INFRASTRUCTURE I

FAILURES OF RIGID PAVEMENTS

FACULTY INCHARGE: MISS AANAL SHETH

SUBMITTED BY:
RAHUL N.SOMPURA (2905)
SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY,
CEPT UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD
 INFRASTRUCTURE FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

4.1 TREATMENT OF CRACKS ........................................................ 9

CONTENTS 4.2 MAINTENANCE OF JOINTS ................................................... 10

5 SPECIAL REPAIRS OF CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS ............... 11

1 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................4
5.1 MUD JACKING OR LIFTING OF SLABS ................................... 11
1.1 NEED FOR HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE..................................... 4
6 STRENGTHENING OF EXISTING PAVEMENTS ............................... 11
1.2 GENERAL CAUSES OF PAVEMENT FAILURES .......................... 4
6.1 RIGID OVERLAY OVER RIGID PAVEMENT.............................. 11
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF MAINTENANCE WORK ........................... 4
6.2 FLEXIBLE OVERLAY OVER RIGID PAVEMENT......................... 12
2 FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS.....................................................5
7 VARIOUS RIGID PAVEMENT FAILURES CASES .............................. 13
2.1 DEFICIENCY OF PAVEMENT MATERIALS................................. 5
7.1 BLOWUP (BUCKLING)........................................................... 13
2.2 STRUCTURAL INADEQUACY OF PAVEMENT SYSTEM .............. 6
7.2 CORNER BREAK .................................................................... 14
3 TYPICAL RIGID PAVEMENT FAILURES .............................................6
7.3 DURABILITY CRACKING ("D" CRACKING) .............................. 14
3.1 SCALING OF CEMENT CONCRETE ........................................... 7
7.4 FAULTING ............................................................................ 15
3.2 SHRINKAGE CRACKS............................................................... 7
7.5 JOINT LOAD TRANSFER SYSTEM DETERIORATION ................ 15
3.3 SPALLING OF JOINT ............................................................... 7
7.6 LINEAR (PANEL) CRACKING .................................................. 16

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3.4 WARPING CRACKS ................................................................. 7

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7.7 PATCHING............................................................................ 17
3.5 MUD PUMPING ..................................................................... 7
7.8 POLISHED AGGREGATE ........................................................ 17
4 MAINTENANCE OF CEMENT CONCRETE ROADS .............................9

RAHUL N. SOMPURA (2905), SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, CEPT UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD
 INFRASTRUCTURE FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

7.9 POPOUTS ............................................................................. 18

7.10 PUNCHOUT .......................................................................... 18

7.11 REACTIVE AGGREGATE DISTRESSES ..................................... 19

7.12 SHRINKAGE CRACKING ........................................................ 19

7.13 SPALLING ............................................................................. 20

8 CONCLUSION .21

9 REFERENCES .21

3
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RAHUL N. SOMPURA (2905), SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, CEPT UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD
 INFRASTRUCTURE FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 NEED FOR HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE
Road maintenance is one of the important components of the entire
road system. The maintenance operations involve the assessment of
road condition, diagnosis of problem and adopting the most
appropriate maintenance steps. Even if the highways are well
designed and constructed, they may require maintenance; the extent
of which will depend on several factors including the pavement type.
Various types of failures in pavements ranging from minor and
localized failure to major and general failures do take place on roads.
The failures may be due to one or a combination of several causes.
1.2 GENERAL CAUSES OF PAVEMENT FAILURES
Some of the general causes of pavement failures needing maintenance
measures may be classified as given below;
Defects in the quality of materials used.
Defects In construction method and quality control during
construction.
RAHUL N. SOMPURA (2905), SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, CEPT UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD
Inadequate surface or subsurface drainage in the locality
resulting in the stagnation of water in the subgrade or in any
of the pavement layers.
Increase in the magnitude of wheel loads and the number of
load repetitions due to increase in traffic volume.
Settlement of foundation of embankment of the fill material
itself.
Environmental factors including heavy- rainfall, soil erosion,
high water table, snow fall, frost action, etc
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF MAINTENANCE WORK
The various items of highway maintenance works may he broadly
classified under three heads:
Routine maintenance-repairs :These include tilling up of pot
holes and patch repairs, maintenance of shoulders and the
cross slope, upkeep of the road side drains and clearing
choked culverts, maintenance of miscellaneous items like road
4
signs, arboriculture, inspection bungalows, etc.
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 INFRASTRUCTURE FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

