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Seismic Hazards
Earthquakes have varied effects, including changes in
geologic features, damage to man-made structures and
impact on human and animal life.
Earthquake/Seismic Hazards These effects due to earthquakes are Seismic Hazards
Earthquake Damage depends on many factors:
The size of the Earthquake
The distance from the focus of the earthquake
The properties of the materials at the site
The nature of the structures in the area
9.4
9.2
9
Magnitude
8.8
8.6
8.4
Chile1906
8.2
7.8
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Source: wikipedia
Collapse of Buildings
Frequency of shaking differs for different seismic waves.
High frequency body waves shake low buildings more.
Low frequency surface waves shake high buildings more.
Intensity of shaking also depends on type of subsurface material.
Unconsolidated materials amplify shaking more than rocks do.
Buildings respond differently to shaking depending on the
construction styles and materials
-Wood is more more flexible, holds up well
-Earthen materials, unreinforced concrete are very
vulnerable to shaking.
Swaying of building
Shidhupalchwok,
La
a Conchita
ta, California
ia-- landslide and debris flow in1995 Source: wikipedia sunkoshi river
19
sindhupalchwok Naikap
24
Source: http://www.ce.washington.edu
Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction
Flow failures of structures are caused by loss of strength of Sand Boil: Ground water rushing to the surface due to
underlying soil liquefaction
25
Nishinomia Bridge 1995 Kobe earthquake, Japan
Sand boils in Gujarat earthquake
Sand boils that erupted during the 2011 Canterbury earthquake, New Zealand. Fissures caused by lateral spreading during Haiti earthquake
Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction
Lateral spreading in the soil beneath embankment causes the Liquefied soil exerts higher pressure on retaining
embankment to be pulled apart, producing the large crack down the walls,which can cause them to tilt or slide.
center of the road.
liquification
Source: wikipedia
Earthquake Destruction: Fire Earthquake Destruction: Fire
simultaneous catastrophic
losses on opposite sides of
ocean basins
Earthquake Destruction: Volanoes Earthquake Destruction: Volanoes
Source: wikipedia
Etna (Sicily)37
Geomorphological Changes
References
Geomorphological changes are often caused by an
earthquake: e.g., movements--either vertical or horizontal--
along geological fault traces; the raising, lowering, and tilting of Kramer (1996) Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall.
the ground surface with related effects on the flow of Robert W. Day (2002) Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering Handbook
groundwater; McGraw-Hill.
1 2
3 4
Nebular
Hypothesis
Origin of Our Solar System
Nebular Hypothesis: Earth and the other bodies of our
solar system (Sun, moons, etc.) formed from a vast cloud of
dust and gases called a nebula.
The nebular cloud consisted of H and He, and a small
percentage of the heavier elements we find in the solar
system.
Within the rotating disk, the rocky material and gases began
to nucleate and accrete into protoplanets
When Earth was formed, it was extremely hot from the Crust
bombardment of space debris, radioactive decay and high Continental crust (5-70 km)
internal pressures. These processes caused Earths interior to Oceanic crust (~6 km)
melt. Mantle
Molten Earth separated based on melting points and Upper mantle (650 km)
density into regions of chemical and physical differences as it
Lower mantle (2890 km)
cooled.
Core
Molten Iron & Nickel melted early and being more dense,
sunk to the center of the Earth. Solid Iron & Nickel formed Outer core: liquid (2260 km)
the Inner Core. Molten Iron & Nickel formed the Outer Core. Inner core: solid (1220 km)
Less dense solid material formed the Mantle. The least
dense rock at the surface cooled up completely as the Crust.
Values in brackets represent the approximate thickness of each layer
7 8
Layers of the Earth Layers of the Earth
The earth is divided
di id d into
i four
f main
i layers:
l Inner core, outer
core, mantle and crust.
The core is composed mostly of iron (Fe) and is so hot that the
outer core is molten, with about 10% sulphur (S). The inner
core is under such extreme pressure that it remains solid.
Most of the Earth's mass is in the mantle, which is composed
of iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), and
oxygen (O) silicate compounds. At over 1000C, the mantle is
solid but can deform slowly in a plastic manner.
The crust is much thinner than any of the other layers, and is
composed of the least dense calcium (Ca) and sodium (Na)
aluminum-silicate minerals. Being relatively cold, the crust is
Source: USGS public domain
rocky and brittle, so it can fracture in earthquakes.
9 10
What is an earthquake?
An earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by
the rapid release of accumulated energy in elastically
What is an earthquake? strained rocks
EEnergy
nergy released radiates
ra in all directions from its
source, the focus
Energy propagates in the form of seismic waves
SSensitive
ensit instruments around the world record the
event
11 12
What causes an earthquake?
Movement of Tectonic Plates
Earth is divided into sections called Tectonic
plates that float on the fluid-like interior of
What causes an earthquake? the Earth. Earthquakes are usually caused by
the sudden movement of earth plates
Rupture of rocks along a fault
Faults are localized areas of weakness in the
surface of the Earth,sometimes the plate
boundary itself
13 14
Source: http://www.topnews.in 15 16
Earthquake Terminology Release
R elease o
Sequenceoff A
Accumulated
ofccearthquake
umulated e
energy
nergy
events
Fault: Weakness in the rock
Fault Plane: Plane of weakness in rock
Rupture surface: The portion of the fault which slips when the
earthquake occurs
Hypocenter/Focus: The place located deep within the Earth
where rocks suddenly break, causing an earthquake, and from
where seismic waves propagate
Epicenter: The point of the earth's surface directly above the
focus of an earthquake
17 18
Alfred Wegener
21
Alfred Wegener 22
Source: wikipedia
Source: wikipedia
25 26
27 Source: http://geology12-8.wikispaces.com 28
Evidence for continental drift Evidence for continental drift
Matching
Matching
rock types
mountain
and ages
ranges
of rocks
Source: http://geology12-8.wikispaces.com
29 30
Source: http://geology12-8.wikispaces.com
Matching glacier
deposits 300
million years
ago Source: http://geology12-8.wikispaces.com
Fossils of of Mesosaurus
(aquatic reptile) found on
Source: http://geology12-8.wikispaces.com
31
both sides of Atlantic 32
Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics References
Earthquakes
h k are nott randomly
d l di distributed
t ib t d over th
the EEarth's
th' surface.
They are observed to be concentrated in specific zones. Volcanoes
and mountain ranges also found in these zones. Theory of plate Kramer, S.L. (1996) Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall.
tectonics which combines many of the ideas about continental Udias, A. (1999): Principles of Seismology, Cambridge University Press,
drift explains the reasons for these seismological activities. Cambridge.
Shearer, P. M. (1999): Introduction to Seismology, Cambridge University Press,
Plate tectonics tells us that the Earth's rigid outer shell Cambridge.
(lithosphere) is broken into a mosaic of oceanic and continental
Ben Menahem, A. and Singh, S. J. (1980): Seismic Waves and Sources,
plates which can slide over the plastic aesthenosphere, which is
Springer-Verlag, New York.
the uppermost layer of the mantle. The plates are in constant
motion. Where they interact, along their margins, important Cox, A. and Hart, R.B. (1986): Plate Tectonics - How it Works, Palo Alto,
geological processes take place, such as the formation of mountain California, Blackwell Scientific Publications, 392 p.
belts, earthquakes, and volcanoes.
33 34
Lecture-2
Theory of Plate tectonics
T theory of Plate tectonics was proposed
The propose in 1960s
based on the theory of continental drift.
