 PRODUCT:
sin sin = 12 [ cos ( ) cos ( + )],
cos cos = 12 [ cos ( ) + cos ( + )],
sin cos = 12 [ sin ( ) + sin ( + )],
cos sin = 12 [ sin ( ) + sin ( + )],
6 DOUBLE ANGLE:
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x ,
cos 2x = cos2 x sin2 x = 2cos2 x 1 = 1 2 sin2 x
2 tan x
tan 2 x = .
1 tan 2 x
7 HALF ANGLE:
x x
sin2 = 1 (1 cos x), cos2 = 1 (1 + cos x).
2 2 2 2
2 x 1 cos x x 1 cos x sin x
tan = , tan = = .
2 1 + cos x 2 sin x 1 + cos x
since
318
2
2 x 1 cos x 1 cos x (1 cos x ) (1 cos x ) 2
tan = = = ,
2 1 + cos x 1 cos x 1 cos 2 x sin 2 x
2 x 1 cos x 1 + cos x 1 cos 2 x sin 2 x
tan = = = ,
2 1 + cos x 1 + cos x (1 + cos x ) 2 (1 + cos x ) 2
8 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES:

1) y = sin1 x = arcsin
1 x 1 y
x, 2 2
2) y = cos1 x = arccos x, 1 x 1 0y

3) y = tan1 x = arctan x, <x< <y<
2 2

4) y = csc1 x = arccsc x ( ,1][1, ) [ ,0) (0, ]
1 2 2
x R (1,1)
= sin1 ,
x i.e. |x| 1 < y < ,y 0
2 2

5) y = sec1 x = arcsec x ( ,1][1, ) [0, ) ( , ]
1 2 2
x R (1,1)
= cos1 ,
x i.e. |x| 1 0 y ,y
2
6) y = cot1 x = arccot x
< x < 0<y<
= tan1 x ,
2
Some Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions:
319
1
1) sin(sin x) = sin(arcsin x) = x If 1 x 1

2) sin1 (sin x) = arcsin(sin x) = x If x
2 2
3) cos(cos1 x) = cos(arccos x) = x If 1 x 1
4) cos1 (cos x) = arccos(cos x) = x If 0 x
5) tan(tan1 x) = tan(arctan x) = x For every x R

6) tan1 (tan x) = arctan(tan x) = x If <x<
2 2
7) sec(sec1 x) = sec(arcsec x) = x If x 1

8) sec1 (sec x) = arcsec(sec x) = x x [0, ) ( ,]
2 2
9) csc(csc1 x) = csc(arccsc x) = x If x 1

10) csc1 (csc x) = arccsc(csc x) = x x [ ,0)(0, ]
2 2
11) cot(cot1 x) = cot(arccot x) = x For every x R
12) cot1 (cot x) = arccot(cot x) = x If 0 < x <
320
= arcsin x = arccos x =
2
x
= arctan ,
2
1 x
= arccos x = arcsin x =
2
x
= arccot ,
2
1 x
= arctan x = arccot x =
2
x
= arcsin ,
2
1+ x
1
= arccot x = arctan ,
x
1
= arcsec x = arccos ,
x
1
= arccsc x = arcsin .
x
arcsin x + arccos x = , arccot x + arctan x = ,

2 2
arcsec x + arccsc x = .
2
321
APPENDEX 3
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
1 DEFINTTIONS:
e x e x e x + e x
sinh x = , cosh x = ,
2 2
sinh x e x e x cosh x e x + e x
tanh x = = , coth x = = ,
cosh x x x sinh x x x
e +e e e
x 0,
1 2 1 2
csch x = = , sech x = = ,
sinh x e x e x cosh x e x + e x
x 0,
x -x
cosh x + sinh x = e , cosh x sinh x = e .
sinh 0 = 0 , cosh 0 = 1 , and tanh 0 = 0