Periodic maintenance: These include renewals of wearing Failures of cement concrete pavements are recognized mainly by the
course of pavement surface and preventive maintenance of formation of structural cracking. The failures are mainly due to two
various items. factors:

Special repairs : These include strengthening of pavement Deficiency of pavement materials

structure or overlay construction, reconstruction of pavement,
widening of roads, repairs of damages caused by floods, Structural inadequacy of the pavement system.
providing additional safety measures like islands, signs etc.

2.1 DEFICIENCY OF PAVEMENT MATERIALS

2 FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS
Following are the chief causes which would give rise to the different
The cement concrete pavements may develop cracks and deteriorate defects or failures of cement concrete pavement:
due to repeated loads and fatigue effects. A rigid pavement failure is Soft aggregates
observed by the development of structural crack of break resulting in
progressive subsidence of some portions of pavement. Moderate Poor workmanship in joint construction
irregularities in the supporting layers beneath the cement concrete
pavements are sustained due to inherent bending strength of these Poor joint filler and sealer material
pavements. Rigid pavements are therefore capable of withstanding
Poor Surface finish
slight variations in the underlying support and they bridge the
localized gaps moderately. It is the combination of many factors that Improper and insufficient curing
induce the failure conditions in the rigid pavement. Due to the

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temperature effects, the newly constructed cement concrete The various defects that creep in due to the above are:

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pavements may also crack even if no vehicle moves on them. Often
Disintegration of cement concrete
failure of rigid pavements starts from joints, corners and edges of
slabs. Formation of cracking

RAHUL N. SOMPURA (2905), SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, CEPT UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD
 INFRASTRUCTURE FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

Spalling of joints Settlement of slabs

Poor riding surface Widening of joints

Slippery surface Mud pumping

Formation of shrinkage cracks

Ingress of surface water and further progressive failures 3 TYPICAL RIGID PAVEMENT FAILURES

Following are some typical and basic types of failures in rigid

pavements which are dealt here in detail:
2.2 STRUCTURAL INADEQUACY OF PAVEMENT SYSTEM
Scaling of cement concrete
Inadequate subgrade support pavement thickness would be a major
cause of developing structural cracking in pavements. Following are Shrinkage cracks
the causes and types of failure which develop:
Spalling of joints
Inadequate pavement thickness
Warping cracks
Inadequate subgrade support and poor subgrade soil
Mud pumping
Incorrect spacing of joints
Structural cracks
Above would give rise to the failures of the following types:

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Cracking of slab comers

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Cracking of pavements longitudinally.