TThis is the Unifying theory that explains the
PLATE TECTONICS formation and deformation of the Earths surface.
According to this theory, continents
A nts are carried
carri
rried along
alo
Part -II on huge slabs (p
(plates) on the Earths outermost layer
(Lithosphere).
Earthss outermost layer is divided into 12 major
Earth ma
Tectonic Plates ((~80
80 km deep). These
ese plates
plat
lates move
movve
relative to each other a few centimeters per year.
1 2
Evidence for plate tectonic movements
Tectonic plates of Earth
Wegeners theory of continental drift was not accepted initially
because Wegener could not propose a mechanism which could
explain the motion of continents.
Today plate tectonics and continental drift are accepted as facts
because of following evidences.
Matching coastlines of the continents
Matching mountain ranges and rock types and age of
opposite shorelines
Matching glacier deposits and fossils of opposite shores
Ocean floor spreading
Source: http://eqseis.geosc.psu.edu Geodetic measurements through satellites
3 4
Source: wikipedia 10 11
Types of plate boundaries Examples of plate boundaries
DIVERGENT - Midatlantic Ridge, Iceland, Gulf Of
California, East African Rift
12 13
Oceaaan-
Ocean n-continent
n continen
o
plates collide 2 oceanic plates collide
Ocean plate subducts
subdu One plate dives
below continent (subducts) beneath other
Forms a subduction Forms subduction zone
zone Earthquakes and
Earthquakes and volcanoes
volcanoes Source: USGS public domain
Source: USGS public domain
16 17
Himalayas:
alayas: Continen
Continent
nt-
n tt-continent
cont
co
Continent
nt-
t-continent convergent margin convergent margin
Millions of years ago India and an ancient
ocean called the Tethys were sat on a tectonic
T continental
Two continenta
plate. This plate was moving northwards
plates collide
p towards Asia at a rate of 10 centimeters per
Neither pl
plate wants to year. The Tethys oceanic crust was being
subduct subducted under the Asian Continent. The
ocean got progressively smaller until about 55
Collision zone forms
for milion years ago when India 'hit' Asia. Because
high
g mountains both these continental landmasses have about
Earthquakes, no
Earthquake the same rock density, one plate could not be
volcanoes subducted under the other. The pressure of
the impinging plates was relieved by the
Source: USGS public domain
formation of Himalayas
20 21
Source: USGS public domain
24 25
Lecture-3 Fault
A fracture (crack) in the earth, where the two sides move past each other and the
relative motion is parallel to the fracture.
PLATE TECTONICS
Part
rtt -II
-
Source: wikipedia
GLS YHUWLFDOIDXOWSODQH
1 VWULNH QRUWKSDUDOOHOIDXOWSODQH 2
Different Fault Types
Surface Trace of a fault
n)
shear)
3 4
Normal Dip
p-
p-slip fault Reverse Dip
p-
p-slip fault
Hanging wall moves up
hanging wall moves down This is also called a Thrust Fault.
5 6
Source: google images Source: google images
Strike
ke-
e-slip fault Strike
ke-
e-Slip Faultt Left Lateral
A strike-slip fault
7 8
Source: USGS public domain
Strike
ke-
e-Slip Faultt Right Lateral Oblique
e-
e-slip fault
An oblique-slip fault
9 10
Source: USGS public domain
Blind/Hidden faults Faults and Plate Boundaries
Normal faults are associated with divergent plate boundaries
11 12
Source: USGS public domain
13 14
Elastic Rebound Theory
Afterr the
t e gre
ggreat
eeatt 1906
1 6 San S n Fran FFrancisco
n
ncisco
earthquake, ke, H Harry
arry Fielding ng Re Reid
eid
examined edd the
t e dis displacement
d issplacemen enntt of
of the
t
ground surface
s rfaceacee aro aroundund d the San
Elastic Rebound Theory Andreas
Andr
ndrreass FFault
hee con
ault
cconcluded
nclude
lt.
t. FFrom
ded that
rom mh
thatt the
hiss ob
hi o
observations
bservations
thee earth
eearthquake
rth
hquauaake
mustt hahave
h avee been
b en n th tthe
hee result
r t ooff the
t
elasticc rreboun
rebound
und off pre previously
p evio ously
uslyy store
sstored
oreed
elasticc sstrainn ener
eenergy
errgyy in n tthehee rrocks
ockss o
o on
n
either side of the fault. fault lt. In an
lt
interseismic
interseis
eissmic period,, th thee Ea Earth's
arth s
platess move
m vee relatirrelative
tivee to o each
e h othero
exceptpt at most mostt plate latee boundaries
wheree theyy aree locked ed.
ed
15 16
Fault
to force and shift, they accumulate energy and slowly deform.
When the stresses exceed the internal strength of the ro roc
rock, a
sudden movement occurs along the fault, releasing the Original alignment
accumulated de energy, and the rocks snap back to their original of points
undeformed d shape.
This theory was discovered by making
king measurements
emen nts at a
number of points across a fault. Priorr to
t an earthquake
hquake
hq ke it was Final alignment of
noted that the rocks adjacent to the fault weree bending.
ng. The
These
hes points
Alignment of points
bends disappeared after an earthquake suggestingg tthat the after accumulation of
energy stored in be
bending the rocks was suddenly released during elastic strain
the earthquake.
18 19
Elastic Rebound Sequence of elastic rebound: Stresses
The animated picture shows a road, a fence, and a line of trees crossing a
fault. As the rocks adjacent to the fault are deformed, stresses build up in
rock, rupture occurs when the shearing stresses induced in the rocks
exceed the shear strength of the rock, followed by sudden slip, releasing Source: USGS public domain
22 23
Sequence of elastic rebound: Rebound Sequence of Elastic Rebound
Tectonic plates move relative to each other
Elastic strain energy builds up in the rocks along fault planes
Since fault planes are not usually smooth, great amounts of
energy can be stored (if the rock is strong enough) as
movement is restricted due to interlock along the fault.
Stresses (force/area) are applied to a fault.
Strain (deformation) accumulates in the vicinity of friction-
locked faults.
When the shearing stresses induced in the rocks on the fault
planes exceed the shear strength of the rock, rupture occurs.
Rupture continues over some portion of the fault. Slip is the
distance of displacement along a fault.
Source: USGS public domain
24 25
Seismic
ismic
c Wa
Waves
W av We distinguish between 4 types of waves, the
th body waves P and S,
and the surface waves, Love and Rayleigh.
Part
rt -II
Each wave travels with a characteristic
chara speed, and vibrates the
ground in a specific manner.
1 2
3 4
Source: www.gly.fsu.edu/salters/GLY1000
Earth With Increasing Density Towards the Center Actual Earth is Compositionally Layered
5 6
Source: www.gly.fsu.edu/salters/GLY1000 Source: www.gly.fsu.edu/salters/GLY1000
7 8
Earths major boundaries
) The inner core
Source: www.gly.fsu.edu/salters/GLY1000
Inner core
Source: wikipedia
9 Shadow Zone
e - no earthquake waves 10
Refraction
11 12
reflections The nature of seismic waves
refractions
T T
wave paths are bent when going deeper in Earth
higher pressure = higher wave speed
T T
higher rigidity = higher wave speed
13 14
15 16
S-waves cannot travel
through the outer
S-wave shadow zone
core, confirming that it
is liquid
S-wave shadow
zone much larger
19 20
Source: www.gly.fsu.edu/salters/GLY1000 Source: wikipedia
PP and SS waves reflected Variation of density in earths interior
at the surface without Density U kg/m3
reaching core 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 1400
0
PcP wave reflected off
mantle-core boundary
1000
km
PKP wave passes through
liquid outer core
2000
4000
5000
6000
21 22
Source: wikipedia
Source: wikipedia
25 1
If average speeds for all these waves is known, use the S-P (S minus P)
Locating an Earthquakes Epicenter time formula: a method to compute the distance (D) between a recording
station and an event.
