ANATOMY - HISTOLOGY

2. THE CYTOPLASM
EAC-MED 2021 | August 2017
1

OUTLINE Glycocalyx Cell-surface coating glycolipid made of

oligosaccharide chains
Proteins:
I. Cell Differentiation 1. Integral proteins within the lipid bilayer
II. The Plasma Membrane 2. Peripheral on only one of the layers of the bilayer
III. Cytoplasmic Organelles 3. Multipass transmembrane proteins polypeptide chain
IV. The Cytoskeleton of integral proteins span the membrane several times
V. Inclusions
VI. References

I. Cell Differentiation
Zygote blastomeres emybryonic stem specific
proteins with specialized functions
Table 1. Specialized cells + Activity

Fig 1. Structure of a phospholipid

Fig 2. Lipids in membrane structure

Receptors cell adhesion, cell recognition and

response to hormones
Lipid rafts
Membrane proteins
Function as large enzyme complexes (hence
less mobile)
High cholesterol & Saturated FA (less fluid)

B. Transmembrane Proteins & Membrane Transport

Small lipophilic molecules pass via simple diffusion
Ions pass via integral proteins that act as ion
II. The Plasma Membrane
channels or ion channels that involve active transport
(uses energy from ATP)
A. Introduction
Water passes by Osmosis via Multipass
Fluid mosaic model transmembrane proteins called aquaporins
Made of: phospholipids (amphiphatic), cholesterol,
proteins & oligosaccharides covalently linked to C. Vesticular Transport: Endocytosis & Exocytosis
phospholipid (bilayer in eukaryotes) and protein
molecules
7.5-10nm thickness; asymmetric Bulk uptake of material across plasma membrane using
vesicles.

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4. Autocrine signaling: Signals bind receptors on

1. Phagocytosis:
Cell eating (WBC macrophages & neutrophils)
2. Fluid-phase endocytosis (pinocytosis):
Cell-drinking
small invaginations of the cell membrane trap ECF
and pinocytotic vesicles pinch off of the surface and
towards lysosomes
Transcytosis pinocytotic vesicles move the material
to the opposite end of the cell and then to the outside
3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis:
High-affinity binding of ligands (hormones for
example) to integral membrane proteins causing the
proteins to aggregate, invaginate (as coated piths)
and then pinch off internally as vesicles
Caveolae prominent in endothelial cells; involves
the membrane protein caveolin
Endosomes
Where vesicles of endocytosis bind to
- Early(found near cell surface)/ late (found late in cell
surface)
- The acidic pH of early endosomes causes ligands
to uncouple from receptors. The receptors are then
transferred to late endosomes.
the same cells that produced the messenger
molecule
5. Juxtacrine signaling: involves cell membrane-
bound signaling proteins which binds surface
receptors of target cells when they come in
contact
Types of receptors:
1. Channel-linked receptors: they open associated
channels upon ligand binding to facilitate
exchange
2. Enzymatic receptors: in which ligand binding
induces catalytic activity in associated peripheral
proteins
3. G protein-coupled receptors: ligand binding
stimulates associated G-proteins which then bind
to FTP and are released to activate other
cytoplasmic proteins
Signal transduction: initiated when ligands bind to
receptors activating a series of intermediary enzymes
downstream to produce changes in the cytoplasm

4. Exocytosis
Bulk movement of large molecules from inside
outside of cell
Is a form of vesicular transport the molecules are
trapped in the plasma membrane via a cytoplasmic
vesicle and is then released into extracellular space
Triggered by increase in Cytosolic Ca+
Protein secretion involving exocytosis may follow two Fig 3. Channel-linked receptors
pathways:
a. Constitutive secretion used for products that
are released from the cells continuously right after
they are synthesized
b. Regulated secretion triggered in the presence of
a signal (example digestive enzymes)
Membrane trafficking process of membrane
movement and recycling

D. Signal Reception & Transduction

Gap junctions: allow exchange of ions and small
molecules.
Target cells: Cells bearing receptors for specific ligands.
Types of signaling: Fig 4. Enzymatic receptors
1. Endocrine signaling: Signal molecules
(hormones) are carried in the blood to their
target cells
2. Paracrine signaling: The chemical ligand
diffuses in ECF but is rapidly metabolized so
that its effect is only local on target cells near its
source
3. Synaptic signaling: Type of paracrine
interaction; neurotransmitters act on adjacent Fig 5. G-protein-coupled receptors
cells via synapses

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III. Cytoplasmic Organelles
Cell = Cytoplasm (surrounds nucleus) +
Plasmalemma/plasma membrane
Integrins - proteins linking and connecting cytoplasmic
protein filaments w/ ECM
Organelles can be membranous (mitochondria,
nucleus) /non-membranous (ribosomes, proteasomes)
Cytoskeleton determines shape of the cell
Inclusions minor structures; deposits of
carbohydrates, lipids, or pigments
Protein synthesis takes place in the cytosol
C. Golgi apparatus
Fig 6. The Cell organelles
A. Ribosomes
Function: Production of proteins
Made up of rRNA subunits and peripheral proteins
During protein synthesis, many ribosomes bind to the
same strand of mRNA to from
polyribosomes/polysomes
B. Endoplasmic Reticulum
Cisternae: intercommunicating channels formed by
continuous membrane
RER
Prominent in cells for protein secretion
Presence of polyribosomes on cytosolic surface
and chaperonins
Function: (1) Production of membrane-
associated proteins, proteins of membranous
organelles and proteins to be excreted via
exocytosis; (2) synthesize acid hydrolases to be
transferred to the golgi apparatus
Signal-recognition protein (SRP): found on
new translated peptide sequences and inhibits
further peptide elongation
Movement of material to the Golgi apparatus is
via membrane-enclosed carriers called
Transport Vesicles
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EAC-MED 2021
ER-associated degradation (ERAD):
unsalvageable proteins are translocated to the
cytosol, conjugated into ubiquitin and degraded
by proteasomes
SER
Lack polyribosomes
Cisternae are sac-like
Function: (1) Synthesis of phospholipids and
steroids; (2) cytochrome P450 SER enzymes are
used for detoxification of exogenous molecules
like alcohol; (3) SER vesicles are responsible for
the sequestration and controlled release of Ca2+ -
particularly important in skeletal muscle and
assumes a form known as the sarcoplasmic
reticulum
Completes posttranslational modifications of proteins
produced in RER
Consists of smooth membranous saccules, some
vesicles and some flattened
Usually located near the nucleus
Cis face:
This is where transport vesicles merge
Forward movement of vesicles is promoted by
coat protein COP-II
Retrograde movement is promoted by COP-I
Trans face: large saccules/vacuoles accumulate,
condense and generate other vesicles that carry
completed protein products away from the Golgi
Functions: (1) Glycolysation; (2) sulfation; (3)
phosphorylation, (4) proteolysis of protein; (5) intiates
packing, concentration & storage of secretory
products
D. Secretory Granules
Originated as condensed vesicles in the Golgi
apparatus
Zymogen granules secretory granules with
dense contents of digestive enzymes
E. Lysosomes
Sites of intracellular digestion
Contains hydrolytic enzymes (acid hydrolases)
with phagocytic activity
Most common lysosomal enzymes (acid
hydrolases): proteases, nucleases, phosphatase,
phospholipases, sulfatases and -glucuronidase
Other enzymes include lysozymes and lysoferritin
Lipofuscin: wear and tear pigment in lysosomes;
product of accumulation of residual bodies in
long-lived cells
Heterolysosome: responsible for the digestion of
endocytosed material
Autophagy:
Removal of excess or nonfuctional
organelles; involves the use of
autophagosome
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Digested products from Oxidative phosphorylation

autophagosomes are reused in the
cytoplasm

Fig 8. Transmembrane space

1) Mitochondrial products enter the citric acid

cycle
2) O2 is reduced into H2O via the electron
transport chain (ETC)
3) Energy given off by the ETC is used to drive
H+ protons out into the outer membrane via
proton pumps
4) H+ flows back into the inner membrane due
to an electrochemical gradient; ATP
synthase uses this energy to convert ADP
into ATP.

Fig 7. Lysosomal functions H. Peroxisomes

Function: (1) Degradation of Hydrogen Peroxide
F. Proteasome (H2O2); (2) oxidation of long chain fatty
Small abundant protein complexes acids;(3) formation of bile acids and cholesterol
Function: Degrade denatured/nonfunctional Enzymes:
polypeptides Oxidases remove hydrogen atoms
Contains ATPase with ubiquitin which recognize Peroxidase (Catalase) breakdown
misfolded or denature proteins, oxidized amino H2O2
acids and target them for destruction. Detoxifies compounds and oxidizes fatty acids:
alcohol is oxidized into aldehyde (methanol
G. Mitochondria acetaldehyde)
Membrane-enclosed organelle
Powerhouse of the cell
Functions: (1) Aerobic respiration; (2) Production of
IV. CYTOSKELETON
ATP
More mitochondria are found in cells that require more
A. Microtubules
energy (cardiac muscle, cells of kidney tubules etc.)
Mitochondria of stressed cells may release Subunit: Tubulin
cytochrome c from the inner membrane to trigger Formed from - and - tubulin dimers; change
apoptosis length by adding/removing tubulin dimers
Structure: 9 microtubules = 1 centriole (arranged
Matrix Citric acid cycle perpendicularly; 2 centrioles = 1 centromere)
Intermembrane space Proton gradient Originates from centrosome (MTOC: microtubule
Inner membrane Have cristae; ETC& ATP organizing center)
Synthase found here Multiple functions, including:
Outer membrane contain transmembrane Intracellular transport of vesicles driven by
proteins called porins motor proteins:

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1) Kinesin (anterograde): drives transport

from center of cell toward periphery
2) Dynein(retrograde): drives transport
from periphery toward center of cell;
drives moment of cilia and flagella
Chromosome movement (during meiosis and
mitosis)
Movement of cilia and flagella (e.g. tail of
spermatozoa)

Fig 9. Centrosome & Centriole

B. Microfilaments
Subunit: Actin
Critical component of the contractile apparatus in
muscle cells
Function: Locomotion (eg: macrophages) in other
cells
Core of microvilli; links interior of cell to adjacent wall
Myosin: muscle fibers with actin; muscle contraction;
walks along microfilaments; transport of ATP along
F-actin

C. Intermediate Filaments
Structural: links interior of cell to adjacent cells (via
desmosomes) and surrounding extracellular matrix
(via hemidesmosomes)
Stable
Include the following:
Keratin (cytokeratins): in epithelial cells
Vimentin:
1) Found in cells derived from embryonic
mesenchyme
2) Desmin important Vimentin-like protein
found in muscle cells
Neurofilament: found in neruons
Lamins: form the nuclearl amina

V. INCLUSIONS
Not metabolically active
Not enclosed in a membrane
Storage site for lipid droplets, glycogen granules,
pigment granules and/or resuidual bodies (eg.
Liofuscin)

VI. REFERENCES:
1. Mescher, A. L. (2016). Junqueiras Basic Histology
Text and Atlas (14th ed.)

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