RAHUL N. SOMPURA (2905), SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, CEPT UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD
 INFRASTRUCTURE FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS
3.1 SCALING OF CEMENT CONCRETE
Scaling is observed in cement concrete pavement showing overall
deterioration of the concrete. The scaling is mainly attributed due to
the deficiency in the mix or presence of some chemical impurities
which damage the mix. Further due to excessive vibration given to
mix, the cement mortar comes to the top during construction and thus
with use, the cement mortar gets abraded exposing the aggregate of
the mix. This makes the pavement surface rough and shabby in
appearance.
3.2 SHRINKAGE CRACKS
During the curing, operation of cement concrete pavements
immediately after the construction, the shrinkage cracks normally
develops. The placement of cracks arc in longitudinal as well as in
transverse direction.
3.3 SPALLING OF JOINT
Sometimes when pre-formed filler materials are placed during casting
of pavement slabs, the placement is somehow dislocated and filler is
thus placed at an angle. The concreting is completed without noticing
this faulty alignment or the filler material. Thus this forms an overhang
of a concrete layer on the top side and the joint later on shows
excessive cracking and subsidence
RAHUL N. SOMPURA (2905), SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, CEPT UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD
3.4 WARPING CRACKS
If the joints are not well designed to accommodate the warping of
slabs at edges, this result in development of excessive stresses due to
warping and the slab develops cracking at the edges in an irregular
pattern. Hinge Joints are generally provided for relieving the slabs of
warping stresses. There is no structural defect due to the warping
cracks if proper reinforcement is provided at the longitudinal and
transverse joints as it takes care of the structural adequacy.
3.5 MUD PUMPING
Mud pumping is recognized when the soil slurry ejects out through the
joints and cracks of cement concrete pavement caused during the
downward movement of slab under the heavy wheel loads. Following
are the factors which cause the mud pumping:
Extent of slab deflection
Type of sub grade soil
Amount of free water
Pumping is noticed just after the rains in cement concrete pavements
7
that are placed on clayey soil sub grade. Due to the applications of
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repealed loads, initial spaces are developed underneath the pavement
slabs and water infiltrates into these spaces through joints, cracks and
edges of the pavements as shown in Fig. 1.a. Since the soil is also of
 INFRASTRUCTURE FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

fine grained type, it holds water and forms the soil slurry or soil
suspension in water or the mud.

Subsequent application of heavy whee wheell loads causes the pavement

slab to deflect at critical locations and also forces out part of the mud
each time, through the spaces in pavement joints, cracks
cracks or edge. See
Fig. 1.b.
1.b When more
mo re and more mud is ejected out, there is a
substantial loss in fine grained soil from sub grade, resulting
resu in
considerable loss of sub grade support at these locations With
continued traffic movements, there is progressive increase in the
wheel load stress in the pavement slab due to reduction m sub grade
support, consequently cracks are developed and the pavement
ultimately fails
fails as illustrated in Fig.1.c
Fig.1.c.. The pavement cracking
crack ing due to
mud pumping is generally a progressive type of failure in rigid
pavements.
pavements

Inadequate pavement thickness tor the amount and type of vehicles is

the prime reason for the structural cracking. Largely, the pavements
pavements
are found to crack at the
t comers and edges as shown in Fig.2.
Fig.2
Longitudinal and transverse cracks are also found to exist. It becomes
quite difficult to differentiate the type of cracks. Generally, if it could
be decided that the crack in the vicinity of joints or comers are not
due to spalling
sp g or mud pumping, then the cracks are attributed to the

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structural inadequacy. TheThe cracking in the interior regions are mainly

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due to the temperature stresses.

Figure 1:: MUD PUMPING

RAHUL N. SOMPURA (2905), SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, CEPT UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD
 INFRASTRUCTURE FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

4 MAINTENANCE OF CEMEN T CONCRETE ROADS

It may be staled here that very little maintenance such

su ch as maintenance
of joints only is needed forfo r cement concrete roads, if they are well
desig ned and constructed. Main defect in this type
designed ype of road is
formation of cracks.
cra cks. It is therefore necessary to examine the cracks
and causes are ascertained before any remedial measure is adopted.

4.1 TREATMENT OF CRACKS

The cracks developed in cement concrete (CC) may be classified into

two groups:

Temperature cracks, which are initially fine cracks or

hair-cracks
cracks formed across the slab,
slab, in between a pair of
transverse or longitudinal joints, dividing the slab length into
two or more approximately equal parts due to the
temperature stresses like the shrinkage stress, warping stress,
etc. in the slab.

Structural cracks formed near the edge and comer regions of

the slabs, due to combined wheel
wheel load and warping stresses in
the slab.