Seismic wave behavior
P waves arrive first, then S waves, then L and R
Distance
After an earthquake, the difference in arrival times at a seismograph
Time
Velocity
station can be used to calculate the distance from the seismograph P wave has a velocity V P ; S wave has a velocity V S .
to the epicenter (D). VS is less than VP .
Both originate at the same place --the hypocenter.
They travel the same distance
but the S wave takes more time than the P wave.
D
Time for the S wave to travel a distance D: TS ;
VS
D
Time for the P wave to travel a distance D: TP .
VP
The time difference
1 1 V VS
TS TP
D D
VS VP
D D P
VS VP
VP VS
Now solve for the Distance D:
V V
D = P S TS TP
VP VS
2 3
Seismic
eismic Travel
Trave
el-
l-ttime
im
me Curve:
ve: IIf the speeds
p of the seismic waves arear
not known, use Travel el--Ti
Time
ime curve ffor that region to get the
Global Travel Time Curve distance
1. Measure time
between P and S
wave on
seismogram
2. Use travel-time
graph to get
distance to
epicenter
4) Overlapping point is The focus, then, must be somewhere along this sphere. If you come up
with two spheres, based on evidence from two different seismographs,
the event location.
you'll get a two-dimensional circle where they meet. Since the focus must
be along the surface of both spheres, all of the possible focus points are
D3
located on the circle formed by the intersection of these two spheres. A
Assumption: Source is third sphere will intersect only twice with this circle, giving you two possible
relatively shallow; focus points. And because the center of each sphere is on the earth's
epicenter is relatively surface, one of these possible points will be in the air, leaving only one
close to hypocenter. logical focus location.
6 7
Example Problem
Locating an Earthquakes Epicenter: Deep Source
8 9
37.5o
Seismograph Difference Distance
in arrival from 55.5 km
time of P epicenter
and S waves
37o
Latitude Latitude Longitude Longitude 't (sec) D (km)
37q2230 37.375q 121q5230 121.875q 7.97 47.8 44 km 44 km
37q4500 37.75q 122q2000 122.333q 3.87 23.2
37q5233 37.876q 121q4338 121.7272q 6.27 37.6
122.5o 122o 121.5o
Scale 1mm: 1 km
10 11
38o
19.99
2 3
55 mm 29.3 38 Distance of epicenter from 37.5o
41.36 latitude line = 28 mm
27.5
37.5o 111 mm = 1o
1 33
Latitude of epicenter
41.25
41.625
= 37.5+28/111 = 37.7522o
37o
37.5 = 37o 458
44 mm Distance of epicenter from 122o
longitude line = 8.5 mm
122.5o 122o 121.5o
88 mm = 1o
Scale 1mm: 1 km Longitude of epicenter
Seismograph 1 is at latitude 37.375o , 0.375o from 37o latitude line 37
= 122+8.5/88 =122.0966o
Exercise Problems
1. Assuming P and S wave traveled through the crust at 6 km/sec and References
3 km/sec respectively, estimate the possible location of the epicenter
P of a shallow earthquake if P forms an equilateral triangle with two
points A (10,10) and B (35, 10) on the ground surface. What is the
difference in the arrival time of P and S waves at A and B? Kramer, S.L. (1996) Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cN2FtHY3LyA (Demo video)
2. Two Seismographic stations A and B are located 200 km apart on
level ground. An earthquake occurred between these two stations http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UsIn3Czggpg
and the epicenter is located exactly on the line joining these two Activity:
stations. The difference in time between P and S wave arrivals was
http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/geophysics/activities/25073.ht
10 seconds at A and 15 seconds at B. Determine the location of
epicenter from these two stations. ml (Accessed on 27 March, 2012)
14 15
Lecture-11
Magnitude and Intensity
Intensity
y
How Strong Earthquake Feels to Observer
Qualitative assessment of the kinds of damage done by
an earthquake
Earthquake Intensity and Magnitude Depends on distance to earthquake & strength of
earthquake
Determined from the intensity of shaking and damage
from the earthquake
Magnitude
g
Related to Energy Release.
Quantitative measurement of the amount of energy
released by an earthquake
Depends on the size of the fault that breaks
1
Determined from Seismic Records 2
3 4
Intensity Scales
The first simple classification of earthquake intensity was devised by
Domenico Pignataro in the 1780s.
The first intensity scale in the modern sense of the word was drawn up
by Egen in 1828.
The first widely adopted intensity scale, the Rossi-Forel scale, was
introduced in the late 19th century. Since then numerous intensity scales
have been developed and are used in different parts of the world.
Among all the earthquake intensity scales, the Mercalli scale originated
with the widely used Rossi-Forel scale, which was revised by Italian
vulcanologist Giuseppe Mercalli in 1884 and 1906.
Unlike magnitude scales, intensity scales do not have a mathematical
basis. They are an arbitrary ranking based on observed effects.
Most of seismic intensity scales have twelve degrees of intensity.
Source: wikipedia
5 6
7 8
Source: USGS public domain
Seismogram Peak Amplitude Richter Scale
The magnitude of an earthquake is
determined from the logarithm of the
amplitude of waves recorded by
The peak amplitude is the size of the seismographs.
largest deflection from the zero line. Adjustments are included for the variation in
the distance between the various
seismographs and the epicenter of the
earthquakes.
On the Richter Scale, magnitude is
expressed in whole numbers and decimal
fractions. At first, the Richter Scale could be
applied only to the records from instruments Charles F. Richter
of identical manufacture. Now, instruments
are carefully calibrated with respect to each Source: wikipedia
other. Thus, magnitude can be computed
from the record of any calibrated
seismograph.
9 10
11 12
Richters Local Magnitude
Logarithmic Scales
Richter used these observations to construct the first
magnitude scale, ML (Richters Local Magnitude for
Southern California). In a logarithmic scale such as magnitude
13 14
15 16
Wood-Anderson Seismometer Richters Magnitude Scale
Richter also tied his formula to a specific seismic instrument called Wood-
Anderson seismometer.
Only valid for Southern California
earthquakes
Only valid for one specific type of
seismometer
Has not been used by professional
seismologists in decades
Is much abused by the press today
17 18
Source: Richter (1958)
21 22
23 24
Magnitude Saturation
Magnitude saturation, is a general
phenomenon for approximately Mb > 6.2
and Ms > 8.3.
25 26
Mo = A*D*
Rigidity
ityy - th
tthe
he physical property of b
being
stiff and resisting bending
Moment Magnitude
Standard Rigidity of the Earths crust = 3x1010N/m2
The moment magnitude scale is a way of representing the seismic
moment of an earthquake with a simple, logarithmic numerical scale.
The scale is designed to dovetail with the original Richter magnitude
scale that was designed for smaller earthquakes .