2 IDENTITIES:
2 2 2 2 2 2
cosh x sinh x = 1, 1 tanh x = sech x, coth x 1 = csch x.
3 SYMMETRIES:
cosh (x) = cosh x , sinh (x) = sinh x , tanh (x) = tanh x .
sech (x) = sech x , csch(x) = csch x , coth (x) = coth x .
322
4 SUM OR DTFFFRENCE:
sinh (x y) = sinh x cosh y cosh x sinh y ,
cosh (x y) = cosh x cosh y sinh x sinh y ,
tanh x tanh y
tanh ( x y) = .
1 tanh x tanh y
5 PRODUCT:
sinh x sinh y = 12 [ cosh (x + y) cosh (x y)],
cosh x cosh y = 12 [ cosh (x + y) + cos (x y)],
sinh x cosh y = 12 [ sinh (x + y) + sinh (x y)],
cosh x sinh y = 12 [ sinh (x + y) sinh (x y)],
6 DOUBLE ARGUMENT:
sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x ,
2 2 2 2
cosh 2x = cosh x + sinh x = 2cosh x 1 = 1 + 2 sinh x ,
2 tanh x
tanh 2 x = .
1 + tanh 2 x
7 HALF ARGUMENT:
x 1
2 2 x 1
sinh = 2 (cosh x 1), cosh = 2
(cosh x + 1).
2 2
2 x cosh x 1
tanh = ,
2 cosh x + 1
x cosh x 1 sinh x
tanh = = .

2 sinh x cosh x + 1
323
8 Inverse Hyperbolic functions:

and their prineipa1 values.
1) y = sinh1 x = n [x + x 2 + 1 ]. < x < < y <
2) y = cosh1 x = n [x + x 2 1 ]. 1 x< 0 y<
1 1+ x
3) y = tanh1 x = n , |x|<1 < y <
2 1 x
1
4) y = csch1 x = sinh1 =
x
1 x R {0} y R {0}
x 2 + 1
= n +
x x

1
5) y = sech1 x = cosh1 =
x
1 + 1 x 2 0<x 1 0 y<
= n
x

1
6) y = coth1 x = tanh1 =
x
|x|>1 y R {0}
1 x +1
= n
2 x 1
324
Some Properties of Inverse hyperbolic Functions
1) sinh(sinh1 x) = sinh n [x + x 2 + 1 ]= x , xR
2) sinh1 (sinh x) = x , xR
3) cosh(cosh1 x) = cosh n [x + x 2 1 ]= x , x 1
4) cosh1 (cosh x) = x , x1
1 1+ x
5) tanh(tanh1 x) = tanh 2 n =x, |x| 1
1 x
6) tanh1 (tanh x) = x , xR
1 + 1 x 2
7) sech(sech x) = sech n
1
= x , 0<x 1
x

8) sech1 (sech x) = x , x1
1 x 2 + 1
9) csch(csch x) = csch n +
1
= x, x R {0}
x x

10) csch1 (csch x) = x , x R {0}
1 x +1
11) coth (coth1 x) = coth[ n ]= x , |x|>1
2 x 1
12) coth1 (coth x) = x , x R {0}
325
APPENDEX 4
TRIGONOMETRIC AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
1 DEFINTTIONS:
e ix e ix e x e x
sin x = . sinh x = ,
2i
2
e ix + e ix e x + e x
cos x = , cosh x = ,
2 2
sin x e ix e ix sinh x e x e x
tan x = = , tanh x = = ,
cos x i(e ix + e ix ) cosh x x
e +e x
1 2i 1 2
csc x = = , csch x = = ,
sin x e ix e ix sinh x e x e x
x 0, x 0,
1 2 1 2
sec x = = , sech x = = ,
cos x ix ix cosh x e x + e x
e +e
cos x i(e ix + e ix ) cosh x e x + e x
cot x = = , coth x = = ,
sin x ix ix sinh x x x
e e e e
x 0, x 0.
ix x
cos x + i sin x = e , cosh x + sinh x = e ,
-ix -x
cos x i sin x = e . cosh x sinh x = e .
2 3 4
where i= 1, i = 1 , i = i , i = 1.
326
2 Rules:
cos ix = cosh x , sin ix = i sinh x , tan ix = i tanh x ,
sec ix = sech x , csc ix = i csch x , cot ix = i coth x .
cosh ix = cos x , sinh ix = i sin x , tanh ix = i tan x ,

sech ix = sec x , csch ix = i csc x , coth ix = i cot x .
Rule: If in any identity connecting the trigonometric functions
cos x, sin x, and tan x the expressions cos x, sin x and tan x ,
(sec x, csc x, and cot x ) are , respectively, replaced by cosh x,
i sinh x and i tanh x, ( sech x , - i csch x, and i coth x ), where
2
i = 1, an identity for the hyperbolic functions is obtained.
cos xcosh x , sin x i sinh x , tan x i tanh x ,

sec x sech x , csc x i csch x , cot x i coth x ,
Osborne's Rule:
In any formula connecting trigonometric functions of general
angles, the corresponding formula connecting hyperbolic
functions can be obtained by replacing each trigonometric
function by the corresponding hyperbolic function, if the sign of
every product or implied product of two sines is changed.
327
3 IDENTITIES:

2 2 2 2
cos x + sin x = 1 cosh x sinh x = 1
2 2 2 2
1 + tan x = sec x 1 tanh x = sech x
2 2 2 2
cot x + 1 = csc x coth x 1 = csch x
sin (x y) = sinh (x y) =
=sin x cos y cos x sin y = sinh x cosh y cosh x sinh y
cos (x y) = cosh (x y) =
=cos x cos y sin x sin y = cosh x cosh y sinh x sinh y
tan x tan y tanh x tanh y
tan ( x y) = tanh ( x y) =
1 tan x tan y 1 tanh x tanh y
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
2 2 2 2
cos 2x = cos x sin x = cosh 2x = cosh x + sinh x =
2 2 2 2
= 2cos x 1 = 1 2 sin x = 2cosh x 1 = 1 + 2 sinh x
2 tan x 2 tanh x
tan 2 x = tanh 2 x =
1 tan 2 x 1 + tanh 2 x
2 x 2 x
sin = 12 (1 cos x) sinh = 12 (cosh x 1)
2 2
2 x 2 x
cos = 12 (1 + cos x) cosh = 12 (cosh x + 1)
2 2
x 1 cos x sin x x cosh x 1 sinh x
tan = = . tanh = = .
2 sin x 1 + cos x 2 sinh x cosh x + 1
328
4 Inverse Hyperbolic functions:

and their prineipa1 values (a > 0 ) .
x
sinh1 = n [x + x 2 + a 2 ] n a. < x < < y <
a
x
cosh1 = n [x + x 2 a 2 ] n a. 1 x< 0 y<
a
x 1 a+x
tanh1 = n . |x|<a < y <
a 2 ax
x a
csch1 = sinh1 =
a x
a x R {0} y R {0}
x 2 + a 2
= n +
x x

x a
sech1 = cosh1 =
a x
a + a2 x2 0<x a 0 y<
= n
x

x a 1 x+a
coth1 = tanh1 = n
a x 2 xa |x|>a y R {0}
329
APPENDEX 5
DERIVATIVES
f (x + h) f (x) y dy
1) f ' ( x ) = lim = lim = ,
h 0 h x 0 x dx
d d d
2) [ f(x) g(x) ] = f(x) g(x) = f ' (x) g'(x).
dx dx dx
d d
3) [C f(x)]) = C f(x) = C f '(x), where C is any constant.
dx dx
d d d
4) [f(x).g(x)] = f(x) g(x) + g(x) f(x) =
dx dx dx
= f(x) . g' (x) + g(x) .f ' (x).
i.e. Derivative of a product of two functions =
= (first function derivative of the second function ) +
+ ( second function derivative of the first function).
d f ( x ) g( x ) f ' ( x ) f ( x ) g' ( x )
5) = , if g(x) 0 .
dx g( x ) [g( x )] 2
i.e. Derivative of a quotient =

denominator (numerator) ' numerator (denominator)'
=
(denominator) 2
6) If y = f(u) where u = g(x), then
dy dy du du
= . = f '(u). = f '[g(x)].g ' (x) . ( chain rule )
dx du dx dx
Similarly if y = f(u) where u = g(v) and v = h(x),
dy dy du dv
Then = . . . ( chain rule )
dx du dv dx
330
1
7) If y = f(x), then x = f (y); and dy/dx and dx/dy are related
dy dx
by = 1/ .
dx dy
dy

dy dt g ( t )
8) If x = f(t) and y = g(t), then = = .
dx dx f ( t )

dt
d
9) (C) = 0, where C is any constant.
dx
d n n1
10) x =nx .
dx
Rules Of Differentiation (1)
y y'
1
og a x og a e , x > 0 , a > 0.
x
1
n x & n x , x 0.
x
x x x x
e &a e & a n a , a > 0 , a 1
1 du
og a u og a e , u > 0 , a > 0.
u dx
1 du
n u ,u > 0.
u dx
1 du
n u , u 0.
u dx
u u du
a a na , a > 0 , a 1
dx
331

y y' y y'
du du
sin u cos u sinh u cosh u
dx dx
du du
cos u sin u cosh u sinh u
dx dx
2 du 2 du
tan u sec u tanh u sech u
dx dx
du du
csc u csc u cot u csch u csch u coth u
dx dx
du du
sec u sec u tan u sech u sech u tanh u
dx dx
2 du 2 du
cot u csc u coth u csch u
dx dx
arcsin u= 1 du 1
1 du
1 2 dx sinh u 2 dx
sin u 1 u 1+ u
arccos u= 1 du 1
1 du
1 2 dx cosh u dx
cos u 1 u u2 1
arctan u= 1 du 1 1 du
1 tanh u , | u | < 1.
tan u 1 + u 2 dx 1 u 2 dx
arccsc u= 1 du 1 du
1
1 2 dx csch u 2 dx
csc u u u 1 u 1+ u
arcsec u= 1 du
1
1 du
1 dx sech u
sec u u u2 1 u 1 u 2 dx
arccot u= 1 du 1 1 du
1 coth u ,| u | > 1.
cot u 1 + u 2 dx 1 u 2 dx
332
Special cases
y y' y y'
x 1 1 x 1
arcsin sinh
a a2 x2 a a2 + x2
1 x
x 1 cosh 1
arccos a
a a2 x2 x2 a2
x a 1 x a
arctan tanh , | x | < a.
a 2 2 a 2 2
a +x a x
x a 1 x
a
arccsc csch
a x x2 a2 a x a2 + x2
x a 1 x a
arcsec sech
a x x2 a2 a x a2 x2
x a 1 x a
arccot coth , | x | > a.
a a2 + x2 a 2
a x 2
Binomial Theorem
n n n n1 n n2 2 n nr r n
(a + b) = a + C1 a b + C2 a b + + Cr a b ++ b =
n 0 n n1 n n2 2 n nr r 0 n
= a b + C1 a b+ C2 a b ++ Cr a b ++ a b =
n
= n C r a n r b r .
r =0
n n (n 1) 2 n (n 1)(n 2) 3
(1x) = 1 n x + x x + .
2! 3!
333
Taylors Theorem:
f ' (a ) f " (a ) 2
f(x) = f(a) + (xa) + (xa) ++
1! 2!
( n +1)
f ( n ) (a ) n f ( c) n+1
+ (xa) + (xa) ,
n! (n + 1)!
f ' (x) f " (x) 2
f(x + h) = f(x) + h+ h ++
1! 2!
f ( n ) ( x ) n f ( n +1) (c) n+1
+ h + h ,
n! (n + 1)!
Maclurin series:
f ' (0) f " (0) 2 f ( n ) (0) n f ( n +1) (c) n+1
f(x) = f(0) + x+ x ++ x + x .
1! 2! n! (n + 1)!
Some important Maclaurin series:
x x2 x3 x4 xk
e =1+x+ + + ++ +, x R
2! 3! 4! k!
2k 1
x3 x5 x7 k +1 x
sin x = x + ++ (1) +, x R
3! 5! 7! (2k 1)!
2k 2
x2 x4 x6 k +1 x
cos x = 1 + ++ (1) +, x R
2! 4! 6! (2k 2)!
x3 x5 x7 x 2k 1
cosh x = x + + + ++ +, x R.
3! 5! 7! (2k 1)!
x2 x4 x6 x 2k 2
sinh x = 1 + + + ++ +, x R.
2! 4! 6! (2k 2)!
x2 x3 x4 k+1 x
k
n (l + x) = x + ++ (1) + , 1< x 1.
2 3 4 k
334
x2 x3 x4 xk
n (l x) = x , 1 x < 1.
2 3 4 k
2k 1
-1 x3 x5 x7 k +1 x
tan x = x + ++ (1) + , 1 x 1.
3 5 7 2k 1
-1 1 1 + x x3 x5 x 2k 1
tanh x= n =x+ + ++ + , 1<x<1.
2 1 x 3 5 2k 1
m m(m 1) 2 m(m 1)(m 2) 3
(1+x) =1 +m x + x + x +,1<x<1.
2! 3!
x xn -x
n x
n
e = , x R. e = (1) , x R.
n =0 n! n =0 n!
2n +1 2n
n x n x
sin x = (1) , cos x = (1) ,x R.
n =0 (2n + 1)! n =0 (2n )!
x 2n +1
x 2n
sinh x = , x R. cosh x = , x R.
n =0 ( 2 n + 1)! n =0 ( 2n )!
n xn
n+1 x
n (l+x)= (1) ,1<x 1 n (l x) = ,1 x < 1.
n=1 n n =1 n
2n 1 x 2n 1
-1 n +1 x -1
tan x = (1) , tanh x = ,1 < x < 1
n =1 2n 1 n =1 2n 1
m
(1+x) = 1 + x x 2n 1
n =2 ,
m( m 1)...(m n + 1) x n
1 x n =1 2n 1
,
n =0 n! 1 < x < 1
335
Derivatives of higher order:

m (n) mn
(x ) = m (ml)...(mn+l) x . ( n < m ).
m (m)
For n = m , we have (x ) = m! .
m (n) m (m+k)
For n > m we have (x ) 0 . i.e. (x ) 0 , k > 0.
(n) (n)
y y y y
x x n bx n bx
a a ( n a) e b e
sin (x + n ) a sin (a x + n )
n
sin x 2 sin a x 2
cos (x + n ) a cos (a x + n )
n
cos x 2 cos a x 2
n 1 n
(1) (n 1)! 1 (1) n!
n x
xn x x n +1
1 (n +1)! 1 (m + n 1)! 1
(1)n (1)n
x2 xn+2 xm (m 1)! xm+n
n n
a sinh ax, n even, a cosh ax, n even,
sinh ax n cosh ax n
a cosh ax, n odd. a sinh ax, n odd.
Leibnitz's formula:
(n) (n) (n) n (n1) n (n2)
f (x) = [u v] =u v + C1 u v' + C2 u v" + +
+ n Cr u
(nr) (r) (n)
v ++uv =
n
= n C r u (n r ) v (r ) ,
r =0
n (n 1)(n 2)...(n r + 1) n!
where n C r = = .
r! r! (n r )!
336
APPENDEX 6
INTEGRALS
1 Rules:
1) f ' (x)dx = f (x) + C ,
2) [f (x)+g (x)] dx = f (x)dx + g (x)dx,
3) A f(x)dx = A f(x)dx, A any constant,
The Power Rule:
n [f ( x )] n +1
n
4) I = [f(x)] f '(x) dx = u du = + C , n 1.
n +1
f ' (x) du
5) J = dx = = n | u | + C = n | f(x) | + C.
f (x) u
Integration by Parts:
6) u (x) v '(x)dx = u(x) . v(x) u ' (x) v (x) dx.
(n+1)
7) In+1 = u (x) v(x) dx =
(n) (n1) (n2)
= u (x) v(x) u (x) v'(x) + u (x) v"(x) +
n (n) n+1 (n+1)
+ (1) u(x)v (x) + (1) u(x)v (x)dx
r =n
= (1) r u ( n r ) v ( r ) +(1)
n+1 (n+1)
u(x)v (x)dx.
r =0
(n+1)
If v (x) 0 , therefore
(n+1)
8) In+1 = u (x) v(x) dx =
(n) (n1) (n2)
= u (x) v(x) u (x) v'(x) + u (x) v"(x) +
r =n
+ (1) u(x)v (x) = (1) r u ( n r ) v ( r ) .
n (n)
r =0
337
2 Algebraic and Exponential Functions:

n x n +1
1. x dx = + C ; n 1,
n +1
dx
2. = n | x | + C,
x
x ax x
3. a dx = + C = a og a e + C,
na
x x
5. e dx = e + C .
3 Integrals of the Six Basic
Trigonometric Functions:
1) sin x dx = cos x + C ,
2) cos x dx = sin x + C ,
3) tan x dx = n | cos x | + C = n | sec x | + C .
4) sec x dx = n | sec x + tan x | + C= n | tan ( x + ) | + A
2 4
5) csc x dx = n | csc x cot x | + C = n | tan x | + A,
2
6) cot x dx = n | sin x | + C.
4 Integrals of the Six Basic
Hyperbolic Functions:
1) sinh x dx = cosh x + C ,
2) cosh x dx = sinh x + C ,
3) tanh x dx = n | cosh x | + C ,
-1
4) sech x dx = tan ( sinh x) + C,
5) csch x dx = n | tanh x | + C
2
6) coth x dx = n | sinh x | + C .
338
5 Squares of the Trigonometric Functions :

2
1) sin x dx = 1 [ x 1 sin 2x ] + C ,
2 2
2
2) cos x dx = 1 [ x + 1 sin 2x ] + C.
2 2
2
3) tan x dx = tan x x + C.
2
4) sec x dx = tan x + C,
2
5) csc x dx = cot x + C.
2
6) cot x dx = [cot x + x] + C.
6 Squares of the hyperbolic functions :
2
1) sinh x dx = 1 sinh 2x 1 x + C ,
4 2
2
1 1
2) cosh x dx = sinh 2x + x + C ,
4 2
2
3) tanh x dx = x tanh x + C.
2
4) sech x dx = tanh x + C,
2
5) csch x dx = coth x + C.
2
6) coth x dx = x coth x + C.
7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions:
x + 1 x 2 + C,
1 1
1) sin x dx = x sin
cos x dx = x cos x 1 x 2 + C,
1 1
2)
1 1 2
3) tan x dx = x tan x 1 n (1+x ) + C,
2
x n | x + x 2 1 |+ C,
1 1
4) sec x dx = x sec
csc x dx = x csc x + n | x + x 2 1 |+ C,
1 1
5)
1 1 2
6) cot x dx = x cot x + 1 n (1+x ) + C.
2
339
8 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions:

x 1 + x 2 + C,
1 1
1) sinh x dx = x sinh
cosh x dx = x cosh x x 2 1 + C,
1 1
2)
1 1 2
3) tanh x dx = x tanh x + 1 n (1x ) + C,
2
x + n | x + x 2 1 |+ C,
1 1
4) sech x dx = x sech
csch x dx = x csch x + n | x + 1 + x 2 |+ C,
1 1
5)
1 1 2
6) coth x dx = x coth x + 1 n (1x ) + C.
2
9 Other useful integrals:
1) sec x tan x dx = sec x + C,
2) csc x cot x dx = csc x + C,
3) sech x tanh x dx = sech x + C,
4) csch x coth x dx = csch x + C,
5) n x dx = x ( n x 1) + C,
dx 1 x
6) = sin + C , a >0,
2
a x 2 a
dx 1 x
7) = cos + C , a >0,
2
a x 2 a
dx 1 1 x
8) = tan +C,
2 2 a a
a +x
dx 1 1 x
9) = cot +C,
2 2 a a
a +x
dx 1 1 x
10) = sec +C;a>0,
2
x x a 2 a a
340
dx 1 1 x
11) = csc +C,
x x2 a2 a a
dx 1 x
12) = sinh +C,
x2 + a2 a
dx 1 x
13) = cosh +C,
x2 a2 a
dx 1 1 x 1 a+x
14) = tanh +C= n + C,
2
a x 2 a a 2a a x
dx 1 1 x 1 xa
15) = coth +C= n + C,
2
x a 2 a a 2a x + a
dx 1 1 x
16) = sech +C ,
x a2 x2 a a
dx 1 1 x
17) = csch + C,
x a2 + x2 a a
dx x2 a2
18) = + C,
2 2 2 2
x x a a x
dx a2 x2
19) = + C,
x 2 2
a x 2 a 2x
ax ax a cos bx + b sin bx
20) e cos b x dx = e + C,
2 2
a +b
ax ax a sin bx b cos bx
21) e sin bx dx = e + C.
2 2
a +b
341
10 Reduction Formulae:
dx 1 x dx
1) = + ( 2 n + 1) 2 ,
2 2 n +1 2
2 2 n 2 n
(x a ) 2na ( x a ) (x a )
dx x 1 dx
2) = + ( 2 n 1) 2 ,
2 2 n +1 2 2 2 n 2 n
(a x ) 2na (a x ) (a x )
n 1 n-1 n 1 n-2
3) sin x dx = sin x cos x + sin x dx, n 0 ,
n n
n 1 n-1 n 1 n-2
4) cos x dx = cos x sin x + cos x dx, n 0 ,
n n
n 1 n-2 n2 n-2
5) sec x dx = sec x tan x + sec x dx, n 1 ,
n 1 n 1

2 2
6) sin x dx = cos n x dx =
n
0 0
( n 1)( n 3 )... 5 .3 . 1 if n is an even integer
n ( n 2 )... 6 . 4 . 2 2
=

( n 1)( n 3 )... 6 . 4 . 2 if n is an o dd integer
n ( n 2 )... 5 . 3 . 1

2 m 1
7) Im,n = sin m x cos n x dx = Im-2,n , m 2 , n 0. or
0 m+n

2 n 1
8) Im,n = sin m x cos n x dx = Im,n-2 , n 2 , m 0.
0 m+n

Im,n = sin
2
m n
x cos x dx =
( ) ( n2+1 ) ,
m2+1
0 2 ( m + n + 2 )
2
where (n ) = (n 1)(n 1) , (n) = (n1)!, 1 = . (2 )
342
Substitutions:
Integrand containing Suggested substitution
x = a sin , a cos ;
1) a2 x2 x = a tanh z , a sech z .
x = a sinh z , a csch z ;
2) a2 + x2 x = a tan , a cot .
x = a cosh z , a coth z ;
3) x2 a2 x = a sec , a csc .
r
4) Expression containing x = z , where r is the L.C.M. of the
fractional powers of x denominators of the fractional indices.
2 2
5) x f(x ) x =z.
2
6) f(x & ax + b ) ax + b = z i.e z = ax+ b.
7)f(x & [ x a ][ x b] ) x b =z x-a.
8)f(x& [b x ][ x a ] ) bx =z x-a.
9) f( x & x 2 + bx + c ) x + x 2 + bx + c = z
In case of rational expressions of sin x and cos x
Use the substation
sin x
u= = tan x ,
1 + cos x 2
which implies that
1 u2 2u 2du
cos x = , sin x = ,dx = .
1+ u2 1+ u2 1+ u2
343
APPENDEX 7
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
1 Upper and Lower Riemann Sums:
i =n
Un = M1x1 + M2x2 + + Mn xn= M i x i ,
i =1
i =n
Ln = m1x1 + m2x2 + + mn xn= m i x i .
i =1
Ln Sn Un .
2 Properties Of Definite Integrals:
b b b
1) a f ( x )dx = a f(t) dt = a f(u) du , etc.
b a
2) a f ( x )dx = b f ( x )dx .
a
3) a f ( x )dx = 0 .
b c b
4) a f ( x )dx = a f ( x )dx + c f ( x )dx .
provided f(x) is integrable in [a , c] and [c , b].
b b
5) | a f ( x )dx | a f ( x ) dx , if a < b.
6) If m f(x) M in a x b , where m and M are
b
constants, then m (b a) a f ( x )dx M (b a).
b b
7) If f(x) g(x) in a x b , then a f ( x )dx a g( x )dx .
a a
8) 0 f ( x )dx = 0 f (a x )dx .

2 2
9) f (sin x ) dx = f (cos x ) dx .
0 0
344
3 Arc Length, Volume of a Solid and

Area of a Surface :
b b
L = 1 + [f ' ( x )] 2 dx = 1 + [ y' ] 2 dx ,
a a
dL = (dx ) 2 + (dy) 2 ,
t2 2 2 t2
d d 2 2
L = + dt = x + y dt ,
t1 dt dt t1
dx d dy d
where x = = , y = = .
dt dt dt dt
b
Volume of a Solid V = S( x ) dx .
a
The Volume of a Solid of Revolution:
b b
Vx = y 2 dx = [f(x)]2 dx ,
a a
where y = f (x) 0 is the given function.
d d
Vy = x 2 dx = [g(y)]2 dy ,
c c
where x = g (y) 0 is the given function.
The Area of a Surface of Revolution:
b b
S = 2 y dL = 2 y 1 + [y' ] 2 dx .
a a
345
4 Numerical Integration:
b (b a ) i=n
Left rectangle rule f ( x )dx f ( x i 1 ) =
a n i =1
(b a )
= [ f(x0)+ f(x1) + f(x2) + + f(xn-2) + f(xn-1)].
n
b (b a ) i = n
Right rectangle rule f ( x )dx f (x i ) =
a n i =1
(b a )
= [ f(x1) + f(x2) + f(x3) + + f(xn-1) + f(xn)].
n
Trapezoidal Rule.
b ba 1
f ( x )dx [ 2 f(x0) + f(x1) + f(x2)+ + f(xn-1) + 12 f(xn)].
a n
b
1 b a [ f(x )+ 2f(x ) +2 f(x ) ++2 f(x )+ f(x )].
f ( x )dx 2 0 1 2 n-1 n
a n
Simpsons Rule:
b ba
f ( x )dx [ f(x0) + 4 {f(x1) + f(x3) + f(x5) + + f(xn-1)}+
a 3 n
+2{ f(x2) + f(x4) + f(x6) ++ f(xn-2) } + f(xn) ].
Theorem:
If f is continuous on the interval [a , b], then there exist c1, c2 in [a
b
, b] such that the error in approximating f ( x )dx is precisely, for
a
(b a ) 3 (b a ) 5 (4)
the Trapezoidal Rule, f "(c1), and f (c2) for
12n 2 180n 4
Simpsons Rule.
346

Calculus for Engineers
By Dr. Mohamed Ismail
Mohamed Hessein
2000/9735

Calculus For Engineers

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Calculus

Dr. Mohamed Ismail Mohamed Hessein

In writing the book the actual mathematica1

This book consists of five chapters. Chapter 1

Even after the most careful checking it is quite

REVIEW OF FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Definition 1.3: ( Neighbourhoods )

definition consists of several separate parts the corresponding

real values of the function and then form inequalities which

(4) If c < 0, then graph y = c f(x) is a mirror image of the

y = f(x a), (2) y = b + f(x). (3) y = c f(x).

Even and Odd functions:

f(x) = f(x) x D f(x) = f(x) x D.

long as the values (x + n ) belong to the domain of

Figure 1.6 [periodic function f(x T) = f(x)]

Figure 1.7 (y = sin x + sin 2x )

A rational function is a quotient of two polynomial functions.

The domain of f + g , f g and f .g is the intersection of the

1) (x , y) is on the graph of f if and only if (y , x) is on the

f and f1 are reflections of each

those occasion when we want to express 1/f(x) using the exponent

In Chapter 3, 3.3, we studied increasing and decreasing

sin1x , for example, the function becomes single

Figure 1.11 (y = x 3/2 = x3 ) Figure 1.12 ( y = x )

Basic elementary functions:

The vertex of the parabola is situated at the point V( , ) .

one should be careful when constructing graphs: a negative

symmetry are the bisectors of the angles between the coordinate

hyperbola which can be obtained by a parallel translation of the

1.2 Special Types Of Functions:

Transcendental functions are functions which are not algebraic,

see the graphs of two exponential functions for a = 2 and a = 1 .

Most frequently we deal with the exponential function

functions for a = 1,1.2, 2 , 3, 4, 10 , and a = 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 .

Figure 1.22 Figure 1.23

Since 2 and 4 3 are not real number.

relation in terms of y, and substituting it into the second relation

Hence, the formulas for passing from the common (decimal)

calculation of common logarithms and natural logarithms. To

y = sin x, y = cos x, y = tan x, y = cot x , y = sec x and y = csc x,

Figure 1.28 (y = sin x )

graph (called the sinusoid) is obtained by shifting its part

Figure 1.30 ( y = cos x )

positive and increases indefinitely; as x decreases and approaches

from right the function y = tan x is negative and its absolute

Figure 1.31 ( y = tan x) Figure 1.32 ( y = cot x)

The range of the function y = tan x is ( , ). The graph of the

Most calculators have SIN , COS and TAN keys to

Figure 1.33 ( y = sec x) Figure 1.34 ( y = csc x)

In this book, angles are measured in radians unless

Some properties of trigonometric functions

Even functions Odd functions Odd functions

sin ( x) = cos x , cos ( x) = sin x ,

sin2 x + cos2 x = l , sec2 x tan2 x = l , csc2 x cot2 x = 1 .

tan x tan y cot x cot y 1

Since we may regard the values of the inverse

Figure 1.36 Figure 1.37 Figure 1.38 Figure 1.39

If x = sin y, then y = sin1 x = arcsin x is the inverse sine of x.

the inverse cosine of x. The inverse cosine function is also called

Since sin = 1 x 2 , cos = 1 x 2 , then

Figure 1.41(y = tan x ) Figure 1.42 ( y = arctan x )

On a calculator, the inverse sine function may be approximated by

tangent function y = tan1 x = arctan x ("arc tangent of x"). Its