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The presence of fine cracks only as such are not harmfu
harmful and do not

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Figure 2: FORMATION OF REFLECTION CRACKS
call for immediate maintenance. As the cracks due to the shrinkage in
the CC pavement start from the bottom of the slab, by the time ffine
cracks are visible on the top of the slab, the cracks at the bottom

RAHUL N. SOMPURA (2905), SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, CEPT UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD
 INFRASTRUCTURE FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS
portion would have got widened. Due to repeated application of heavy
wheel loads and the variations in temperature and moisture
conditions, the cracks get widened and further deterioration becomes
rapid. Once the surface water starts getting into the pavement and the
subgrade through the widened cracks, progressive failure or the
pavement is imminent. Therefore before these cracks get wide enough
to permit infiltration of water, they should be scaled off to prevent
rapid deteriorations.
The dirt, sand and other loose panicles at the cracks are thoroughly
cleaned using a sharp tool, stiff brush and pressure blower. Kerosene
oil is applied on the cleaned cracks to facilitate proper bonding of the
sealing material. The cracks are then filled by suitable grade
bituminous sealing compound, heated to liquid consistency. The sealer
is placed upto about 3 mm above the level of the slab along the cracks
and a layer of sand is spread over it to protect the sealer temporarily.
The formation of structural cracks in CC slabs should be viewed
seriously and needs immediate attention, as these indicate possible
beginning of pavement failure. First the cause of the failure should be
investigated. If the failure is confined to one or a few slab only at a
particular location, and in general there are no structural cracks in
other slabs, the failure may be localized one due to some weak spot in
the subgrade or due to localized settlement of embankment or
underground drainage problem. The maintenance work in such a case
involves first remedy of the basic cause of the failure and then
re-casting the failed slabs. In the case of general pavement distress
RAHUL N. SOMPURA (2905), SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, CEPT UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD
indicating the start of structural failure of the pavement, immediate
steps are to be taken to strengthen the CC pavement by a flexible or
rigid overlay expeditiously before the structural cracks develop in
other slabs also. It is not worthwhile to provide an overlay over a
badly cracked or failed CC pavement as the riding surface becomes
very unsatisfactory due to uneven settlement of the cracked and
broken slabs. In such a case the only permanent solution is removal of
the broken-up CC pavement slabs and re-construction of new flexible
or rigid pavement
4.2 MAINTENANCE OF JOINTS
Joints are the weakest parts in CC pavements .The efficiency of the
pavement is determined by the proper functioning of the joints.
Majority of the failure in the CC pavements arc observed at or near
the joints. Therefore, utmost care is to be taken to see that the filler
and sealer materials are intact at the joints. During summer the joint
sealer material is squeezed out of the expansion joints due to the
expansion of the slabs; subsequently as the slabs contract during
winter, the joint gap opens out and cracks are formed in the old sealer
material. Therefore, periodic maintenance of the joint sealer is
essential both at expansion and contraction joints as a part of routine
10
maintenance work of the CC pavement. The opened-up joints are
cleaned with brush and refilled with suitable joint sealer material
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before the start of the rains.
 INFRASTRUCTURE FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

The joint filler material at the expansion joints may get damaged or
deteriorated after several years of pavement life The repair consist of
removal of the sealer and deteriorated filler and sealer materials from
the expansion joints cleaning up, replacement with new filler board
(provided with suitable grooves cut on the bottom half at the positions
of the dowel bars) and sealing the top of the joints with suitable sealer
material. It will be convenient to insert the new- filler board at the
expansion joints during winter season when the joint opening is
widest.
5 SPECIAL REPAIRS OF CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
6 STRENGTHENING OF EXISTING PAVEMENTS
6.1 RIGID OVERLAY OVER RIGID PAVEMENT
When a rigid or CC overlay is constructed over an existing rigid or CC
pavement, the interface between the old and new concrete cannot
have perfect bond such that the two slabs could act as a monolithic
one. Two typical types of interface are possible:
Providing maximum possible interface bond by making the old
surface rough