31 32
Moment Magnitude
Moment-Magnitude Scale
Seismic Moment = Strength of Rock x Fault Area x Total amount of
Slip along Rupture
M0 = P A D
33 34
35 36
Seismic Energy Local Magnitude
e - Seismic Energy correlation
Both the magnitude and the seismic moment are related to the
amount of energy that is radiated by an earthquake. Gutenberg
and Richter (1956) developed a relationship between magnitude
and energy. Their relationship is:
Gujarat (2001)
Source: wikipedia
41 42
Exercise Problems
Solution:
1. On December 16, 1920, an earthquake measuring 8.6 on the
Mo = A*D* Richter scale hit Gansu, a province in China. Twelve years later, an
earthquake measuring 7.6 hit Gansu. How much stronger was the
Mo = (80 x 103) x (23 x 103) x (2.5) x (175 x 103) 1920 earthquake? How much more energy did the 1920
= 8.05 x 1014 N-m earthquake release compared with the second earthquake?
= 8.05 x 1021 dyne-cm
43 44
Lecture-12
References
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/measure.php . (Accessed on 30
March 2012)
http://eqseis.geosc.psu.edu/~cammon/HTML/Classes/IntroQuakes/Notes
/earthquake_size.html (Accessed on 30 March 2012)
45 1
2 3
Measuring ground motion Seismogram interpretation
Seismographs are used to measure the Seismograms can provide
ground motion. Seismogram is the information on
output from the seismograph. It is a location of epicenter
p
record of the ground motion at a magnitude of
measuring station as a function of time. earthquake
q
Seismograms typically record motions source p properties
p
in three cartesian axes (x, y, and z),
Most seismograms rec record
with the z axis perpendicular to the P,, S & surface waves
Earth's surface and the x- and y- axes
First arrival is P wave - surface waves follow and may
parallel to the surface. Three inertial continue for tens of seconds
seismometers are commonly used in After a pause of several
seconds/10s of seconds - surface waves are slower but
one instrument housing to measure the higher amplitude
amp S persist to greater distances than
up-down, east-west, north-south wave arrives P & S waves
motions simultaneously. 4 5
height
heig
eigghtt of
of a wave
w e above Early seismometers used optical levers or mechanical linkages to amplify
itss zeroo position T= 1/f
the small motions involved, recording on photographic paper.
Wave period
A Modern instruments use electronic sensors, amplifiers, and recording
time taken to complete
complet
time, t devices. Most are broadband covering a wide range of frequencies. These
one cycle of motion
seismometers can measure motions with frequencies from 500 Hz to
Frequency 1/850 Hz.
number of cycles per
Seismometers spaced in an array can also be used to precisely locate, in
second (Hertz)
three dimensions, the source of an earthquake, using the time it takes for
human ear can detect
frequencies
freq
req
equuencies in range A= amplitude seismic waves to propagate away from the hypocenter, the initiating
15-
155-20000 Hz point of fault rupture
T= Period
felt shaking during
quake has frequencies
frequencie f = frequency
from 20 down to 1
Hertz
6 7
Vertical Benioff Seismometer Ground Motion Recording
The actual ground motion at a given
Consists of Black aluminium location is derived from instrumentally
cylinder cover: Diameter 26 cm; recorded motions. The most commonly
Height 49.5 cm. used instruments for engineering
The outside case is latched to purposes are strong motion
prevent air currents . accelerographs/ accelerometers. These
instruments record the acceleration time
Internal mass is supported on a history of ground motion at a site, called
central spring. an accelerogram.
Works on the principle of magnet- Digital strong motion accelerograph
coil relative motion to generate
electric current used to displace a
galvanometer (ink or light source) By proper analysis of a recorded accelerogram to account for instrument
writing to a drum recorder for distortion and base line correction, the resulting corrected acceleration record can
earthquake recording (in the be used by engineers to obtain ground velocity and ground displacement by
traditional way) or digitized to a file appropriate integration.
today.
8 9
Geophone Geophone
Geophones (velocity transducers) are used to measure the Traditional geophones consist of a magnetized mass fixed to
seismic wave velocities. They transform the mechanical wave the container and a surrounding coil suspended by springs.
energy to electrical voltage and the response is captured with Natural frequency is controlled by the mass and spring
time to obtain the velocity of seismic waves constant.
Response curve is the plot of the electric voltage output from
g with different wave frequencies.
a geophone as it changes q
14 15
Micro Electronic
nic Mechanical
Mechan Systems
Array of Geophones (MEMS)
Micro Electronic Mechanical Systems (MEMS) are a recently
developed device providing Broad-Band Sensing. MEMS are
micro fabricated non-laser passive components. These are about
1 to 10 microns in size, which is smaller than the width of a human
hair. Most of the traditional moving coil type geophones are now
being replaced by MEMS.
Vertical component geophones Velocity Sensitive
18 19
20 21
References
Strong motion seismographs
Kramer (1996) Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall.
http://www.iris.edu/stations/seisWorkshop04/iris_sensor_ws_9.19.05.pdf
(Accessed on 30 March 2012)
The Global Seismographic Network (GSN) is a 150+ station, globally distributed, Patrick, Walter L. (2006)The History of the Accelerometer 1920s-1996
state-of-the-art digital seismic network providing free, realtime, open access. The Prologue and Epilogue, Available at
map above shows the distribution of the current 150 station network with respect http://www.sandv.com/downloads/0701walt.pdf (Accessed on 30 March
to network operations. 2012)
22 23
Lecture-13
Ground Motion Parameters
An earthquake history can be described using Amplitude, Frequency
content, and Duration.
Ground Motion
nP Pa
Parameters
a Amplitude: The most common measures of amplitude are
PGA: Peak ground acceleration (Horizontal- PHA & Vertical- PVA)
Part
rt -I EPA: Effective peak acceleration
PGV: Peak ground velocity ( PHV & PVV)
EPV: Effective peak velocity
PGD: Peak ground displacement
1 2
It is the most important strong motion parameter. In a The response of such system for shaking is given by
stiff structure, the maximum value of the induced w 2u wu
m 2 c k u m ug 0
force is equal to PGA u Mass wt wt
Where u is the trace displacement (relative displacement
between seismograph and ground), ug is the ground
displacement, c is the damping coefficient, k is the stiffness
3 4
coefficient.
Measurement of ground acceleration Amplitude Parameters
If the ground displacement is simple harmonic at a circular
frequency Zg , the ground acceleration amplitude is
calculated from the trace displacement amplitude using
the equation: u 1
w ug
2
Z 2
0 1 E
2 2
4[ 2 E 2
wt 2
Where Z0 is the undamped natural circular frequency
Source: Kramer (1996)
E is tuning ratio, given by Zg/ Z0 From the time histories of acceleration, velocity and
[ Is damping ratio, given by c displacement are obtained by integrating the acceleration
2 km records. All other amplitude parameters are calculated from
these time histories.
5 6
PGA = 0.106 g
PGA = 0.08 g
PGA = 0.07 g
Fourier Amplitude
Predominant Period (Tp): Period of GM1
describes the maximum
response of a structure or a vibration corresponding to the maximum GM2
machine to a particular input value of the Fourier amplitude spectrum.
motion as a function of This parameter represents the frequency
frequency and damping ratio.
content of the motion.
Tp
The seismic response spectra
from two sites (one rock and The predominant period for two Period
the other soil) for the same different ground motions (GM1 & GM2) Tp is same for the two
earthquake motion are with different frequency contents can be ground motions, though
shown in figure. From the same, making the estimation of the frequency content is
figure, it is very clear that the different
response of soil and rock is
frequency content crude.
quite different for the same Source: Kramer (1996)
vibration.