Separating the two slabs at the interface by thin layer of

5.1 MUD JACKING OR LIFTING OF SLABS
bituminous material, or without interface bond
Once pavement starts pumping, the remedy for correcting it lies in
providing the effective drainage. If the subsidence is localized then the
same is repaired by patching the portions of slabs with bituminous To obtain the overlay thickness, the following relationship may he
mixes. Advanced countries adopt the procedures of mud jacking. The used:
process consists of drilling number of holes 4 cm to 5 cm diameter 1.5 n
metre to 3 metre apart in the cement concrete slab. Grouting in such hO =( hd a -Xhe b )
slabs is done under pressure through these holes. The grout normally
Where hO =rigid overlay thickness
used is either 1:3.5 cement-sand mix or bitumen. For cement-sand

11
mix, colloidal mix with sufficient water is prepared. The mix is thus hd =design thickness
injected through a pressure holes using the compressor. The slabs are

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thus raised from below by the pressure grout, upto the desired level. he =existing pavement thickness

RAHUL N. SOMPURA (2905), SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, CEPT UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD
 INFRASTRUCTURE FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

Values of a, b. X and n depend upon the pavement and the method of 6.2 FLEXIBLE OVERLAY OVER RIGID PAVEMENT
overlay construction. Table 1 shows the recommended values of these
factors. A flexible or bituminous overlay when provided over a rigid pavement,
the wheel load is distributed through a larger area by the overlay, thus
EXISTING PAVEMENT slightly reducing the wheel load stress on the old rigid pavement.
AGENCY X Further the maximum temperature differential in the rigid pavement
CONDITION
is also decreased due to the bituminous overlay, thus causing a
substantial reduction in the warping stress and also in the maximum
Good condition 1.00 combined stress. Thus a rigid or CC pavement may be strengthened by
Crops of a bituminous overlay before the pavement develops structural crack
Engineers & Initial cracking 0.75 and starts failing. The useful life of the rigid pavement may be
PCA increased considerably by a suitably designed and constructed
bituminous overlay placed at the right time.
Badly cracked 0.35
For calculating the thickness of flexible overlay over rigid pavements
AGENCY CONSTRUCTION METHOD a b n the following relationship is employed.

hf =2.5(F
Poured directly on old pavement 1.40 1.40 1/1.40
Crops of Where hf = flexible overlay thickness
Engineers
Levelling course 2.20 2.00 1/3.00 = existing rigid pavement thickness

= design thickness of rigid pavement

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Poured directly on old pavement 1.87 2.00 1/2.00
F = factor which depends upon modulus of existing

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PCA
Levelling course 2.00 2.00 1/2.00 pavement

RAHUL N. SOMPURA (2905), SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, CEPT UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD
 INFRASTRUCTURE FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

For calculating the thickness of bituminous overlay, the following Problem: Roughness,
Roughness , moisture infiltration, in extreme cases (as in the
relationship is used. first photo) can pose a safety hazard

Possible Causes: During cold periods (e.g., winter) PCC slabs contract
leaving wider joint openings. If these openings
openings become filled with
incompressible material (such as rocks or soil), subsequent PCC slab
expansion during hot periods (e.g., spring, summer) may cause high
7 VARIOUS RIGID PAVEME NT FAILURES CASES compressive stresses. If these stresses are great enough, the slabs
may buckle and shatter to relieve
relieve the stresses. Blowup can be
7.1 BLOWUP (BUCKLING) accelerated by:

Joint spalling (reduces slab contact area and provides

incompressible material to fill
fi ll the joint/crack)
D cracking (weakens the slab near the joint/crack area)
Freeze-thaw
thaw damage (weakens the slab near the joint/crack
area)

Repair: Full-depth
depth patch.
patch

Figure 3:: SEVERE BLOW UP Figure 4:SEVERE BLOW UP

13
Description: A localized upward slab movement and shattering at a
joint or crack. Usually occurs in spring or summer and is the result of

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insufficient room for slab expansion during hot weather.

RAHUL N. SOMPURA (2905), SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, CEPT UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD
 INFRASTRUCTURE FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

7.2 CORNER BREAK 7 .3 DURABILITY CRACKING ("D" CRACKING)

Figure5:CORNER BREAK AT STREETS Figure 6:CORNER BREAK AT HIGHWAY

Figure 7:: D CRACKING AT PANEL CORNERS

Description:
Description : A crack that intersects the PCC slab joints near the
Description: Series of closely spaced, crescent-shaped
crescent shaped cracks near a
corner. "Near the corner" is is typically defined as within about 2 m (6
joint corner or crack. It is caused by freeze-thaw
freeze thaw expansion of the
ft) or so. A corner break extends through the entire slab and is
large aggregate within the PCC slab. Durability cracking is a general
caused by high corner stresses.
PCC distress
distress and is not unique to pavement PCC.
Problem: Roughness,
Roughne moisture infiltration, severe corner breaks will
Problem: Some roughness,
roughness, leads to spalling and eventual slab
fault, spall and disintegrate
disintegration
Possible Causes: Severe corner stresses caused by load repetitions
Possible Causes: Freeze-thaw
Freeze thaw susceptible aggregate.
aggregate
combined with a loss of support, poor load transfer across the joint,

14
curling stresses and warping stresse
stresses. Repair:: "D" cracking is indicative of a general aggregate freeze
Repair freeze-thaw

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problem. Although a full-depth
depth patch or partial-depth
depth patch can repair
Repair:
Repair Full-depth
depth patch.
patch
the affected area, it does not address the root problem and will not, or
course, prevent "D" cracking elsewhere .

RAHUL N. SOMPURA (2905), SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, CEPT UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD
 INFRASTRUCTURE FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

7.4 FAULTING Repair:: Faulting heights of less than 3 mm (0.125 inch) need not be
Repair
repaired. Faulting in an undoweled JPCP between 3 mm (0.125 inch)
and 12.5 mm (0.5 inch) is a candidate for a dowel bar
retrofit. Faulting in excess of 12.5 mm (0.5 inches) generally warrants
total reconstruction.

7.5 JOINT LOAD TRANSFER SYSTEM DETERIORATION

Figure 8:SEVERE FAULTING Description: A

difference in elevation across a joint or crack usually associated with
undoweled
undowel JPCP. Usually the approach slab is higher than the leave
slab due to pumping, the most common faulting mechanism. Faulting
is noticeable when the average
a verage faulting in the pavement section
reaches about 2.5 mm (0.1 inch). When the average faulting reaches 4
mm (0.15 in), diamond grinding or other rehabilitation measures Figure 9:EXPOSED FAILURE WITH RUSTED DOWEL BARS Figure 10:PATCHED FAILURE

should be considered.
considered

Problem: Roughness

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Possible Causes: Most commonly, faulting is a result of slab Description: Transverse crack or corner break developed as a result of
pumping.
pumping Faulting can also be cau
caused
sed by slab settlement, curling and joint dowels.

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warping.
Problem: Indicator of a failed load transfer system, roughness

RAHUL N. SOMPURA (2905), SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, CEPT UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD
 INFRASTRUCTURE FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

Possible Causes: Load transfer dowel bars can fail for two principal 7.6 LINEAR (PANEL) CRACK ING
reasons:

Corrosion. If inadequately protected, dowel bars can corrode

Corrosion
over time.
time The corrosion products occupy volume, which
creates tensile stresses around the dowel bars, and a severely
corroded dowel bar is weaker and may fail after repeated
loading.
Misalignment Dowel bars inserted crooked or too close to
Misalignment.
the slab edge may create
create localized stresses high enough to
break the slab. Misalignment can occur during original
construction or during dowel bar retrofits.
Figure11: PANEL CRACK
Repair:
Repair: Removal and replacement of the affected joint load transfer
system followed by a full-depth
depth patch for affected area. Description: Linear cracks not associated with corner breaks or
blowups that extend across the entire slab. Typically, these cracks
divide an individual slab into two to four pieces.