Response spectra with 5% damping
19 20
Predominant Period Duration
Duration of an earthquake
thquake is very important
importa parameter that
influences the amount of damage due to earthquake. A strong
motion of very high amplitude of short duration may not cause
as much damage to a structure as a motion with moderate
amplitude with long duration can cause. This is because the
ground motion with long duration causes more load reversals,
which is important in the degradation of stiffness of the
structures and in building up pore pressures in loose saturated
soils.
Duration Duration
The duration of an earthquake history is somewhat dependent on
the magnitude of the earthquake. Figure below shows Bracketed duration is the measure of time between the first
accelerograms from six earthquakes off the Pacific coast of Mexico. and last exceedence of a threshold acceleration 0.05 g.
The epicentral distance was the same for all six earthquakes.
23 24
Source: Kramer (1996)
Bracketed Duration References
http://webshaker.ucsd.edu/homework/Ground_motion_parameters.pdf
Source: Kramer (1996)
(Accessed on 30 March 2012)
Variation of Bracketed Duration (0.05 G Threshold) With Magnitude Download free software for the estimation of ground motion parameters :
And Epicentral Distance: (A) Rock Sites; (B) Soil Sites
http://www.seismosoft.com/en/SeismoSignal.aspx
25 26
Lecture-14
Other Spectral Parameters
RMS acceleration : This is the parameter that includes the effects of
amplitude and frequency, defined as
Ground Motion
on
nP Parameters
a arms
1 Td
>a t @ dt
2
Td 0
Part
rt -II Where a(t) is the acceleration over the time domain and Td is the duration of
strong motion
AI - The Arias Intensity is a measure of the total energy at the recording
station and is proportional to the sum of the squared acceleration. It is
defined as
S 2
>at @
f
AI dt
2g 0
1 2
Other Spectral Parameters Other Spectral Parameters
Bandwidth
d id h BW - off the
h ddominant
i ffrequency; measured
d where
h the
h amplitude
li d
SI - The Spectrum Intensity is defined as the integral of the psuedo-Spectral
falls to 0.707 (1 /2) of the amplitude of the dominant frequency. Again, this is
velocity curve (also known as the velocity response spectrum), integrated
based on a smoothed amplitude spectrum.
between periods of 0.1 - 2.5 seconds. These quantities are motivated by the
need to examine the response of structures to ground motion, as many
structures have fundamental periods between 0.1 and 2.5 sec. The SI can be
calculated for any structural damping ratio.
Dominant frequency of ground motion (F_d) is defined as the frequency
corresponding to the peak value in the amplitude spectrum. Thus, F_d indicates Amax
Fourier Amplitude
the frequency for which the ground motion has the most energy. The amplitude
spectrum has to be smoothed before determining F_d.
(1/2) Amax
Band
Period
3 4
5 6
Why is PHA important? Why vertical accelerations are not very
important?
PHA is the most important strong motion Structures have gravity acting against vertical
parameter. accelerations due to earthquake. Static forced
induced due to gravity provide adequate resistance
In a stiff structure, the maximum value of to dynamic forces induced due to vertical
the induced force is equal to PHA u Mass accelerations during earthquake.
PVA | 2/3 PHA
Earthquake force is directly related to the PVA > 2/3 PHA near epicenter
magnitude and intensity.
PVA < 2/3 PHA at distances far from epicenter
7 8
time time
11 12
13 14
Vmax/amax Estimation of Ground Motion Parameters
Ground motion parameters are usually estimated through predictive
Vmax/amax = T/2 p relationships. These relationships express ground motion parameter in
terms of the quantities that affect it strongly.
Time Period T = 2 p Vmax/amax Predictive relationships play important role in seismic hazard analysis.
This is the period of vibration of equivalent The functional form of the predictive relationship is usually selected to
reflect the mechanism of the ground motion process as closely as
harmonic wave. It produces information about possible
which periods of the ground motions are more
This minimizes the number of empirical coefficients and allows to apply
significant. Hence T is called predominant the relationship with greater confidence to ground conditions that are
period poorly represented in the database.
Site Vmax/amax T Predictive relationships are often arrived at by the regression analysis of
the available strong motion data
Rock 0.056 0.35
These relationships have to be updated time to time after major
Stiff soil 0.112 0.7 earthquakes in the region.
Soft soil 0.2 1.25 15 16
19 20
21 22
Solution Exercise Problems
0.60
PHA = 0.49 g 1. If an earthquake is recorded at four equally spaced locations along a
PVA = 2/3 PHA = 0.327 g
0.50 Bracketed duration = 2.7-0.3 = 2.4 sec straight line, show the variation of all the following parameters along
vmax = 48.31cm/sec
predominant period = 2 S vmax/amax = 0.63 sec the straight line if the epicenter lies on the straight line, dividing it into
(amax = 0.49 g = 480.69 cm/sec2)
0.40
sustained max. acceleration ( 3cycle) = 0.2 g (3rd two equal parts
highest)
maximum displacement = 35.04 cm
0.30
(a) Magnitude (b) PHA (c) Duration (d) Predominant period
0.20
2. Obtain the time-acceleration response for any earthquake.
0.10
Determine the bracketed duration, predominant period and Arias
0.05 g intensity
0.00
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0.05 g 3.5
3. Download the software Seismosignal, which is a freeware. Analyze
-0.10 any earthquake record in the program and obtain all possible ground
2nd exceedence of
-0.20
1st exceedence of
motion parameters.
-0.30 2
1 cycle
-0.40
3
23 24
Lecture-15
References
Kramer (1996) Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall.
Iyengar, R.N. and Raghu kanth, S.T.G. (2004) Attenuation of Strong Ground
Motion in Peninsular India. Seismological Research Letters, 75(4), 530-540
Sharma, M. L. (2000) Attenuation relationship for estimation of peak ground
vertical acceleration using data from strong motion arrays in India. 12th World Deterministic Seismic Hazard Analysis
conference on Earthquake Engineering, New Zealand, 1964/ 4 / A, pp1-8.
Stein, S. and Wysession, M. (2003). An introduction to seismology, earthquakes,
and earth structure, Blackwell Science.
http://webshaker.ucsd.edu/homework/Ground_motion_parameters.pdf
(Accessed on 30 March 2012)
Download free software for the estimation of ground motion parameters :
http://www.seismosoft.com/en/SeismoSignal.aspx
25 1
Seismic Hazard Analysis Seismic Hazard Analysis
Seismic hazard analysis is concerned with getting an estimate of the strong- DSHA
motion parameters at a site for the purpose of earthquake resistant In the deterministic approach, the strong-motion parameters are
design or seismic safety assessment. estimated for the maximum credible earthquake, assumed to occur
For generalized applications, seismic hazard analysis can also be used to at the closest possible distance from the site of interest, without
prepare macro or micro zoning maps of an area by estimating the strong- considering the likelihood of its occurrence during a specified
motion parameters for a closely spaced grid of sites. exposure period.
1. Deterministic seismic hazard Analysis (DSHA) Probabilistic approach integrates the effects of all the earthquakes
expected to occur at different locations during a specified life period,
2. Probabilistic seismic hazard analysis (PSHA) with the associated uncertainties and randomness taken into
account.
2 3
4
Deterministic seismic hazard analysis
9
Deterministic seismic hazard analysis Deterministic seismic hazard analysis
Identification
Point source
All sources capable of producing significant ground motion at the site Site
Constant source-site distance
Large sources at long distances
Volcanoes, distant short faults
Small sources at short distances
Linear source
Characterization Source
One parameter controls distance
Definition of source geometry
Shallow, distant fault
Establishment of earthquake potential
Site
10 11
Site
Source 12 13
Deterministic seismic hazard analysis Deterministic seismic hazard analysis
14 15
M2
16 17
Active Fault
18
20 21
Magnitude Indicators Magnitude Indicators
Scatter inherent in databases used by Wells and Coppersmith (1994) in Comparison of several empirical relationships used to find the maximum
developing the correlations. magnitude from
(a) the fault rupture length and (b) the fault rupture area
Diagonal lines in figure correspond to the equation. Data points represent actual
Major tectonic features and the distribution of epicenters of available data
earthquakes 24 25
on past earthquakes in a typical segment of the Himalayan region
Theoretical Determination of Mmax Theoretical Determination of Mmax
26 27
R2
M2
28 29
Selection of controlling earthquake Selection of controlling earthquake
30 31
32 33
Steps in DSHA: Summary
Theoretical Determination of Mmax for
R3 Himalayas
R1 From west to east, the entire Himalaya has a length of about 2500 km,
M3 M1 M3 and the width of the associated seismic source is about 100 km.
M1
The source of major earthquakes along the Himalaya has been
R2
postulated as a gently dipping detachment plane, north of the main
boundary fault (MBF), at a depth of about 20 to 30 km.
M2 M2 Thus, the total rupture plane of the Himalaya has an area A of about
2.5 x 105 km2.
The shear modulus, for the Himalayan rocks can be taken as 3.4 x
(i) 1011 dyne/cm2.
(ii)
Y1
Y
2
Y .
.
Yn
34 35
(iii) (iv)
36
Example Problem Solution
The site show in Figure below is located near four active faults. Fault A is a 1. There are total 6 fault segments to be considered. Fault B has three
normal fault, faults B ad C are strike-slips faults and fault D is a reverse segments (B1, B2 and B3)
fault. The coordinates of the site and faults given in the figure are in km.
2. The closest distance of the fault segment from the site (R) is computed.
Assuming that only linear segment can rupture in an individual event,
determine the anticipated peak acceleration at the site. 3. Length of each fault segment is calculated
4. Maximum magnitude associated with each fault is obtained from the
empirical relationships given by wells and coppersmith (1994) for the
particular fault type given in the problem.
5. Peak acceleration is obtained by predictive relationship of Cornell et al.
(1979)
ln PHA (gals) = 6.74 + 0.859 M 1.80 ln (R+25) (R in km)
40 km
Calculations indicate that the peak acceleration site is 0.647 g produced by
an earthquake of magnitude 6.4 at site C.
Lecture-16
References
DSHA PSHA
Why PSHA?
Assumes single scenario Assumes many scenarios
Because there is lot of
Selects single magnitude for each Considers all magnitudes associated
uncertainty involved in the
seismic source with all seismic sources
time of occurrence, magnitude
Selects the closest distance between Considers all possible distances and size of the earthquakes
the source and site between source and site
Assumes effects due to magnitude Considers all effects
and distance
Source Source
Site Site
and R. fR(r) = ?
r r
rmin rmax rmin rmax
8 9
1 2 3 4 5 6
12 13
NM log N M log OM
log OM log OM
10 a
- 0
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Neglecting events below minimum magnitude, mo Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Om = Qexp[- E(m - mo)] for m > mo (McGuire and Arabasz, 1990)
where Q= exp[D- Emo].
FM (m) = P[M<m| M>m0] = (Om0 Om)/ Om0 = 1-exp (-E(m-m0)) Bounded G-R
Then,The resulting probability distribution of magnitude for the Gutenberg-Richter law logm Recurrence Law
with lower bound can be expressed in terms of the cumulative distribution function (CDF):
Paleoseismicc investigations
Show similar displacements in each earthquake
27
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis Predictive relationships
Distribution of earthquake magnitudes Standard error use to evaluate conditional probability
Characteristic Earthquake Recurrence Law
Seismicity data ln Y
lnY
M=M*
Geologic data
Mmax M
R=R* log R
29
30
Lecture-17 Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Temporal uncertainty
Poisson process- describes number of occurrences of an event
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard during a given time interval or spatial region.
1. The number of occurrences in one time interval are
Analysis (PSHA) Part II independent of the number that occur in any other time
interval.
2. Probability of occurrence in a very short time interval is
proportional to length of interval.
3. Probability of more than one occurrence in a very short
time interval is negligible.
1 2
=1- P[N=0]
=1- e-t
3
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
5 6
Poisson model
7 8
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
A BB
B5
B4 P[Y > y*] = P [Y >y*|m, r] fM (m)fR (r)dmdr
9 10
11 12
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
probability of occurrence
Oy * vi P [Y ! y* | m , r ] f
j k Mi (m j )f Ri (rk )'m'r
Ns N M N R
i 1 j 1 k 1
Oy * vi P [Y ! y* | m , r ] P[M
j k m j ]P[R rk ]
This expression can be written, equivalently as i 1 j 1 k 1
Y = Y*
ln Y
r1 r2 log R
r3
rN
15 16
17 18
END
19 20
21 22
log TR
log amax
amax amax
23 24
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Using seismic hazard curves Contribution of sources Using seismic hazard curves Contribution of sources
Combining uncertainties- Can develop seismic hazard Can develop seismic hazard
b b l computations
probability curves for different ground curves for different ground
motion parameters motion parameters
Peak acceleration Peak acceleration
Total
Special accelerations Special accelerations
log amax
log amax
Other
log TR
log TR
Other
Choose desired value Choose desired value
Read corresponding parameter Read corresponding parameter
values from seismic hazard curves values from seismic hazard curves
amax, Sa amax, Sa
25 26
175km 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01 175km 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.00
0.01 0.00
200km 0.00 0.00 0.00 200km 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
27 28
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Logic tree methods
Attenuation Magnitude
m Model Distribution Mmax
Logic tree methods
Not all uncertainty can be described by probability distributions 7.0 (0.2)
G-R 7.2 (0.6)
(0.7) 7.5 (0.2)
Most appropriate model may not be clear BJF
7.0 (0.2)
Attenuation relationship (0.5) Char 7.2 (0.6)
Magnitude distribution (0.3) 7.5 (0.2)
29 30
31 32
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Logic tree methods Logic tree methods
33 34
35 36
37 38
Lecture-18
Recommended Reading
39 1
Solution
Example Problem 1
Site B
The hypothetical vertical fault segment shown in Fig.1 is represented as a quarter- 12km
circle. On the same graph, plot histograms of expected epicentral distance for
Fault
motions at site A and site B assuming:
(a) Earthquakes are equally likely to occur at any point on the fault segment. N
30km
(b) Earthquakes are twice as likely to occur at the midpoint of the fault segment as
at either end and the likelihood is linearly distributed between the midpoint
and the ends.
Site A
30km 12km
Site B
12km
(a)Uniform distribution
Fault
Fig 1 N P
30km
1/90
Area =1
0 90
Site A
30km 12km
2 3
Solution Solution
Site B Histogram
Uniform distribution
Frequency
(b)Non-uniform distribution
P
Frequency
Frequency
Uniform/Non-uniform
distribution
30km 45km
30km Distance
Distance 4 5
Example Problem 2 Solution
3-4 1800
t= 80 years
4-5 150
Mw>3, Nm = 1962, m=24.525/year
5-6 11
log m = 1.390
>6 1
Solution Solution
logM=4.6782-1.096x logM=4.6782-1.096x
logM
logM
M M
(b ) P [5.5 d M d 6.7]M ! M 0
(a) From the plot of M vs log OM, Gutenberg-Richter
parameters for the region are: P [ M d 6.5 | M ! M 0 ] P [ M d 5.5 | M ! M 0 ]
F orM 0 3
a = 4.6782 P [5.5 d M d 6.5 | M ! 3]
b = 1.096 P [ M d 6.5 | M ! M 0 ] P [ M d 5.5 | M ! M 0 ]
[1 e 2 .303 u 1 .096 u ( 6 .5 3 ) ] [1 e 2.303 u 1.096 u ( 5.5 3 ) ]
0.00167 %
8 9
Solution Example Problem 3
The seismicity of a particular region is described by the Gutenberg-Ritcher
recurrence law:
log m=4.0-0.7M
logM=4.6782-1.096x
logM
(a) What is the probability that at least one earthquake of magnitude
greater than 7.0 will occur in a 10-year period? In a 250-year period?
0.0017
10 11
Solution Solution
(b) P[N=1]= t e-t
log m =4.0- 0.7M T=10years, P = 0.357
(a) P[N n]
Ot n Ot
e T=50years, P= 0.012
n! T=250years, P=7x10-13
log TR R
log T
log amax
= 0.049
log TR
log amax
= 4.9%
14 15
log TR
Use seismic hazard curve to find
log amax
log TR
amax =0.21g
amax =0.21g
16 17
Way of applying horizontal load
1. Simply apply a single concentrated 3. Apply lateral forces in proportion to the product ofstory
horizontal force at the top ofthe structure. masses andfirst mode shape of the elastic model of the structure
(i.e., F, = [wxlf>x/Lwxt/Jx]V). The capacity
(Would generally only apply to a one-story curve is generally constructed to represent the first mode
building.) response ofthe structure based on the assumption that the
(2.) Apply lateral forces to each story in fundamental mode of vibration is the predominant response of
the structure. This is generally valid for buildings with
proportion to the standard code procedure fundamental periods of vibration up to about one second.
without the concentrated F, at the top (i.e., 4. Same as Level 3 until first yielding, For each increment beyond
F, = [wrhx/Lwxhx]V). yielding, adjust the forces to be consistent with the changing
deflected shape.
Per ATC 40
V=Base shear
W=building dead weight+llikely live load
roof= roof displacement (V and roof makde up points on the capacity
curve)
1= modal mass coefficient for the first natural mode
PF1=modal participation factor for the first natural mode.
Refer-ATC-40(pg 8-14)
Use of Pushover Curve (FEMA-273)
C1 = 1
- depends on Performance Level
Spectral
Force Measure
else
C3 = 1 +[ |D|(R-1)3/2 ]/Te Performance Limits
(IO, LS, CP)
Deformation Measure
SAP2000/ETABS Pushover Options
Use of Pushover Curve
SAP2000 released September, 1998
Do these methods work?
Full 3D implementation
Comparisons with: Single model for
- Nonlinear time history analysis - linear static analysis
- Single degree of freedom systems - linear response spectrum analysis
- Multi-degree of freedom systems - linear time history analysis
- Observed damage - nonlinear time history analysis
How do they compare with each other? - nonlinear static pushover analysis
- steel and concrete design
Force
- Shells, Solids, etc. considered linear
- Panel zone (later)
E F
- 3D column (Fiber hinge) (later) A
THE END
SEISMIC STRENGTHENING STRATEGY AND SEISMIC RETROFITTING
Preliminary Evaluation OPTIONS
Basic issues that might raise while retrofitting the buildings are:
Configuration Related check Socio-cultural issues
Strength-related Checks Heritage sites
Economic issues
Evaluation statements Cost of demolition & rubble removal
Cost of reconstruction
Condition Assessment of Building(NDT and Real state
Built-up area vs. carpet area
DT) Technical issues
Type of structural system
Construction materials
Site
Damage intensity level
Legal issues
5. Diaphragm Strengthening
Most of the concrete buildings have adequate diaphragms
except when there occur large openings. Methods of
enhancing diaphragms include the provision of topping slabs,
metal plates laminated onto the top surface of the slab, or
horizontal braced diaphragms beneath the concrete slabs.
b. Strengthening of original structural elements:
Slabs
Primarily, slabs of floor structures have to carry vertical gravity loads. 5. Infill Partition wall
However, they must also provide diaphragm action and be compatible with
all lateral resistant element of the structure. Therefore, slab must possess Generally, infilled partition walls in concrete framed buildings
the necessary strength and stiffness. Damages in slabs generally occur due are unreinforced although it is highly desirable to be reinforced
to large openings, insufficient strength and stiffness, poor detailing, etc. in seismic region like Nepal. Infilled partition walls in concrete
Strengthening of slab can be done by thickening of slabs in cases of framed buildings often sustain considerable damage in an
insufficient strength or stiffness. For local repairs, injections should be
earthquake as they are relatively stiff and resist lateral forces,
applied for repair of cracks. Epoxy or cement grout can be used.
often they were not designed to resit, until they crack or fail.
Damage may consist of small to large cracks, loose bricks or
blocks or an infill leaning sideways. Damage may also result in
Section 2
the concrete frame members and joints which surrounds the
Section 1 infilled wall.
The effect of strengthening an infilled wall must be considered
Fig: Increasing Slab Thickness by analysis on the surrounding elements of the structure.
Infilled walls are extremely stiff and effective in resisting lateral
forces, but all forces must be transferred through the concrete
elements surrounding the infilled walls.
6. Foundation
Retrofitting of foundation is often required when the strength of foundation is
insufficient to resist the vertical load of the structure. Strengthening of
foundations are difficult and expensive construction procedure. It should be
performed in the following cases:
Excessive settlement of the foundations due to poor soil conditions. Damage in
the foundation structure caused by seismic overloading. Increasing the dead load
as a result of the strengthening operations. Increasing the seismic loading due to
changes in code provisions or the strengthening operations. Necessity of
additional foundation structure for added floors.
1. Base Isolation
c. Reducing Earthquake Demands This approach requires the insertion of compliant bearing within a single level of
Rather than modifying the capacity of the building to withstand the buildings vertical load carrying system, typically near its base. The bearings are
earthquake-induced forces and deformations, this strategy involves designed to have relatively low stiffness, extensive lateral deformation capacity
modification of the response of the structure such that the and may also have superior energy dissipation characteristics. Installation of an
demand forces and deformations are reduced. Irregularities related isolation system results in a substantial increase in the buildings fundamental
to distribution of strength, stiffness and mass result poor seismic response period and, potentially, its effective damping. Since the isolation bearings
performance. The methods for achieving this strategy include have much greater lateral compliance than does the structure itself, lateral
reductions in the buildings mass and the installation of systems for deformation demands produced by the earthquake tend to concentrate in the
base isolation and/or energy dissipation. The installation of these bearings themselves. Together these effects result in greatly reduced lateral
special protective systems within a building typically entails a demands on the portion of the building located above the isolation bearings.
significantly larger investment than do more- conventional
approaches. However, these special systems do have the added
benefit of providing for reduced demands on building contents.
2. Energy Dissipation Systems
Energy dissipation systems directly increase the ability of the structure to dampen 3.0 Mass Reduction
earthquake response in a benign manner, through either viscous or hysteretic damping.
The performance of some buildings can be greatly improved by reducing the
This approach requires the installation of energy dissipation units (EDUs) within the
lateral force resisting system. The EDUs dissipate energy and in the process reduce the
building mass. Building mass reductions reduce the buildings natural
displacement demands on the structure. The installation of EDUs often requires the period, the amount of inertial forces that develops during its response,
installation of vertical braced frames to serve as a mounting platform for the units and and the total displacement demand on the
therefore, typically results in a simultaneous increase in system stiffness. Energy structure. Mass can be reduced by removing heavy nonstructural
dissipation systems typically have greater cost than conventional systems for stiffening elements such as cladding, water
tanks, storage, heavy antenna, etc. In the extreme, mass reduction can be
attained by removing one or more building stories.
The End
1. Principle of Retrofitting
a.CONCEPT OF RETROFITTING:
Retrofitting is technical interventions in structural system of a building that
improve the resistance to earthquake by optimizing the strength, ductility and
earthquake loads.
Strength of the building is generated from the structural dimensions,
materials, shape, and number of structural elements, etc.
Ductility of the building is generated from good detailing, materials used,
degree of seismic resistant, etc.
Earthquake load is generated from the site seismicity, mass of the structures,
important of buildings, degree of seismic resistant, etc.
Due to the variety of structural condition of building, it is hard to develop
typical rules for retrofitting. Each building has different approaches
depending on the structural deficiencies. Hence, engineers are needed to
prepare and design the retrofitting approaches.
In the design of retrofitting approach, the engineer must comply with the
building codes. The results generated by the adopted retrofitting techniques
must fulfill the minimum requirements on the buildings codes, such as
deformation, detailing, strength, etc.
b. Decision for Retrofitting
Some factors that should be considered in order to decide
Retrofitting is needed when the assessment of structural capacity results in
whether to retrofit or not are:
insufficient capacity to resist the forces of expected intensity and acceptable
limit of damages. a) Technical aspect
It is not merely poor quality of materials and damage of structural elements The technical aspects include the testing of materials and
serves as the reasons to retrofit a building. structural analysis. These measures are important to
Change of the buildings function, change of environmental conditions, and understand the condition of the structures related to the
change of valid building codes could also be the reasons for retrofitting. recent building codes.
Retrofitting must be conducted by experts from each field. In most b) Cost intervention
retrofitting process, an engineer plays the main role. An engineer must assess
Cost and benefit analysis must be conducted before the
and analyze the structural capacity.
decision is made.
An engineer must also design the best retrofitting techniques to strengthen
the structural deficiencies. c) Importance of building
The role of the novice is restricted to identify the possibility of insufficiency of Each building is built for its own purpose. Some old
building capacity. buildings have extra values, such as historical values, that
will strongly affect the final decision.
c. Cost-Benefit of Retrofitting:
Cost-Benefit analysis is sometimes conducted to determine whether retrofit or
rebuild the building is more feasible. Most studies imply that retrofitting of an
d) Availability of adequate technology existing structure is more feasible than to build a new building. Retrofitting is a
also a favorable approach to strengthen the building capacity to the external
Some of retrofitting techniques need a modern technology loads, e.g. earthquake.
to implement it. A decision of retrofitting must consider
whether the region provides such technology. The advantages of adopting retrofitting approach, despite of reconstructing the
building, can be listed as follows:
e) Skilled workmanship to implement the proposed measures
a. When retrofitting approach is adopted, retrofitted building can still be operated.
Some of retrofitting techniques need unusual construction
b. Retrofitting will take relatively less construction cost with the same structural
method to implement it. A skilled workmanship must be
performance
provided to implement the proposed measures.
achievement.
f) Duration of works
c. Retrofitting will involve relatively less resources, either human resources or
Some of retrofitting works will consume less time to finish it, natural resources.
but others take more time to complete. Hence, it is
important to take into the consideration the duration of d. Retrofitting will not significantly change the building configuration and shape. It
works. is preferable when the retrofitted building has historical values.
e. Retrofitting the building will produce less debris than reconstructing the building.
Besides the advantages, retrofitting also has several d. Retrofitting Process:
The retrofitting of a structure involves improving its performance under
disadvantages as follows: earthquake loadings through one or more of these following measures:
a. The skill of the worker must comply with the 1) Increasing its strength and/or stiffness
adopted retrofitting approaches. 2) Increasing its ductility
3) Reducing the seismic forces.
b. Limited access of the construction site since the The measures can be done through modification to one or more of the
building could be still in function. following parameters:
1) Columns
c. It is important to note that the analysis must 2) Beams
consider all parameters that can affect the 3) Bracings
decision. 4) Walls
5) Foundation
d. All costs and savings (including casualties and 6) Horizontal diaphragms
serviceability period) over a long period of time 7) Joints between structural elements
8) Masses
should also be taken into account. 9) Period of vibrations
2) Structural investigation.
1) Visual investigation.
The structural investigation can be divided into structural investigation for
This assessment is to determine the existing structural condition, based on the
upper structure and structural investigation for sub-structure.
age of the buildings, environment condition, structural type, site of seismicity,
a) Structural investigation for upper structure
etc. The visual assessment is usually conducted together with structural
There are many methods/techniques available for upper structure structural
investigation. The results of the investigation will assist in conducting detailed
investigation.
structural analysis.
In general, the methods are divided into 2 categories, non-destructive test
In general, the visual investigation measures can be listed as follows:
(NDT) and semi-destructive/destructive test (DT).
Mapping the site condition
Non Destructive Test is conducted to assess the upper structure condition, and
Sketching of the overall layout, include the structural system, dimension and
suggested to be conducted as much as possible to give proper description and
geometry of elements, spacing, loading system, etc.
evaluation on material properties. Some of the commonly used NDT are
Mapping of the detail structural damage, e.g. spalling, pops-out, cracking and
Schmidt Hammer Test and Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test (UPV). Schmidt
its pattern, corrosion, discoloration, etc.
Hammer Test is not intended to get the concrete strength directly, and a
Observation of deflection and displacement on the structural elements
correlation formula should be used to obtain the compressive strength. The
Observation of the deterioration of materials.
procedure of Schmidt hammer test refers to ASTM C 805.
It is suggested that the investigation is documented by either camera or video
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test (UPV) is intended to check crack depths by
camera for further evaluation and analysis.
measuring the concrete density. The procedure of UPV test refers to ASTM C
597.
On many occasions, semi-destructive/destructive test b) Structural investigation for sub-structure
((S)-DT) is also conducted. The most common (S)-DT is Structural investigation for sub-structure includes the
Core Drill Test. The purpose of this test is to get the investigation for soil properties and foundation.
concretes strength by drilling the existing concrete on There are many techniques for investigating soil
site and testing it at the laboratory. Semi properties. The most common used techniques for
destructive/destructive test should be conducted single story structure are hand boring and soil
carefully to prevent the excessive deterioration of penetration test.
structural elements. To get a good result of structural
Investigation of the foundation can be carried out by
testing, it is suggested to combine both non-destructive digging the soil to check the existence of the
test and destructive test. foundation, including the dimensions and the
bearing area.
ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE
An analysis of the building, including retrofitting measures, is
conducted to determine the forces and deformations induced in
THE END
components of the building by ground motion corresponding to the
selected Earthquake Hazard Level, or by other seismic geologic site
hazards.
The analysis procedure can be taken as linear and non-linear
analysis. :
Linear procedures are suitable for buildings which do not have an
irregularity defined in earthquake resistant building design codes.
For buildings that have one or more of the irregularities, linear
procedures shall not be used unless the earthquake demands on the
building comply with the demand capacity ratio (DCR) requirements.
The results of the linear procedures can be very inaccurate when
applied to buildings with highly irregular structural systems, unless
the building is capable of responding to the design earthquake(s) in
a nearly elastic manner.