Problem: Roughness,
Roughness , allows moisture infiltration leading to erosion of
base/subbase support, cracks will eventually spall and disintegrate if
not sealed

Possible Causes:
Causes Usually a combination of traffic loading, thermal

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gradient curling, moisture stresses and loss of support.

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Repair:: Slabs with a single, narrow linear crack may be repaired by
Repair
crack sealing. More than one linear crack generally warrants a
full--depth patch.

RAHUL N. SOMPURA (2905), SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, CEPT UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD
 INFRASTRUCTURE FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

7.7 PATCHING 7.8 POLISHED AGGREGAT E

Figure 12:PATCH ON A STREET Figure13:POLISHED AGGREGATE AFTER 40 YEARS

Description: An area of pavement that has been replaced with new
material to repair the existing
exist ing pavement. A patch is considered a
defect no matter how well it performs.
Problem: Roughness
Possible Causes: Previous localized pavement deterioration that
t hat has
been removed and patched &Utility cuts
Repair:
Repair Patches are themselves a repair action. The only way they
Description: Areas of PCC pavement where the portion of aggregate
on the surface contains few rough or angular aggregate particles.
Problem: Decreased skid resistance
Possible Causes: Repeated traffic applications. General
Generally, as a
pavement ages the protruding rough, angular particles become
polished. This can occur quicker if the aggregate is suscepti
susceptible to
abrasion or subject to excessive studded tire wear.
wear

17
can be removed is through an overlay or slab replacement. Repair Diamond grinding or overlay..
Repair:

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RAHUL N. SOMPURA (2905), SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, CEPT UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD
 INFRASTRUCTURE FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

7.9 POPOUTS Repair:: Isolated low severity popouts may not warrant repair. Larger
Repa
popouts or a group of popouts can generally be repaired with a
parti depth patch.
partial-depth patch

7.10 PUNCHOUT

Figure 14:LARGE POPOUTS Figure 15:POPOUT CLOSE UP

Description: Small pieces of PCC that break loose from the surface
leaving
leavi small divots or pock marks. Popouts range from 25 - 100 mm
(1 - 4 inches) in diameter and from 25 - 50 mm (1 - 2 inches) deep.

Problem: Roughness,
Roughness usually an indic
indicator
ator of poor material
Figure 16:SEVERE PUNCHOUT

Possible Causes: Popouts usually occur as a result of poor aggregate

Description: Localized slab portion broken into several
durability. Poor durability can be a result of a number of items such
pieces. Typically a concern only with CRCP.
as:
Problem: Roughness,
Roughness allows moisture infiltration leading to erosion of
Poor aggregate freeze-thaw
freeze thaw resistance

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base/subbase support, cracks will spall and disintegrate.
Expansive aggregates

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Alkali-aggregate
aggregate reactions Possible Causes: Can indicate a localized construction defect such as
inadequate consolidation. In CRCP, it can be caused by steel
corrosion, inadequate amount of steel, excessively
exc essively wide shrinkage

RAHUL N. SOMPURA (2905), SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, CEPT UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD
 INFRASTRUCTURE FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

cracks or excessively close shrinkage cracks. Possible Causes: This type of distress is indicative
in dicative of poor aggregate
Repair:
Repair Full-depth
depth patch.
patch qualities. Most commonly, it is a result of an alkali-aggregate
aggregate
reaction
reaction.

7.11 REACTIVE AGGREGATE D ISTRESSES Repair: Partial-depth

Repair depth patch for small areas of scaling or slab
replacement for large areas of scaling.

7.12 SHRINKAGE CRACKING

Figure 17:SEVERE CRAZING

Figure 18:SHRINKAGE CRACKS ON NEWLY Figure 19:SEVERE SHRINKAGE CRACKS

Description: Pattern or map cracking (crazing) on the PCC slab surface CASTED SLABS
caused by reactive aggregates. Reactive aggregates are those that
either expand or develop expansive by products when introduced to
certain chemical compounds.
com Description: Hairline cracks formed during PCC setting and curing that
are not located at joints. Usually, they do not extend through the

19
Problem: Roughness,
Roughness , an indication of poor aggregate - will eventually entire depth of the slab. Shrinkage cracks are considered a distress if
lead to PCC slab disintegration. they occur in an uncontrolled manner (e.g., at locations outside of

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contraction joints in JPCP or too close together in CRCP
CRCP).

RAHUL N. SOMPURA (2905), SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, CEPT UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD
 INFRASTRUCTURE FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

Problem: Aesthetics, indication of uncontrolled slab shrinkage. In Repair:: In mild to moderate severity situations, the shrinkage cracks
Repair
JPCP they will eventually widen and allow moisture infiltration. In can be sealed and the slab should perform adequately. In severe
CRCP, if they are allowed to get much wider than about 0.5 mm (0.02 situations, the entire slab
s lab may need replacement.
replacement
inches) they can allow moisture infiltration (CRSI, 1996).

Possible Causes: All PCC will shrink as it sets and cures, therefore
shrinkage cracks are expected in rigid pavement and provisions for
their control are made. However, uncontrolled shrinkage cracking
can indicate:
7.13 SPALLING
Contraction joints sawed too latelate. In JPCP, if contraction
joints are sawed too late the PCC may already have cracked in
an undesirable location.
Poor reinforcing steel design
design. In CRCP, proper reinforcing
steel design should result in shrinkage cracks every 1.2 - 3 m (4
- 10 ft.).
Improper curing technique
technique. If the he slab surface is allowed to
dry too quickly, it will shrink too quickly and crack.
High early strength PCC.
PCC In an effort to quickly open a newly
constructed or rehabilitated section to traffic, high
Figure 20:LINEAR CRACK SPALLING Figure 21:SPALLING
early-strength
strength PCC may be used. This type of PCC can have a FROM A BAD
high heat of hydration and shrinks more quickly and to a CONSTRUCTION JOINT

20
greater extent than typical PCC made from unmodified Type 1
Portland cement.
cement Description: Cracking, breaking or chipping of joint/crack

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edges. Usually occurs within about 0.6 m (2 ft.) of joint/crack edge.

RAHUL N. SOMPURA (2905), SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, CEPT UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD
 INFRASTRUCTURE FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

Problem: Loose debris on the pavement, roughness, generally an 8 CONCLUSION

indicator of advanced joint/crack deterioration
The various failures responsible for the degradation of the rigid
Possible Causes: Possible causes are:
pavements have been studied and the possible remedies and
Excessive stresses at the joint/crack caused by infiltration of preventive measures are also thoroughly noted down. Thus proper
incompressible materials and subsequent expansion (can also and regular maintenance and good construction practices would help
cause blowups). to prevent the pavement failures.
Disintegration of the PCC from freeze-thaw action or "D"
cracking.
Weak PCC at a joint caused by inadequate consolidation during
construction. This can sometimes occur at a construction
joint if (1) low quality PCC is used to fill in the last bit of slab
volume or (2) dowels are improperly inserted.
Misalignment or corroded dowel.
Heavy traffic loading. 9 REFERENCES

Repair: Spalling less than 75 mm (3 inches) from the crack face can HIGHWAY ENGINEERING-8 TH EDITION BY S.K KHANNA & C.E.G
generally be repaired with a partial-depth patch. Spalling greater JUSTO
than about 75 mm (3 inches) from the crack face may indicated NATIONAL SEMINAR ON CONCRETE PAVEMENTS &
possible spalling at the joint bottom and should be repaired with a PROBLEMS- 2003 BY SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE &
full-depth patch. TECHNOLOGY,CEPT UNIVERSITY,AHMEDABAD

21
TRAINING REPORT ON RIGID PAVEMENT DISTRESSES-2005 BY
WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY

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RAHUL N. SOMPURA (2905), SCHOOL OF BUILDING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, CEPT UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD