36 M. J.

KOZIOE

Cu (0.07 mg/lOO g) and one-fifth the Fe (0.87 mg). Unlike spinach leaves, quinoa
leaves do not contain saponins. Quinoa leaf protein has slightly more isoleucine (5.8%
of the protein) and valine (7.5%) and slightly less methionine + cystine (2.0%) and
phenylalanine + tyrosine (9.4%) than spinach. The fat in quinoa leaves contains 22%
linoleic acid; no y-linolenic acid was detected.
No se hall6 en todas estas lndias trigo ni otra especie de grano de 10sque en Europa nacen en
espigas; solo tres generos de semillas di6 el Creador a 10s naturales de esta tierra que les sirve de
pan, que son: el maiz, la quinua y el chiau.
In all these Indies is found neither wheat nor other species of grain which in Europe spring forth
in ears; to the inhabitants of this land the Creator gave only three kinds of seeds for their staples:
maize, quinoa and chiau.
Bernabt Cobo (1653)

INTRODUCTION
It has been estimated that the indigenous grains and pseudocereals may have ac-
counted for a quarter of the diet of the Inca empire (Antunez de Mayolo R., 1981).
Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is one of those pseudocereal grains which was
an important component of the diet of the pre-Colombian Andean peoples and was
used to complement, and at times even to replace completely, animal protein in the
diet (Antunez de Mayolo R., 198 1; Ballon et al., 1984; Tapia, 1979a). Pedro de VaIdivia
in 155 1 was the first European to mention quinoa when describing to Carlos I the
crops cultivated in the environs of Conception, Chile; other 16th century chroniclers
later identified its cultivation in Colombia (which included present-day Ecuador),
Peru, Argentina, and Bolivia (Tapia, 1979a). Its adaptation to high-altitude lands was
referred to by Pedro Cieza de Leon in 1560, who encountered it between Pasto (Co-
lombia) and Quito (Ecuador) and commented that in these areas there is very little
or no maize, because the soil is very cold and the maize seed very delicate; instead
there is an abundant cultivation by the natives of potatoes, quinoa and other roots
(Tapia, 1979a). In his royal commentaries, the Inca Garcilaso de la Vega stated that
second among the grains that are cultivated on the face of the earth is that which is
called quinua, and in Spanish mijo or little rice: which in grain and in colour it
somewhat resembles (Tapia, 1979a). The Inca also refers to the first exportation of
the grain to the Old World, which met with failure as the seeds arrived dead.
Bernabe Cobo, relying on information from Polo de Ondegardo, reported that on
the road to Chinchasuyo was the tomb capi in which was venerated a root of quinoa
that marked the site on which the city of Cuzco was believed to have been founded
(Tapia, 1979a). The importance of quinoa to the Incas can be inferred from its Quechua
name, chisiya mama, which translates as mother grain (National Research Council,
1989a). With the Spanish conquest came wheat and barley, foreign crops which did
well in most of the fields previously occupied by quinoa (Galwey et al., 1990). It is
not hard to imagine that the conquerors preferred their familiar grains nor that the
elite of the conquered eventually adopted not only the new customs but also some of
the culinary habits of their conquerors. That the cultivation of quinoa may have been
discouraged after the conquest because of its importance in Inca society and religion
(Galwey et al., 1990) is a point that can be contested (Cardenas, 1969). There is no
dispute, however, that the cultivation of quinoa declined earlier in the 20th century.
In Peru, production in 195 1 was 42.5 tonnes (metric tons), falling to 8 tonnes in 1975
 NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF QUINOA 37

(Narrea R., 1976). In Colombia, the cultivation of quinoa was abandoned almost
entirely and in Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina its cultivation was reduced to
a level just sufficient for its consumption in rural areas (Tapia, 1979a). This restriction
to consumption by peasants in rural areas had the unfortunate effect of stigmatizing
quinoa as a food of the poor.
Most of the varieties of quinoa contain saponins, bitter tasting triterpenoid glycosides
that are concentrated in the seed coat and which must be removed before consumption.
The most favored traditional method involves washing bitter quinoa with water in
the ratio of 1:8, quinoa:water, although the Incas also used several other methods of
removing the saponins in the seed coat such as: (a) mixing the grain with sand and
leaving it in the sun to bake, later separating the episperm by walking on the mixture
followed by winnowing; (b) lightly toasting the grain then placing it in woolen or
leather sacks and applying friction to remove the seed coat; or (c) milling gently with
a mortar and pestle (Antunez de Mayolo R., 1981). In addition to the development
of several sweet (low saponin or saponin-free) varieties such as Sajama, Kancolla,
Cheweca (Chehueca), and Blanca de Junin (Vela and Cabrera L., 1984) industrial
methods such as abrasive dehulling (polishing) have been devised to debitter the grain
(Torres and Minaya, 1980; Farfan et al., 1983; Reichert et al., 1986).
Quinoa is now in the nutritional limelight for various reasons. In developed countries
it represents an exotic rediscovery, being touted as the Mother Grain of the Incas
and lauded both at home and abroad for its protein, mineral, and vitamin content.
In the Andean countries such as Ecuador, this foreign interest has created a new export
market with the added advantage of removing the former stigma of quinoa as a food
of the poor, which in turn paves the way for its greater acceptance in the local diet.
The Quinoa Corporation in the United States successfully marketed about 650 tonnes
in 1988, aiming the grain at the health food sector (Galwey et al., 1990). It has been
cultivated on a trial basis at high altitudes in the Colorado Rockies since 1980 (National
Research Council, 1989a) and successful agricultural trials have been performed in
Canada, Denmark, England, Finland, Germany, and Holland (National Research
Council, 1989a; Galwey et al., 1990).
Such a resurgent interest in quinoa merits a full review of its nutritional value,
especially in view of the fact that the pendulum has swung from stigma to prodigious
praise of the grain. Latinreco S.A. has been conducting investigations with quinoa for
7 years, and the time now appears propitious to add the data we have collected to
those available in the literature to present a comprehensive review of the chemical
composition and nutritional quality of quinoa.
In the literature one can find used the terms variety, ecotype, and cultivar.
Galwey et al. (1990) and Risi C. and Galwey (1984) have provided excellent reviews
of the botany, genetics, and agronomy of quinoa. Yet as applied to quinoa in an
agricultural as opposed to taxonomic sense, these terms become somewhat confusing-
if not meaningless-if one considers quinoa a crop that has developed through a cyclic
differentiation (human vs natural selection) and introgressive hybridization (Wilson,
1990). In the agricultural sense, variety is perhaps best used to describe quinoa collected
from rural areas where farmers have not consciously applied any specific breeding
program; nevertheless, natural selection over time has resulted in the development of
certain ecotypes best suited to local edaphic and climatic conditions. The term cultivar
should be reserved for a quinoa derived from a conscious attempt to improve certain
agronomical characteristics through a rigorous breeding program. Differentiation
38 M. J. KOZIOJ!

among these three terms is more of interest in breeding programs than in general
nutritional analyses, especially at the current time when the quinoa commercially
available for human consumption is a mixture of varieties, cultivars, and ecotypes
due to its still relatively small-scale cultivation. For simplicity only the term variety
will be used here.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF QUINOA GRAINS

Proximate Analysis
Table 1 presents the results of proximate analyses of quinoa grain from two published,
and widely quoted, sources along with our data for varieties cultivated in the sierra of
Ecuador, along with global means simplistically obtained by calculating the means
of the means. Our analytical methods are presented at the end of this paper. The
Ecuadorian varieties of quinoa contain more fat and protein than the other Andean
varieties, a difference that is most likely due to genetic and climatic factors.
On a dry matter basis, quinoa shows a protein content higher than that found in
cereals but much less than that found in legumes (Table 2). However, it must be noted
that in the absence of a specific nitrogen:protein conversion factor for quinoa, protein
has been estimated by multiplying the values obtained for percentage nitrogen by the
default value of 6.25. If one estimates the protein content of quinoa using 5.70, a
general N:P factor for cereals (de Rahm, 1982) the mean protein content for quinoa

TABLE I

PROXIMATE ANALYSISOFQUINOA(PERCENT OF FRESH WT)

Cardozoand Tapia (1979)a Romero R. (1981jb

Component Mean NC Range Meall N Range

Moisture 12.7 58 6.8-20.7 12.9 58 5.4-20.7

Fat 5.0 60 1.8- 9.3 4.6 54 1.8- 8.2
Protein 13.8 77 7.5-22.1 14.3 74 9.6-22.1
Ash 3.4 60 2.2- 9.8 3.5 60 2.4- 9.7
Fiber 4.1 30 1.1-16.3 3.0 38 l.l- 5.8
Carbohydrate 59.7 50 38.7-71.3 61.4 49 46.0-77.4

Latinreco S.A.
Global

COmpOnent Mean N Range mead

Moisture 9.6 127 6.2-14.1 11.7

Fat 7.2 92 4.3- 9.5 5.6
Protein 15.7 127 10.8-21.9 14.6
Ash 3.3 73 2.0- 6.1 3.4
Fiber 2.9 69 1.2- 4.8 3.4
Carbohydrate 61.7 69 53.2-67.2 61.0

Values obtained from 34 and b21 literature 8ource8, of which 9 were in

c0mm0n.
c
Number of determinations.
d Global mean determined as the mean of mean values listed.
 NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF QUINOA 39

TABLE 2
COMPARISON OF THE COMPOSITION OF QUINOA WITH THAT OF SOME CEREALS
AND LEGUMES (g/ 100 g DRY WT)

Carbo-
F&It Protein Ash Fiber hydrate Kcal/lOOg

Quinoaa 6.3 16.5 3.8 3.6 69.0 399

RiWb 2.2 7.6 3.4 6.4 80.4 372

Barleyb 1.9 10.8 2.2 4.4 80.7 383

Maizeb 4.7 10.2 1.7 2.3 81.1 408

wheatb 2.3 14.3 2.2 2.8 78.4 392

LUpieb 7.0 39.1 4.0 14.6 35.3 361

BWb 1.1 28.0 4.7 5.0 61.2 367

S*yab 18.9 36.1 5.3 5.6 34.1 451

a Calculated on the basis of the global means presented in Table I.

b Means calculated from the data presented in Duke and Atchley (1986)
for: rice-a sativa; barley-Hordeum Vulgate; maize- Zea mays
subsp w and mexicana; wheat- Triticum aestivum and T. durwn;
lupine - Lupinus sp; bean - Phase~~~~ soya - Glycine max.
-

in Table 2 becomes 15.0% which is still higher than that for rice, barley, and maize
but similar to the protein content of wheat. Neither is quinoa particularly distinguished
by its caloric value.

Starch
In a proximate analysis of three varieties of quinoa, starch represented 60.4% of
fresh grain weight, reducing sugars 2.0%, nonreducing sugars 2.5%, crude fiber 2.5%,
and pentosans 3.2% (means calculated from the data presented by De Bruin, 1964).
Scarpati de Bricefio and Briceiio P. (1980) reported 52.2% total starch in quinoa with
an amylose content of 12.4%, which agrees with a value of 11.0% amylose reported
by Atwell et al. (1983). This amylose content in quinoa starch is lower than that found
in rice (17%), maize, or wheat (28%) (Swinkels, 1985). An average chain length of 27
residues for debranched quinoa starch indicates that its amylopectin component is
similar to amylopectin from other sources, while an A-type X-ray diffraction pattern
indicates a similarity of quinoa starch with other native cereal starches (Atwell
et al., 1983).
Wolf et al. (1950) reported that the diameter of the starch granules of quinoa mea-
sured between 1.5 and 3.0 pm, while Scarpati de Briceiio and Briceiio P. ( 1982) reported
sizes ranging from 0.71 to 6.39 pm for six varieties of quinoa, with the majority of
the starch granules (>80%) being between 0.71 and 1.42 pm in diameter. In a pure
starch preparation, Atwell et al. (1983) reported particle sizes ranging from 0.63 to
8.00 pm with about 94% of the granules being between 1.OOand 3.17 pm (calculated
from their Fig. 1). Varriano-Marston and DeFrancisco (1984), on the basis of their
electron microscopical analyses, believe that two populations of starch granules exist
in quinoa in a bimodal size distribution, one centering on a granule of 0.5-pm diameter
40 M. J. KOZIOk:

and the other of 1.3-pm diameter. Other than presenting one nice electronmicrograph
to illustrate what they believe, they present no statistical data to support their statement.
The diameters reported for starch granules in quinoa are smaller than those reported
for maize (range l-23 pm) and for wheat (2-40 pm) (Wolf et al., 1950; Swinkels,
1985). Gelatinization temperatures are related to the size of the starch granules, in
general being much higher for small-granule starches (Kulp, 1973; Swinkels, 1985).
In comparison with rice, which also has polygonal starch granules, quinoa shows
much lower gelatinization temperatures, initiating the gelatinization process at tem-
peratures similar to those for wheat and potato starches (Table 3).
Atwell et al. (1983) also reported that quinoa starch initiated gelatinization at 57-
64C and with techniques of differential scanning calorimetry and analysis of bire-
fringence by polarized light microscopy further confirmed that quinoa starch gelatinizes
in a temperature range similar to that ofwheat. The pasting behavior of quinoa starch,
however, is considerably different from that of wheat starch and at equal starch con-
centrations shows higher viscosities when measured with a Brabender amylograph,
viz. 570 BU (Brabender units) at 95C 790 BU after 60 min at 95C and 1200 BU
after cooling to 35C for quinoa as opposed to 2 10, 180, and 660 BU for wheat under
the same conditions (Atwell et al., 1983).
A different effect was observed with whole quinoa flour, which gave viscosity mea-
surements in Brabender units about a tenth those of nonmalted wheat flour, indicating
a high a-amylase activity which was confirmed by enzyme assays (Lorenz and Nyanzi,
1989). Atwell et al. (1988) observed a four-fold increase in the activity of a-amylase
in quinoa after 12 h of imbibition in water at 22C and found that mixing 10%
germinated quinoa flour with 90% hard red spring wheat flour gave a viscosity of 185
BU compared with 245 BU for 100% hard red spring wheat, an effect attributed to
the activity of the quinoa cu-amylase.
On the other hand, Varriano-Marston and DeFrancisco (1984) claimed that there
was very little amylolytic activity during the germination of quinoa (after 24 h imbi-

TABLE 3
SIZEOFSTARCHGRANULEANDGELATINIZATIONTEMPERATUREOFSTARCHES

Size of starch Gelatinization temp - "C

Starch source granule - pm Start 95-100%

Quinoaa:
Cheweca colorada 0.81 57 89
Wifulla 0.86 58 69
Kancol la 0.89 58 66
Blanca de Juli 0.94 56 70

Sajama 1.07 56 72
Cheweca blanca 1.45 58 72

Riceb 5 68 78

Maizeb 15 62 72

Potatob 33 58 68

wheatb 15 58 64

.a Scarpati de Briceiio and Briceiio P. (1982).

b Swinkels (1985).
 NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF QUINOA 41

bition) based on what they perceived as a lack of any significant erosion of the surfaces
of the starch granules. Again, this is a subjective assessment that is not supported by
any statistical data, as indeed the task of taking sufficient measurements to achieve a
statistical certainty that what one is seeing in one electron micrograph is indeed rep-
resentative of a whole population or, in this case, of a metabolic process, is rather
daunting. The initial process of seed germination involves the synthesis and mobili-
zation of enzymes and growth by cellular expansion through the imbibition of
water. In addition to the necessity for increasing the osmotic potential of the cells is
the concomitant necessity for the synthesis of additional cell membranes and primary
cell walls, processes which one could reasonably expect to be fueled by utilization of
carbohydrate reserves. Thus, interpretation of the electron micrographs as indicating
a lack of significant amylolytic activity would seem to be neither consistent with what
is known about the initial stages of germination nor sufficiently convincing to refute
the observations of Atwell et al. (1988) and of Lorenz and Nyanzi (1989) on the
activity of Lu-amylase in quinoa flour.
Atwell et al. (1988) suggested that the a-amylase activity of quinoa flour might be
usefully employed not only in reducing the viscosity of the starchy weaning foods
(mainly potatoes) used by the Aymara Indians of the northern Bolivian highlands,
but also in increasing the palatability and effective caloric density of these preparations.
Such improvements in the nutritional quality of weaning foods would be likely to
have considerable impact in a region with a high infant mortality at weaning.
The size of the starch granules in a flour influences directly the quality of the dough
used for baking and the manufacture of pastas. It has been shown with wheat that
small starch granules destabilize the dough (DAppolonia and Gilles, 197 1; Kulp,
1973) an important factor to be borne in mind when attempting to substitute quinoa
flour for wheat or other flours. A second consideration in baking is the amylose content
of the flour, which at 1 l- 12% in quinoa is less than half that found in wheat or maize
(28% each) (Scarpati de Briceiio and Briceiio P., 1980; Atwell et al., 1983; Swinkels,
1985). Nevertheless, studies on the elaboration of various products have shown that
precooked quinoa flour can substitute for up to 15% of the precooked maize flour
used in the production of arepas or for wheat semolina in the production of pastas
without any noticeable changes in the functional or organoleptic characteristics of the
products (Vela and Cabrera L., 1984). In Bolivia, addition of quinoa flour at 5 and
10% to wheat flour resulted in a decrease in loaf volume, but this effect could be
countered by the addition of 20 or 40 ppm of sodium bromate (Bean, 1981). No
adverse physiological reactions were seen in children fed bread containing quinoa
flour. In bread making, the limits to incorporation of quinoa flour seem to be in the
range of lo-13% (Tapia, 1979b; Romero et al. 198.5) levels of substitution which
generally result in an acceptable quality of bread but with reduced porosity; incor-
poration of quinoa flour in bread at higher percentages (>20%) gives unacceptable
products (Tapia, 1979b). In pastas, the limits to the substitution with quinoa flour are
on the order of 30-40% while in sweet biscuits (cookies) the limit can be as high as
60% (Bacigalupo, 1973).
Quinoa flour can be extruded to produce puffed or textured (lenticular) snack or
breakfast type foods with good organoleptic profiles and little impairment of the
nutritional quality when compared with the whole grain (Romero et al., 1985).
Such foods would be an attractive way to incorporate quinoa into local (i.e., Latin
American) diets.
42 M. J. KOZIOE

Fat
The fatty acid composition of quinoa oil is similar to that of soya oil (Table 4). The
high concentrations of linoleic (Cl 8:2n6) and y-linolenic (Cl 8:3n6) acids make such
oils prone to oxidative rancidity. Soya oil, however, contains 80 ppm of a-tocopherol
(vitamin E), 640 ppm of y-tocopherol, and 180 ppm of d-tocopherol, natural antiox-
idants that serve to stabilize the oil (Hudson and Ghavami, 1984). Quinoa oil has also
shown remarkable stability toward oxidation in our preliminary investigations. The
mean vitamin E concentration of three quinoa varieties reported by De Bruin (1964)
was 52 ppm on a dry matter basis, which converts to 754 ppm of c4+tocopherol in the
oil. We found quinoa oil to contain from 690 to 740 ppm a-tocopherol and 790 to
930 ppm y-tocopherol; upon refining these concentrations fall to 450 and 230 ppm,
respectively, which are in excess of the concentrations of 100-200 ppm assumed
necessary for an optimal antioxidant activity of these isomers (Hudson and
Ghavami, 1984).
The National Research Council (1989b) recommends that fat intake in the U.S.
diet not exceed 30% of total caloric intake and that intake of the n-6 fatty acids remain
at the current level of 7% of calories, but should not exceed 10% of total caloric intake
as the long-term consequences of a higher intake have not yet been determined. Given
that the National Research Council (1989~) quotes a study which provided evidence
that an intake of linoleic acid at l-2% of total caloric intake was sufficient to prevent

TABLE 4

FATTY ACID PROFILES(AS PERCENTAGEOFLIPID FRACTION)

Fatty acid Quinoaa Quinoab soya= PWlutC Olive=

Myristic 0.2 NRd NR NR NR

(c14:o)
Palmitic 9.9 11.0 9.4 9.3 9.6
(C16:O)
Palmitoleic 0.1 NR NR NR NR
(C16:ln7)
Stearic 0.8 0.7 4.4 2.0 2.8
(c18:o)
Oleic 24.5 22.0 21.6 44.7 79.4
(C18:ln9)
Linoleic 50.2 56.0 55.2 35.8 7.6
(ClE:Zn6)
Linolenic 5.4 7.0 9.4 NR 0.6
(C18:3n6)

Eicosanoics 2.7 NR NR 4.2 NR

(all C2Os)
Docosanoics 2.7 NR NR 3.4 NR
(all CZZS)
Tetracosanoics 0.7 NR NR 1.9 NR
(all C24s)

a U. Rracco (personal communication), means of 4 varieties of quinoa

(Sajama, Porotoc, Imbaya and Cochasqui).

b SBnchez Marroquin (1983).

' Simpson and Osborne (1978).

d
NR=not reported; minimal detection concentrations not given.
 NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF QUINOA 43

both biochemical and clinical symptoms of essential fatty acid deficiency, this rec-
ommended intake of 7% of total calories as n-6 fatty acids seems a bit high. Nevertheless,
at this recommended level and taking into consideration the current recommended
energy allowances (National Research Council, 1989c), a 100-g portion of cooked
quinoa would provide 7- 11% of the daily allowance of the n-6 fatty acids for children
aged 1- 10 years, and 5-6% of the daily allowance for adolescents and adults (calculated
on the basis that 100 g of cooked quinoa would provide 1.11 g of the n-6 fatty acids).
Galwey et al. ( 1990) considered the fat content of quinoa too low for oil extraction
to be considered economically attractive, yet in maize the fat content is only on the
order of 2-5% (at a seed moisture content of lo-14%) (Duke and Atchley, 1986).
Quinoa, on the other hand, shows fat concentrations in the range of 2- 10% (see Table
l), and it has been estimated that with improved methods of cultivation quinoa could
yield 80-400 kg of oil/ha compared with the oil yields of maize (20-50 kg/ha), soya
(350-425 kg/ha), sunflower (330-510 kg/ha), or peanut (260-480 kg/ha) (Koziol,
1990a). Further, with linoleic and linolenic acids accounting for 55-63% of the lipid
fraction, this quinoa oil would be a potentially valuable dietary source of the essential
fatty acids.
De Bruin (1964) found quinoa oil to contain 5.2% of unsaponifiable matter, 1.8%
of phosphatides (lecithins), 1.5% of sterols, and to have a specific gravity at 20C of
0.8910, a refractive index at 25C of 1.4637, an acid number of 16.5, a saponification
number of 190, and an iodine value (Wijs) of 129.
Proteins
One possible method for classifying proteins is according to their biological function,
which distinguishes between the metabolically active proteins found primarily in the
embryo and aleurone cells and the storage proteins usually found in the endosperm
but which can also occur in the germ. The metabolically active proteins coincide with
the albumin and globulin fractions. Storage proteins are classified as being of low or
high molecular weight and according to the convention set by Osborne (1907), the
former are called ghadins when referring to wheat or prolamins if referring to other
cereals, while the latter are called glutenins in wheat and glutelins in other cereals.
Characterization of the protein fractions of quinoa is somewhat obfuscated by the
fact that each of the four papers quoted in Table 5 did something different; Telleria
Rios (1976) combined the insoluble protein fraction with the glutelin fraction, Scarpati
de Briceiio and Briceiio P. (1980) combined the insoluble protein with the prolamin
fraction, while from the data presented by Ballot-r et al. ( 1982) and Romero R. (198 1)
it can be calculated that they found 29.2 and 13.1% insoluble protein, respectively.
Romero R. (198 l), Telleria Rios (1976), and Scarpati de Briceiio and Briceiio P.
(1980) report concentrations of albumins + globulins greater than those found in
maize, rice, or wheat. As the albumins + globulins are primarily cytoplasmic proteins,
their concentrations should reflect the percentages of grain represented by its germ.
The germ accounts for 25-30% of the weight of a quinoa grain (Cardozo and Tapia,
1979; Fuentes P., 1972) 10% of a grain of maize, and 2-3% of the grains of rice and
wheat (Lasztity, 1984). Thus, these higher concentrations of albumins + globulins are
consistent with the quinoa grain having a greater percentage of its weight represented
by its germ. Why Ballon et al. (1982) found so little albumins + globulins in the
protein of quinoa is difficult to explain and the materials and methods section of their
paper is too abbreviated to shed any light on their contrary results.
44 M. .I. KOZIOE

TABLE 5

PROTEIN FRACTIONS(AS PERCENTAGEOF TOTAL PROTEIN)

Albumins + GlUteninS/ Gliadinsl

globulins glutelins prolamins

Quinoaa 76.6 12.7 7.2

b
Quinoa 55.0 39.8* 5.2

QuinoaC 43.6 29.2 27.2*

d
Quinoa 10.9 59.4 0.5

Maizee 38.3 37.2 24.5

Ricee 19.2 71.9 8.9

wheate 17.1 54.4 28.5

a Romero R. (1981).

b Telleria Rios (1976); * insoluble protein residue

combined with this fraction.

Scarpati de Briceiio and Bricek P. (1980); * insol-

uble protein residue combined with this fraction.
d
Ball611 --et al. (1982).

e Lkztity (1984).

Gluten is a protein complex formed by covalent and noncovalent bonds and other
interactions primarily between the low and high molecular weight storage proteins
(gliadins and glutenins in wheat or prolamins and glutelins in other cereals), but also
possibly involving proteins in the albumin and globulin fractions and nonprotein
components such as lipids and carbohydrates (Lasztity, 1984). The data of Romero
R. (198 l), Telleria Rios (1976) and of Ball&r et al. (1982) suggest that there is very
little prolamin in quinoa to enter into the reaction that forms gluten, which could be
the reason that Galwey (1989) stated that quinoa does not contain gluten, although
no data was given to support this statement. A lack of gluten would be another factor
restricting the use of quinoa flour in breadmaking.
Cytoplasmic and storage proteins differ greatly in terms of their constituent amino
acids. Storage proteins generally contain greater amounts of glutamic acid and proline
and smaller amounts of arginine, lysine, threonine and tryptophan, while cytoplasmic
proteins contain less glutamic acid and proline and more arginine and lysine (Lasztity,
1984). The influence of the higher concentrations of the albumin + globulin fraction
in quinoa compared with maize, rice, and wheat is evident in the amino acid com-
position of the proteins. As expected, quinoa shows higher concentrations of arginine
and lysine and lower concentrations of glutamic acid and proline than these cereals
(Tables 6 and 7). In comparison with the cereals, the protein of quinoa contains more
histidine, methionine + cystine, and isoleucine and is particularly rich in lysine
(Table 6).
In view of the recommendations of the FAO/WHO/UNU (1985) quinoa possesses
a remarkably well-balanced protein fraction. This well-balanced nature of quinoa pro-
tein was recognized early on, and Tapia (1979b) calculated that quinoa incorporated
at concentrations above 12% would improve substantially the quality of the protein
 NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF QUINOA 45

TABLE 6

ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS (g/lOOg PROTEIN)

HIS ILE LEU LYS M+C P+T THR TRY VAL

Quinoaa 3.2 4.9 6.6 6.0 5.3 6.9 3.7 0.9 4.5

Quinoa b 3.1 3.8 6.5 6.1 4.2 7.6 3.9 1.3 4.5

M&Xl 3.2 4.4 6.6 6.1 4.8 7.3 3.8 1.1 4.5

Rice 2.1 4.1 8.2 3.8 3.6 10.5 3.6 1.1 6.1

Maized 2.6 4.0 12.5 2.9 4.0 8.6 3.6 0.7 5.0

wheatd 2.0 4.2 6.0 2.6 3.7 8.2 2.8 1.2 4.4

Recommendations of
WRO/FAO/UNU (1985)

Infants 2.6 4.6 9.3 6.6 4.2 7.2 4.3 1.7 5.5

Preschool 1.9 2.8 6.6 5.8 2.5 6.3 3.4 1.1 3.5

School children 1.9 2.8 4.4 4.4 2.2 2.2 2.8 0.9 2.5

Adults 1.6 1.3 1.9 1.6 1.7 1.9 0.9 0.5 1.3

= Means of the values reported by: Cardozo and Tapia (1979), Mahoney et al. (1975),
Risi C. and Galwey (1984), Romero R. (1981) and SBnchez Marroquin (1983).
b
Values from Latinreco S.A.

Means of values presented by LBsztity (1984) and Romero R. (1981).

d
Means of values presented by Lkztity (1984), Risi C. and Galwey (1984) and
Romero R. (1981).

Abbreviations: HIS-histidine, ILE-isoleucine, LEU- leucine, LYS- lysine, M+C-

methionine+ cystine, P+T- phenylalanine+ tyrosine, THR- threonine, TRY- tryptophan,
VAL- valine.

of various foods. Indeed, the data of Lopez (1973) showed that mixing 20% quinoa
flour with 80% wheat flour increased the lysine content by 48% in his experimental
diets for rats. However, as noted earlier, Vela and Cabrera L. ( 1984) showed that
substitution with quinoa flour at amounts greater than 15% resulted in aesthetically
unacceptable products. Taking this 15% as a current limit for the incorporation of
quinoa into other flours, the lysine content of type 2000 wheat flour would be improved
by 18%, of barley by 24%, and of maize and type 405 wheat flours by 35%. Histidine
concentrations would be improved by 22 and 2 1% and methionine + cystine concen-
trations by 15 and 2 1% in barley and maize flours, respectively. The tryptophan content
of maize would be improved by 33%.
Alvistur et al. (1953) compared the efficiency of the protein from quinoa with that
of milk on the growth of rats subjected to a depletion-repletion diet and concluded
that the efficiency of the utilization of quinoa protein was superior to that of milk.
White et al. (1955) also conducted a depletion-repletion diet (14 days each, depletion
and repletion, diets at 9% protein with seven rats per diet) and found in their first
experiment that rats fed on quinoa gained 48.9 t- 6.99 g vs 37.7 + 6.37 g for rats fed
on casein while in a second experiment the weight gain was 46.9 + 6.69 g for quinoa
vs 45.4 ? 6.37 g for milk protein.
Table 8 summarizes the results of four studies on the protein efficiency ratios (PER)
of quinoa expressed as percentages of a casein control. Raw quinoa flours exhibit PER
46 M. J. KOZIOk:

TABLE 7

NONESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS (g/100 g PROTEIN)

ALA ARG ASP GLU GLY PRO HPR SER

QUi*Oaa 4.6 7.3 7.2 11.6 6.1 3.2 0.3 3.5

b
Quinaa 4.4 9.1 0.3 14.7 6.0 3.3 NDC 4.6

Mean 4.5 0.5 7.8 13.2 6.1 3.3 0.3 4.1

Riced 6.0 6.9 10.0 19.7 4.7 4.9 NRe 6.3

Maizef 7.3 4.2 6.9 18.8 4.0 9.1 NR 5.1

wheatf 3.6 4.5 5.0 29.5 4.0 10.2 NR 4.8

a Means of values reported by: Cardozo and Tapia (1979), Mahoney --et al.
(1975), Risi C. and Galwey (1984), Romero R. (1981) and Skchez
Marroquin (1983).
b
Values from Latinreco S.A.

ND-not determined.
d
Bressani --et al. (1971).
e NR-not reported.
f Heans of values reported by: LBsztity (1984) and Risi C. and Galwey
(1984).

Abbreviations: ALA- alanine, ARG- arginine, ASP- aspartic acid, GLU-

glutamic acid, GLY- glycine, PRO- proline, HPR-hydroxyproline, SER-
serine.

values higher than those of wheat, and particularly noteworthy is that in the studies
of Mahoney et al. (1975) and Hurrell(l988, personal communication) cooked quinoa
exhibited PER values greater than those of the casein control. It is most unusual for
a plant protein to approximate so closely the quality of casein. Interestingly, Mahoney
et al. (1975) observed that they could duplicate the effects of the 20% quinoa flour-
80% wheat flour diet by adding 0.2% lysine to wheat flour.
The data of Telleria Rios et al. (1978) must be interpreted with caution. Cooking
generally enhances PER values and treating the quinoa with hot water for 20 min to
extract saponins would also partially cook the grains. Although it is clear that the low
values of PER in rats fed bitter quinoa are partially due to a lower acceptance of the
food, reflected in the lower values for food consumption and weight gain reported in
their study, the higher PER values in the hot water extracted quinoa should be inter-
preted as due to the combined effects of saponin removal and partial cooking.
L6pez de Romafia et al. ( 1978) investigated the suitability of quinoa in infant nu-
trition in eight children recovering in a hospital from severe malnutrition (mean age
12.8 * 8.2 months, range 4-29 months). The study used six common Peruvian diets,
five of which were prepared from a potato-wheat noodle (PW) base supplemented
with milk (PW-M), fish (PW-F), egg (PW-E), beans (PW-B), or a commercial product
(PW-CP) representing a mixture of maize and soya flours with fat, semidefatted milk,
and sugar; protein in the sixth diet (QO) was supplied equally by quinoa (polished
and washed Sajama) and oats. All diets provided 10% of total calories as protein. Each
child spent 9 days on each of the six diets which were presented in the order: PW-M,
PW-F, PW-E, QO, PW-CP, and PW-B. Nitrogen and fat absorption, at 67.3% of
 NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF QUINOA 47

TABLE 8

PROTEIN EFFICIENCYRATIOS
PERas %
Study Protein SOIlIce of casein
Mahoneyg fi. (1975) Casein 100
(10% dietary protein) wheat flour 32
Quinoa (Sajama) flour 78
Cooked quinoa 102
80% wheat flour+ 20% quinoa flour 55
Telleria Rios St. (1978) Casein 100
(10% dietary protein) Quinoa blanca, whole grain flour 44
Quinoa blanca. hot water (87 C) 93
extraction of saponins
Quinoa colorada, whole grain flour 47
Quinoa colorada, hot water (87 C) 85
extraction of saponins
Sajama (sweet quinoa), washed in 74
water at 50 C
Sajama, washed in water at 87 OC 85
Hurrell (1988, personal Casein 100
comunication) Quinoa (polished) 89
(10% dietary protein) Cooked quinoa (polished) 105
Wheat flour (type 550) 23
Cooked wheat flour (type 550) 31
BurrelI (1989, personal Casein 100
comunication) Bitter quinoa 69
(10% dietary protein) Water-washed bitter quinoa 86
Polished bitter quinoa 90
Sweet quinoa (Sajama) 93

nitrogen ingested and 45.6% of fat ingested, when the children were on the quinoa-
oat diet was significantly lower (P < 0.05) when compared with the nitrogen and fat
absorption on the other five diets (nitrogen absorption = 78.8-82.4% of nitrogen
ingested and fat absorption = 26.6-37.4% of fat ingested). As intact quinoa germs
(cotyledons) (sic) were found in the feces of the infants, the authors concluded that
the quinoa was not sufficiently processed to obtain maximum nutritional benefit.
First, there seems to be some confusion on the part of the authors on the botanical
distinction between germ and cotyledon so it remains unclear which was actually
isolated from the feces. Second, in their materials and methods section they stated
that the meals were homogenized for presentation in either liquid or pure (pap) form;
if recognizable germs/cotyledons were isolated from the feces then one must assume
that the homogenization was not very efficient. Third, Sajama is a recognized sweet
variety of quinoa, i.e., one with little or no saponins. Polishing, followed by washing,
would be expected to remove any saponins that Sajama might contain so it would
appear most unlikely that saponins could be blamed for the decreases in nitrogen and
fat absorption reported in this study.
Hypothesizing that the indigestibility of the grain might be the reason for the de-
creased absorption of nitrogen and fat, Lopez de Romaiia et al. (198 1) conducted a
follow-up study with infants recovering in hospital from malnutrition using two diets
based on whole or milled quinoa and a control diet in which casein served as the
protein source. Six males with a mean age of 13.8 months (range 10-l 8 months) were
fed sequentially for 9 days on each of the diets: casein control, whole quinoa, quinoa
flour, and a second casein control. Although nitrogen absorption did not differ sig-
48 M. J. KOZIOJ!

nificantly between milled and whole quinoa (69.8% and 66.6 of nitrogen ingested,
respectively), both remained inferior to the casein control (absorption = 83.0% of
nitrogen ingested). The percentage of dietary fat passed in feces in infants on the
quinoa flour diet (8.7% of fat ingested) was lower than that of infants on the casein
control diet (11.6% of fat ingested); fecal dietary fat in infants on the whole quinoa
diet, at 2 1.2% of fat ingested, was still high although it was half the value observed in
the previous study (Lopez de Romaiia et al., 1978).
Interestingly, the biological values (retained nitrogen as a percentage of absorbed
nitrogen) were 43.4% for whole quinoa and 50.7% for quinoa flour compared with a
control value of 45.8% for casein, thereby confirming in a study with humans the
good quality of quinoa protein (Lopez de Romaiina et al., 1981).

Polyamines
One of the objections to quinoa is its rather characteristic earthy taste, which has
been ascribed to its polyamines (Farfan et al., 1983) nitrogen storage compounds
whose names are very descriptive of their odors. Table 9 lists the polyamines found
in quinoa along with their concentrations in other foodstuffs. Although quinoa does
contain considerably more polyamines than whole wheat, maize, barley, or pea, it
contains only about a fourth the amount found in wheat germ, a well accepted health
food. It would therefore seem reasonable to assume that even if polyamines contribute
to the characteristic flavor of quinoa, they are not solely responsible.

Vitamins
Table 10 shows the vitamin contents of quinoa grain compared with some cereals
on a dry matter basis: it contains substantially less niacin and more riboflavin (B2),

TABLE 9

Spermine Spermidine Putrescine Total

Quinoa Kancollaa 396 1,750 554 2,690

Quinoa Sajamaa 238 1,505 475 2,218

Beana 1,822 396 396 2,614

wheat germa 1,109 4,434 4,831 10,374

Whole wheatb 33 133 145 311

MaizeC 32 115 441 588

BarleyC 46 188 134 368

P&TC 160 380 17 557

a Fat-f.%, --et al. (1983): b can- Phaseolus vulgaris var. Rosinha G-2;
commercial wheat germ.
b
Calculated from values for wheat germ. assuming the germ accounts
for 3X of the weight of the grain.

' Smith (1970): maize-Zea- - CY. Hy2X07, barley-Hordeum vulgare

CY. Zephyr, pea- --Pisum sativum cv. Meteor.

Molecular weights, ngln mole: spermine= 202.34, spermidine= 145.24,

putrescine= 88.15.
 NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF QUINOA 49

TABLE 10

VITAMIN CONCENTRATIONS (mg/lOO g DRY WT)

Vitamin Quinoaa Riceb Barleyb "heath

Thiamin (B1) 0.38 0.47 0.49 0.55

Riboflavin (82) 0.39 0.10 0.20 0.16

Niacin (B3) 1.06 5.98 5.44 5.88

Ascorbic acid (C) 4.00 0 0 o*

6-Tocopherol 5.37 0.18 0.35 1.15

p-C~~Ot~~~ 0.39 NRC 0.01 0.02

a Means of values reported by: Coulter and Lorenz (1990), De Bruin

(1964), Duke and Atchley (1986). Risi C. and Galwey (1984) and
Romero R. (1981).
b * a range of 0.00-1.50 mg of vitamin C is
Souci et
-- al. (1986);
reported for wheat.

' NR-not reported.

cu-tocopherol (E), and carotenes than rice, barley, or wheat. The values for ascorbic
acid (C) should be treated with caution as this vitamin is highly susceptible to oxidation:
thus for quinoa values from 0 (De Bruin, 1964) to 63.0 mg/lOO g (Alvistur et al.,
1953) have been reported. These data for vitamin concentrations can be misleading
as they represent values on a dry weight basis, and both sweet and bitter quinoa are
usually washed before being cooked and bitter quinoa may even have been subjected
to polishing (abrasive dehulling) to remove its saponins. To estimate the effects of
such treatment, we prepared several quinoa samples for analysis of their vitamin con-
tent: the results are presented in Table 11 along with calculations of the percentages
of the recommended daily allowances that a 100-g edible portion of quinoa would
provide.
Immediately obvious upon comparing Tables 10 and 11 is that we found much
less vitamin E and more niacin and thiamin in quinoa. As the concentrations of
vitamins C and K, were very low in the first two quinoa samples analyzed (less than
2 mg and 2 pg, respectively, per 100 g dry wt) it was not considered worthwhile to
continue the analysis of these two vitamins in the remaining samples. There was little
difference in the vitamin content between sweet and bitter quinoa. The removal of
saponins from bitter quinoa either by polishing or by washing would be expected to
enhance the vitamin concentrations slightly by altering the grain weight; in one case
by the removal of the seed coat and in the other by the leaching of saponins and
proteins (about 6% of the protein fraction is lost) and removal of adherent debris. In
general, the vitamin concentrations tended to increase in the debittered quinoa with
the exception of riboflavin which stayed constant and of niacin and biotin which
decreased.
More important are the decreases in washed, bitter quinoa upon cooking. Gener-
alizing for adolescents and adults, a 100-g edible portion of quinoa would provide
10% of the daily allowances of Bh, 9-l 5% of pantothenic acid, 12% of folic acid, 7-
24% of biotin, 6% of riboflavin and of niacin equivalents (tryptophan is included in
this estimate), and 3-6% of the estimated daily intake of choline (National Research
Council, 1989c).
 50 M. J. KOZIOE

TABLE I1

EFFECTSOF PROCESSINGON VITAMIN CONCENTRATIONSIN QUINOA

Per 100 g dry weight
Vitamin/ h.?L?t Bitter Polished Washed
supplement Units quinoa quinoa bitter bitter
A ~g RE ~6 ~6 c6 ~6
E mgci-TE 1.5 1.5 4.5 2.9
Thiamin (Bl) w 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7
Riboflavin (B2) w 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4
Niacin (B3) mg NE 2.0 1.5 1.1 1.1
B6 w 0.7 0.5 0.8 0.7
Pantothenic acid w 2.9 1.9 2.8 2.1
Folic acid Pg 112 116 188 151
Biotin Pg 24 30 20 22
Iositol mg 34 39 23 27
Choline w 98 68 82 76

Per 100 g
dry weight Per 100 g edible portion
Cooked Cooked
Vitamin/ washed washed % of
supplement Units bitter bitter RDAa RDA
A ,e RE ~6 c3 1000 Cl
E mg d-TE 0.7 0.2 10 2
Thiamin (Bl) w3 0.6 0.2 1.5 1
Riboflavin (B2) w 0.3 0.1 1.8 6
Niacin (B3) mg NE 0.8 0.3 20 gb
B6 mg 0.6 0.2 2.2 10
Pantothenic acid =sT 1.8 0.6 4-7 9-15
Folic acid m 69 24 200 12
Biotin IJg 21 7 30-100 7-24
Inositol mg 21 7
Choline w 69 24

a
National Research Council (1989~); recommendeddietary allowances were taken
as the maximumvalues listed for any age/sex group, excluding additional re-
quirements due t pregnancy or lactation. RE= retinol equivalents; 1 RE= 1 pg
retinol or 6 pg b-carotene. d.-TE=c+tocopherol equivalents; 1 a-TE= 1 mg of
d-U-tocopherol.
b NE= niacin equivalent; 1 NE= 1 mg of niacin or 60 mg of dietary tryptophan.
Dietary tryptophan YBS taken into accnnnt in this estimation and increased the
XRDAof NE from 1% t 6%.

Minerals

Table 12 compares the mineral composition of quinoa with that of some cereals.
From the literature surveyed to obtain this information for quinoa, three values were
omitted from the data presented in Table 12; INIAP ( 1986) reported sodium concen-
trations of 10,600 and 4200 ppm in two varieties of quinoa (values one to two orders
of magnitude greater than those reported in the other studies), and Cardozo and Tapia
( 1979) reported one magnesium concentration of 11,600 ppm (one order of magnitude
greater than those reported in the other studies).
 NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF QUINOA 51

TABLE 12

MINERAL COMPOSITION (mg/kg DRY WT)

Quinoa
Range Mean Rice= Barleya Wheat= Maizea

CC3 200-3900b 1487 69 430 503 171

P 1290~6300b 3837 1378 3873 4677 2926
Fe s-321b 132 7 32 38 21C
K 5000-19800b 9267 1183 5028 5783 3771

Mg 1300-4600b 2496 735 1291 1694 1371

Na 12-425b 122 69 203 89 69
CU 6-87b 51 2 3 NRd
MII 19-17ab 100 23 19 39 5
Zn 12-99b 44 6 35 47 29
Cl 1100-2300e 1533 NR 260 633 137
S 1500-2200e 1933 NR NR NR NR
Si02 1150-148Of 1315 NR 5 197 NR
Al 60-170e 110 NR NR NR NR
B 8-13e 10 0.3 5 NR 2

CO 0.04-0.05e 0.05 0.01 0.08 0.02 NR

MO O.Ole 0.9 0.5 NR 0.6

a Souci --et al. (1986).

b Data from: Ball& et
-- al. (1984), Car d ozo and Tapia (1979), Coulter and
~orenz (1990), De Bruin (1964), Duke and Atchley (1986), INIAP (1986),
morales (1975), Risi C. and Galwey (1984), %nchez Marroquin (1983),
Voss (1990) and White gal. (1955).
c
Ball& --et al. (1984).
d
NR= not reported.

e De Bruin (1964); only one value reported for molybdenum.

f Data from Cardozo and Tapia (1979) and De Bruin (1964).

Quinoa contains more calcium, iron, magnesium, copper, manganese, and chloride
than the other cereals. Again, data expressed on a dry weight basis for the whole grain
are of little use in a nutritional assessment. Alvarez et al. ( 1990) presented weights for
100 g of seeds for 30 varieties of quinoa; the mean weight was 0.25 g/100 seeds. From
a sample of polished quinoa, we obtained a mean weight of 0.24 g/ 100 polished seeds,
implying that the seed coat accounts for about 4% of the weight of a quinoa seed. In
our industrial trials on debittering quinoa through polishing we found that the loss of
fines accounted for 4-15% of the original weight of the grain. Taking 10% of whole
grain weight as an estimate for the weight of the seed coat, and using the data provided
by Ballon et al. (1984) for mineral concentrations in both whole grain and quinoa
bran, mineral losses resulting from polishing the grain can be estimated. Thus, one
can expect losses on the order of 12- 15% in the concentrations of calcium, phosphorus,
iron, potassium, sodium, and zinc, a 3% loss of magnesium and a 27% loss of copper.
INIAP (1986) provided data on the losses of minerals from two varieties of quinoa
upon washing, the averages of which were 29% loss of calcium, 20% of magnesium,
48% of sodium, 49% of potassium, 38% of copper, 52% of iron, and 27% of manganese,
with no losses reported for either phosphorus or zinc. As most of the quinoa now
52 M. J. KOZIOk:

available to the public has been polished, and assuming that the quinoa will be cooked
so that the grains absorb all of the water, thereby minimizing any further mineral loss,
a 100-g edible portion of quinoa would provide 4-6% of the recommended daily
allowance of calcium, 1 I- 16% of phosphorus, 23-76% of magnesium, 15-19% of
potassium, 27-40% of iron, lo- 15% of zinc, 47-200% of copper, and l-2% of sodium,
depending upon age and sex but excluding special cases such as pregnancy or lactation
(National Research Council, 1989~).
Rats fed for 8 weeks on a balanced diet of 19% protein supplied by milk powder/
maize/quinoa (55.6/30.2/7.06 by percentage, respectively) showed no difference in
femur dry weight but had 230 mg Ca/g dry wt of bone as opposed to 205 mg Ca/g
dry wt of bone shown by rats fed on a diet of milk powder/maize/wheat (55.6137.21
5.59 by percentage, respectively) (R. F. Hurrell, personal communication). It is curious
that the addition of quinoa to the diet should have caused this interesting, though not
statistically significant, increase in bone calcium.
In addition to having 3 to 19 times more iron than those cereals listed in Table 12,
the iron in quinoa shows a very good bioavailability. In a study with rats, washed
quinoa added to the diet at 30% gave an iron absorption ratio of 0.74 (the ratio of the
amount of iron incorporated into hemoglobin to the amount of iron ingested) compared
with a value of 0.55 for iron sulfate added at 0.06 g/100 g basic diet (Allred et al.,
1976). In another study in which Fe59 was added to quinoa-based diets or to a diet of
wheat flour, iron absorption by rats after 8 days (determined by whole body counting)
was found to occur at 8 1 to 120% that of the control diet (Table 13). The real values
for iron absorption in the quinoa diets are probably much higher because this study
did not take into consideration the differences in the iron concentrations between
wheat and quinoa and the effect that these differing concentrations would have had
on the isotopic dilution of Fe59.
Potassium is attracting considerable attention lately for its reportedly beneficial
effect in controlling essential hypertension (i.e., hypertension that is not related to
kidney diseases or to other illnesses). Fregly ( 1984) emphasized the importance of the
potassium ratio in essential hypertension, citing cases in which increasing dietary
potassium intake either lowered the blood pressure in patients with hypertension or
had no beneficial effect. In view of the findings on the effects of dietary potassium on
essential hypertension, the National Research Council ( 1989b) recommended increased

TABLE 13
EFFECT OF QUINOA ON THE ABSORPTION OF IRON (Fes9) BY RATS

Diet % Fe absorption As % of control

Wheat control 59 -+5.4 100

Quinoa:
Unpolished, ground 48 -+6.8 81
Unpolished, cooked 58 -+7.0 98
Unpolished, washed 71 -+6.3 120
Unpolished, washed and cooked 58 -+9.1 98
Polished, ground 57 -+9.1 97
Polished, cooked 57 -+6.4 97

Note. R. Brown, personal communication.

 NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF QUINOA 53

consumption of fruits and vegetables. Such recommendations raise the potassium

requirements of affected adults from 2000 to 3500 mg/day (National Research Council,
1989~). Quinoa grains show a sodium:potassium ratio of 1:76, and for adults with
essential hypertension, a 100-g serving would provide 9% of their daily potassium
requirements.

Antinutritional Factors

The potential allergenicity of quinoa was studied in guinea pigs (Dunkin-Hartley)

using a 0.15 M sodium chloride extract of polished quinoa (saponins removed). The
immune response was evaluated according to a passive cutaneous anaphylaxis protocol
(J. J. Pahud and C. Schwarz, personal communication). Quinoa was found to contain
compounds capable of eliciting a hypersensitive reaction less than that of egg white
and cows milk and about equal to that of soya.
Phytic acid [myoinositol 1,2,3,4,5,6-hexakis(dihydrogen phosphate)] is an important
antinutritional compound present in many cereals at concentrations of l-3% by weight
(Serraino et al., 1985). In the gastrointestinal tract it can form insoluble complexes
with multivalent cations such as Ca2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, and Zn2+ (Zemel and Shelef, 1982)
thereby reducing their bioavailability. The mean phytic acid concentration in five
different varieties of quinoa was I. 18 g/ 100 g of grain (range = 1.05- 1.3 1 g/ 100 g) (E.
Tagliaferri, personal communication). By comparison, per 100 g of grain barley con-
tains 1.07 g of phytic acid (range = 0.97- 1.16 g), maize 0.94 g (range = 0.89-0.99 g),
rice 0.89 g, and wheat 0.99 g (range = 0.62-1.35 g) (Souci et al., 1986). Although
quinoa has more phytic acid than the cereals, no adverse effects were seen on the
incorporation of calcium into bone nor on iron absorption (see previous section).
Trypsin inhibitors in eight varieties of quinoa ranged from 1.36 to 5.04 TIU/mg of
quinoa sample (TIU, trypsin inhibiting units), much less than values reported for bean
(12.9-14.8 TIU/mg) or soyabean (24.5 TIU/mg) (Romero R., 1981). Further, these
trypsin inhibitors are thermolabile, so cooking the quinoa inactivates them. No hem-
agglutinin activity could be found in the quinoa varieties used in the study by Romero
R. (1981).
Saponins are perhaps the major antinutritional factors in quinoa. Saponins are
glycosidic triterpenoids or sterols that can be found in some 500 plants representing
more than 90 families (Basu and Rastogi, 1967; Chandel and Rastogi, 1980). The
triterpenoid or sterol aglycones are also referred to as sapogenins. Plants can contain
various saponins in their different organs or have some organs saponin-free. Although
saponin concentrations vary among plants, they occur usually within a range of 0.1
to 5.0%; some exceptions are quijalla bark (Quijalla saponaria) which can contain up
to 10% saponins and the root of Gypsophila paniculata which can contain up to 20%
saponins (George, 1965).
Saponins, most of which impart a bitter flavor, are toxic and their toxicity depends
upon the type of saponin and the method of absorption. The lethal dose by oral
ingestion may be 3 to 1000 times higher than that by intravenous injection (George,
1965). In rodents, the lethal dose by oral ingestion can vary from 1.9 to 6000 mg
saponin/kg body wt; that is, some saponins are 3000 times more toxic than others.
Because of their differential toxicity with respect to various organisms the use of sa-
ponins as potent natural insecticides without adverse effects on higher animals and
humans has been investigated (Basu and Rastogi, 1967). Another interest in saponins
54 M. J. KOZlOE

is with their antibiotic, fungistatic, and pharmacological properties (Basu and Rastogi,
1967; Agarwal and Rastogi, 1974; Chandel and Rastogi, 1980; Nonaka, 1986). The
pharmacological interest in saponins concerns their ability to induce changes in in-
testinal permeability which may aid the absorption of particular drugs (Basu and
Rastogi, 1967) and their hypocholesterolemic effects (Oakenfull and Sidhu, 1990).
The ability of saponins to form complexes with cholesterol led West and Greger ( 1978)
to investigate possible complexing with the fat soluble vitamins: no complexes were
formed between vitamins A, D3, or E with saponins from quillaja bark or from alfalfa
leaves or roots, or with digitonin or ammoniated glycyrrhizin. Alfalfa root saponins
and ammoniated glycyrrhizin did, however, form complexes with zinc and iron (West
et al., 1978).
In eight varieties of quinoa, Romero R. (198 1) found that saponin concentrations,
estimated by afrosimetry (ability to produce foam in water), ranged from 0.4 to 5.6%
on a dry weight basis (Table 14) with a mean value of 2.2%. At Latinreco we have
analyzed 69 varieties of quinoa, also with an afrosimetric method (Koziol; 1990b),
and found a range of saponin concentrations from 0.01 to 4.65% (dry matter), with
a mean of 0.65%. Although the range in saponin concentrations is similar in these
two studies, the means differ by a factor of 3.
Table 14 shows the results of analyses of saponin concentrations in quinoa by two
methods which exploit the particular properties of saponins, namely their ability to
produce foam in water (the afrosimetric method) and to hemolyze red blood cells (for
a comprehensive review of methods for estimating saponins see Price et al., 1987):
not all of the data of Reichert et al. (1986) have been reproduced in this table, but the
two extremes, quinoa with the lowest and highest saponin concentrations, are given.
In reviewing the data in this table, some of the values reported by Romero R. ( 198 1)
seem too high. For example, the saponin concentrations for Blanca de Juli and Kancolla

TABLE 14

SAPONIN CONCENTRATIONS

Analytical % Saponins
method Quinoa variety (dry weight) Reference

Afrosimetry NXiiiO 0.4 Romero R. (1981)

PaSallCdla 0.7
Sajama 1.4
Oxfam 1.4
Illimani 1.6
Kancolla 2.2
Blanca de Juli 4.1
Dorada 5.6

Afrosimetry Sajama 0.07 Latinreco S.A.

Perulac 0.19
Po~otoc 0.81
INIAP- V8 1.10
INIAP- San Juan 1.12

Haemolysis Oca Suca 0.14 Reichert --et al. (1986)

Blanca de Juli 0.15
Blanca de Junin 0.16
Kancolla 0.23
Real 0.50
Pasancalla 0.60
Amarilla de Junin 0.73

Haemolysis Blanca de Junin 0.09 Burnouf-Radosevich and

Real de Puno 0.81 Paupardin (1983)
 NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF QUINOA 55

as reported by Romero R. (198 1) are 27 and 10 times greater, respectively, than the
values obtained by Reichert et al. (1986). Particularly worrying is the 20-fold difference
in the concentration of saponins in Sajama reported by Romero R. (198 1) and our-
selves, especially in view of the fact that Sajama is acknowledged to be a saponin-free
variety of quinoa.
There are two possible explanations for these differences in the estimation of saponin
concentrations. First, provenance and different climatic conditions may have affected
the saponin concentrations in varieties such as Blanca de Juli and Kancolla. In our
studies with quinoa we have seen that the same varieties cultivated at lower altitudes
and thus in a warmer climate generally contain more saponins than those cultivated
at higher altitudes. This enhancement of saponin concentrations would make sense
if they do indeed show fungistatic activity and represent a survival strategy for quinoa
seeds. Second, digitonin was used as the standard in the afrosimetric method used by
Romero R. (198 1). Although a saponin, digitonin has five glycosidic residues and a
sterol aglycone (Windholz et al., 1983) whereas quinoa saponins have triterpene agly-
cones (Bumouf-Radosevich et al., 1985) and so far have been shown to contain up
to four glycosidic residues (Mizui et al., 1988, 1990). There is no certainty that the
foaming behavior of digitonin and quinoa saponins is comparable.
The afrosimetric method used at Latinreco was calibrated with saponins extracted
from bitter quinoa (KozioJ, 1990b). The low saponin concentration reported for Sajama
with this method, 0.07% on a dry matter basis, is comparable to the values of 0.09
and 0.15% saponins (calculated to dry matter basis) for Sajama from Cuzco and Puno,
respectively, reported by Aguilar et al. (1979) using a hemolytic method, and within
the range of concentrations reported for Blanca de Junin, a recognized low-saponin
variety of quinoa, namely 0.09-o. 16% (dry matter basis) (Aguilar et al., 1979; Bumouf-
Radosevich and Paupardin, 1983; Reichert et al., 1986). We are therefore reasonably
confident of the results obtained with this method. Taste testings combined with sa-
ponin estimation using this afrosimetric method showed that quinoa containing 0.11%
saponins or less, on a fresh weight basis, can be considered sweet (Koziol, 1990b). A
rapid version of the afrosimetric method was developed reducing analysis time from
73 to 7 min which, when used with the proper precautions, is suitable for identifying
promising low-saponin quinoa varieties in the field or for monitoring the efficacy of
abrasive dehulling as a debittering process: quinoa producing foam heights of 1.3 cm
or less with this rapid method is considered sweet.
Estimation of saponin concentrations in quinoa has suffered until relatively recently
from little interest in determining their chemical structures. Without knowledge of
the chemical structures and hence molecular weights the data for calculating the factors
for converting sapogenin to saponin concentrations were unavailable. This restricted
saponin analyses to methods such as afrosimetry (with multiple factors influencing
foam development, see Koziol: 1990b), hemolysis (with the complication that different
saponins show different hemolytic activities), and thin-layer chromatography (with
uncertain resolution of all saponins and being only qualitative, at best, in the absence
of pure reference compounds). The results of calorimetric methods for estimating
saponin concentrations in quinoa are not reported here because what they are mea-
suring are, in fact, sapogenin, not saponin, concentrations and hence are of little real
value. Elias Peiiafiel and Diaz Villar ( 1988) however, elegantly combined spectro-
photometric and gas chromatographic techniques to arrive at a factor for converting
56 M. J. KOZIOJ!

sapogenin (oleanolic acid) concentrations determined calorimetrically to saponin con-

centrations.
Ridout et al. (199 1) expressed concern over the potent gut-permeabilizing effects
of saponins, emphasizing that quinoa marketed in the UK carries the specific instruc-
tion that it must be washed thoroughly before being cooked and eaten. They view this
washing as being particularly important in reducing the concentrations of phytolac-
cagenic acid which they identified as the major sapogenin in quinoa grown in the UK.
Although the presence of antinutritional or toxic factors concerns all those involved
in the food industry, one must equally emphasize that the studies they quote on
changes in intestinal permeability (Johnson et al., 1986; Gee et al., 1989) were per-
formed in vitro with saponin preparations under completely artificial conditions, if
one takes into consideration that the experimental animals were not fed cooked quinoa
as part of a balanced and diverse diet and that the saponin preparations were admin-
istered directly to intestinal segments without the benefit of having passed, as a complete
meal, through the preceding sections of the digestive tract. To put the subject of saponins
in quinoa into proper perspective, Table 15 lists some common foods and their saponin
concentrations. In terms of human foodstuffs quinoa represents a minimal source of
dietary saponins.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF QUINOA LEAVES

With the grain receiving so much attention the potential use of quinoa leaves in
human nutrition has been rather neglected. The leaves of quinoa have a flavor similar
to spinach and can be used either raw in salads or cooked as a green vegetable. Their
composition is similar to spinach with the only notable differences being that quinoa
leaves contain about twice the amount of fat, ash, and fiber (Table 16). Protein con-

TABLE 15

SAP~NINSIN COMMON FOODSTUFFS

g Saponins/lOO g
Foodstuff edible portion Reference

Chickpeas 5.00 Fenwick and Oakenfull (1983)

Chickpeas 3.47 Jood gal. (1986)
Red kidney beans 1.40 Fenwick and Oakenfull (1983)
PeanUtS 0.58 Fenwick and Oakenfull (1983)
Spinach 0.55 Fenwick and Oakenfull (1983)
Bean sprwts (mung bean) 0.54 Fenwick and Oakenfull (1983)
Canned baked beans 0.38 Fenwick and Oakenfull (1983)
Brow lentils 0.37 Fenwick and Oakenfull (1983)
Canned broad (faba) beans 0.31 Fenwick and Oakenfull (1983)
Green peas 0.25 Fenwick and Oakenfull (1983)
Asparagus 0.13 Fenwick and Oakenfull (1983)
Garlic 0.11 Fenwick and Oakenfull (1983)
Garlic 0.10 Smoczkiewicz zt. (1982)
Leek 0.10 Smoczkiewicz --et al. (1982)
Green beans 0.10 Fenwick and Oakenfull (1983)
Onion 0.02 Smoczkiewicz --et al. (1982)
Quinoa (polished) -c 0.01 Latinreco S.A.
 NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF QUINOA 57

TABLE 16

PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF QUINOA LEAVES COMPARED WITH THAT

OF SPINACH(PERCENTOFFRESHWT)
Real de Blanca
Component Sajamaa Boliviaa Reala Chehueca= Tupizaa

MOiStUt-e 87.25 83.57 84.91 64.92 83.74

Fat 2.20 2.10 1.90 2.00 2.10
Protein 2.79 2.92 3.57 3.04 3.31
Ash 3.47 3.59 3.68 3.12 3.55
Fiber+ carbohydrate 4.29 7.82 5.94 6.92 7.30

Latinreco S.A.b QUilKM

Component Range Meall global mean SpinachC

Moisture 81.48-89.49 86.57 85.2 89.8

Fat 0.26-0.70 0.52 1.8 0.7
Protein 1.98-5.71 3.89 3.3 2.8
Ash 2.02-3.46 2.61 3.3 1.8
Fiber 1.07-3.95 1.87 1.9 0.7
Carbohydrate 2.68-8.23 4.70 4.8 4.9

a Cornejo de Zvietcovich (19761, five varieties of quinoa.

b
Latinreco S.A., twelve varieties of quinoa.

' Leung and Flares (1961).

centrations are similar, but the protein of quinoa shows slightly more isoleucine and
valine and slightly less methionine + cystine and phenylalanine + tyrosine (Table 17).
Fresh quinoa leaves contain more magnesium and about four times the amount of
sodium as spinach leaves, but contain roughly half the potassium and copper and only
a fifth of the iron (Table 18).
In contrast with the grains which showed linoleic acid as the fatty acid present in
greatest abundance, quinoa leaves showed a-linolenic acid as their principal fatty acid
(39% of the lipid fraction; Table 19). Quinoa leaves contained greater percentages of
palmitic, palmitoleic, and steak acid than the grains, but considerably less oleic acid.

TABLE 17

AMINO ACIDS IN QUINOA AND SPINACH LEAVES (g/LOO g PROTEIN)

Essential Quinoaa Spinachb Non-essential Quinoa Spinach

Histidine 2.4 2.5 Alanine 7.2 6.3

Isoleucine 5.8 4.8 Arginine 6.2 6.4
Leucine 9.6 9.5 Aspartic acid 10.5 9.9
Lysine 7.6 7.3 Glutamic acid 12.1 11.7
Methionine + cystine 2.0 3.7 Glycine 5.9 5.2
Phenylalanine+ tyrosine 9.4 11.1 Proline 5.1 4.8
Threonine 4.7 5.3 Serine 4.1 4.8
Valine 7.5 6.1
58 M. J. KOZIOk:

TABLE 18

MINERALCONCENTRATIONSINQUINOAANDSPINACH LEAVES(~~/~OO~FRESH WT)

Quinoaa Spinachb QlJill0a Spinach

C.3 153 126 Mg 83 58

K 357 633 Fe 0.87 4.10
Na 289 65 CU 0.07 0.12
P 42 55 Zn 0.59 0.50

a Latinreco S.A.
b
Souci et &. (1986).

Of the essential fatty acids, the lipid fraction of quinoa leaves has 22% linoleic acid
(compared with 50-56% in the grains); no y-linolenic acid was detected in the leaf
lipid fraction.
In dried quinoa leaves, the concentration of vitamin A was found to be 125 1 Fg
RE/ 100 g and of vitamin E 1.3 mg (u-TE/ 100 g (R. F. Hurrell, personal communication)
(RE = retinol equivalents, a-TE = a-tocopherol equivalents; National Research
Council, 1989~). Assuming maximal losses of 40% of the vitamin A and 55% of the
vitamin E upon drying (Harris, 1977) we calculate that the fresh quinoa leaves contain
2085 pug RE/lOO g and 2.9 mg a-TE/lOO g. In comparison, 100 g of fresh spinach
leaves provide 700 pg RE and 1.6 mg a-TE (Souci et al., 1986).
That quinoa leaves are such a rich source of vitamin A has special nutritional
significance in developing countries where vitamin A deficiency can result in conditions
ranging from an enhanced susceptibility to infections to blindness (MacKenzie, 1985).
Benjamin (1983) reported that in Latin America 19% of the children aged 0 to 4 years
showed protein-energy malnutrition and that this condition, further complicated by
gastrointestinal parasites and other diseases, increases the daily requirements for vitamin
A. The current daily dietary allowance recommended for children O-4 is 375-500 pug
RE (National Research Council, 1989~). If this is increased, say, to 600 pg RE/day to
compensate for the increased needs of children suffering a variety of nutritionally
related disorders, then just 30 g of fresh quinoa leaves a day would be sufficient to
meet all their daily vitamin A allowances.

TABLE I9

FATTY ACIDSIN QUINOA LEAVES(AS PERCENTAGEOFLIPID FRACTION)

Fatty acid % Fatty acid %
c1o:o Capric c 0.1 C18:O Stearic 1.3
c12:o Laurie 0.2 C18:l cis + trans 6.1
c14:o Myristic 1.1 C18:2n6 Linoleic 22.0
c14:1 c 0.1 C18:3n3 a-Linolenic 38.9
c15:o Pentadecanoic 0.2 c2o:o Arachidic 3.5
C16:O Palmitic 16.7 c20:1 0.2
C16:l 4.7 c20:2 c 0.1
c17:o Heptadecanoic 0.2 C20:3 c 0.1
C17:l 1.3 c22:o Behenic 3.6
 NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF QUINOA 59

No saponins could be detected in quinoa leaves by our afrosimetric method (limit

of detection = 0.01%); in contrast, spinach leaves contain 0.55% saponins on a fresh
weight basis (Fenwick and Oakenfull, 1983). In fresh quinoa leaves we found an average
nitrate concentration of 0.43% (range 0.25-0.67%) which is double that in spinach
(0.2%; Souci et al., 1986) and which will restrict the use of quinoa leaves in infant
nutrition. Phytic acid, estimated at 10 mg/ 100 g of fresh quinoa leaves, and polyphenol
concentrations (mostly as condensed tannins) estimated at 70 mg/ 100 g of fresh leaves,
are present in such low concentrations that they would not be expected to impair
mineral metabolism, iron absorption, or protein digestibility (R. F. Hurrell, personal
communication). Humphries (1980) reported the presence of a heat-stable trypsin
inhibitor (20% inhibition of trypsin activity) in protein concentrates prepared from
quinoa leaves.

CONCLUSIONS
The potential of quinoa is not as a replacement for any of the currently available
foodstuffs but rather as a dietary complement. In attempting the reintroduction of a
lost crop of the Incas we would do well to remember that they used it as part of a
balanced diet (Anttinez de Mayolo R., 1981). In developed countries most of the
population has the economic resources to achieve a balanced diet, and malnutrition
is more a result of uninformed choice. Even with the current enhanced public interest
in health and nutrition quinoa will most likely remain in the immediate future within
the realm of exotic health foods until such time as agricultural production meets the
quantities and quality required by industrial food manufacturers. Quinoa could well
find a niche in improving the nutritional quality of snacks, breads, pastas, breakfast
cereals, and other prepared foods.
In developing countries the situation is different and the problem of protein-energy
malnutrition has led to various programs aimed at improving the nutritional, and
specifically protein, quality of staples such as maize (Bressani et al., 1972), rice (In-
ternational Rice Research Institute, 1979) and even bean, which represents the primary
supplement of proteins in the cereal and starchy food diets of the majority of the
population of Latin America (Bressani, 1983). Yet beans are not an ideal protein
complement; their protein value is relatively low, they are poor sources of the sulfur
containing amino acids, they contain hemagglutinins and trypsin inhibitors as antinu-
tritional factors (Fernindez et al., 1982) and the tannins present in the red and black
varieties can complex proteins, making them indigestible (Reddy et al., 1985). Quinoa,
on the other hand, given the quality of its protein, is an ideal dietary complement.
Further, it is a good source of magnesium, zinc, and copper and provides at least a
tenth of the daily allowances of Be, pantothenic acid, folic acid, and biotin.
Although there are quinoa and quinoa-based products (infant foods and a puffed
quinoa cereal) on the market in Ecuador and Peru, there are still two major drawbacks
to its greater incorporation into food products. First is production, which although in
Ecuador has increased from 5 1 tonnes in 1985 (MAG, 1985) to 47 1 tonnes in 1989,
is still small scale when compared with the production in 1989 of rice (867,395 tonnes)
and wheat (25,634 tonnes) (INEC, 1989). The second drawback, related to the first,
is price. In Ecuador, a quintal (45.4 kg) of quinoa, national grade, costs about
$25.00 whereas exportation grade can cost up to $57.00 compared with $14.50 for
rice and $7.00 for wheat. Obviously, food manufacturers pass on the increased price
60 M. J. KOZIOI!

of this raw material to consumers which has the unfortunate effect of pricing quinoa-
based products out of the economic range of that sector of the population which would
most benefit from the improved nutritional quality. Fortunately, there are two solutions
to this problem of getting nutritionally improved quinoa-based products to the lower
income sector. First, through improved methods of cultivation and improvements to
quinoa, yields can be increased thus presenting more quinoa to the commercial market
which should help to lower its price as a raw material. To this end, a farmers manual
has been published in Ecuador giving information on improved methods of cultivation
of quinoa (Wahli, 1990). Second, less expensive packaging can be used for finished
products, passing the savings on packaging materials on to the consumer. In combi-
nation, these two factors will contribute greatly in expanding the consumption of
quinoa and quinoa-based products by making them more affordable.

ANALYTICAL METHODS

For proximate analyses, quinoa grains were ground to a fine flour; fresh quinoa
leaves were triturated. Moisture content was determined by oven drying for 4 h at
102C fat by Soxhlet extraction with diethyl ether for 4 h, protein by Kjeldahl as
modified for use with a Bilchi apparatus (Biichi Laqboratoriums-Technik AG, Flawil,
Switzerland), and ash by incineration at 550C for 4 h. Crude fiber was determined
on defatted samples by the Fibertec system (Tecator A.B., Hogan&, Sweden) which
involved a sequential extraction with 1.25% HzS04 then 1.25% NaOH, drying the
residue for 4 h at 102C followed by incineration for 30 min at 600C; the difference
between the dry weight and mineral content of the residue is taken as an estimation
of crude fiber. Total carbohydrates were calculated as the difference. The analyses of
amino acids and of minerals were performed on oven-dried samples of ground quinoa
grains or leaves.
Amino acids were analyzed by liquid chromatography using an amino acid analyzer
(Biotronik Wissenschafliche Gerate GmbH, Maintal, Germany). Samples containing
approximately 9.5 mg of protein were hydrolyzed under N2 in 6 N HCl for 24 h at
110C. The acid was removed in vacua (Savant SpeedVac Concentrator, Farmingdale,
NY, U.S.A.) and-the residue resuspended in the buffer recommended by Biotronik
(trilithium citrate, citric acid, 2,2-thiodiethanol, pH 2.20). Tryptophan was determined
with the amino acid analyzer after alkaline hydrolysis of samples in 4 N Ba(OH)2 as
suggested by Biotronik with the exception that the hydrolysis was performed under
N2 and not under vacuum.
Minerals, with the exception of phosphorus, were analyzed by flame atomic ab-
sorption spectrophotometry (Model 4000, Pet-kin-Elmer, Norwalk, CT, U.S.A.), adding
a solution of lanthanum chloride for the analysis of calcium and magnesium. Phos-
phorus was determined calorimetrically with a sodium molybdate/hydrazine sulfate
reagent (FIL-IDF, 1966).
Nitrates were determined by homogenizing quinoa leaves with distilled water then
adding 1 ml of the diluted extract to 0.6 ml of 2,4-xylenol and 5.0 ml of H2S04 in an
Erlenmeyer flask with ground glass neck and containing 2 glass beads. The solutions
were mixed by gentle swirling and allowed to stand at room temperature (25C) for
exactly 10 min. Nitration was stopped by the addition of 20 ml of water and the
sample immediately distilled. The distillate ( 10 ml) was collected in a 25-ml graduated
cylinder containing 10% sodium sulfite in 2.0 ml of 1 N NaOH. The contents of the
 NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF QUINOA 61

graduated cylinder were transferred to a 25ml volumetric flask, the cylinder rinsed
with distilled water, adding the rinse to the volumetric flask, and the solution brought
to volume with distilled water. Absorbance of the 6-nitro-2,4-xylenol was read at
437 nm.
For gas chromatographic analysis fat was extracted by acid hydrolysis followed by
Soxhlet extraction with n-hexane for 4 h. Methyl esters were prepared by a one-step,
direct transesterification method using acetyl chloride in methanol:hexane (4: 1, v/v)
(Lepage and Roy, 1986), and analyzed using cold on-column injection onto a cross-
linked Carbowax column (23 m, 0.32 mm i.d., 0.2 pm film thickness) with Cl 5 as an
internal standard. The temperature program was: 1 min at 80C 15 C/min to 145 C,
hold 145C for 1 min, 3C/min to 195C hold 195C for 1 min, SC/min to 230C
and hold. The carrier gas was H2 supplied at an inlet pressure of 65 kPa (H. Traitler,
personal communication).
Vitamin analyses were performed on whole grams of known moisture content or
on freeze-dried washed and cooked bitter quinoa. Vitamins A and E were determined
by HPLC using a 4.6 X 250-mm column of Spherisorb Si (5 pm) and a mobile phase
of 1% 2-propanol in n-hexane at 2 ml/min; a variable wavelength spectrophotometer
set at 325 nm, 0.2 AUFS for vitamin A was used in series with a spectrofluorometer
for vitamin E (excitation 294 nm, emission 326 nm). A sample of ground quinoa
( 10.00 g) was placed in an amber round flat-bottomed flask with ground neck to which
was added 1.OOg of takadiastase. The flask was flushed with N2, stoppered, and in-
cubated at 45C for 30 min. After saponification in ethanolic KOH under a stream
of NZ, the mixture was cooled to room temperature, transferred to an amber glass
separatory funnel, and extracted five times with petroleum ether (40-60C boiling
point range). The pooled ether extracts were washed with distilled water until the
washings tested neutral with phenolphthalein, then filtered through anhydrous sodium
sulfate. The extract was evaporated to dryness under dry N2 and the residue dissolved
in 3 ml of the mobile phase; 20 ~1 was taken for analysis.
Vitamin K was extracted by weighing 20.00 g of product into an amber glass lOO-
ml volumetric flask to which was added 50 ml of distilled water at 45C and 0.1 g
takadiastase. The mixture was incubated at 40C for 20 min before adding 0.1 g of
papain and incubating for an additional 20 min. The mixture was brought to volume
and a 5-ml aliquot transferred to an amber glass centrifuge tube with RN29/32 taper
to which were added 10 ml of DMSO. After mixing, 5 ml of 1% pyrogallol in ethanol
was added to the tube. After mixing, 10 ml of n-hexane was added and the tube shaken
for 10 min. The organic phase was recovered by pipette and transferred to a centrifuge
tube and the aqueous phase extracted a second time with 10 ml of n-hexane, adding
this organic phase to that previously collected. The organic extract was washed with
10 ml of distilled water and centrifuged to separate the phases. After recovery of the
organic phase by pipette, 2 ml of n-hexane was added to the surface of the aqueous
phase and then recovered. The organic phase was evaporated under reduced pressure
and remaining traces of solvent removed under a stream of dry NZ. The residue was
dissolved in a mobile phase of 1% ethyl acetate in isooctane for preparative HPLC
using an 8 X 120-mm column of LiChrosorb 60, 5 pm; mobile phase at 3 ml/min;
and detection at 254 nm, 0.05 AUFS, injecting 500 ~1. The vitamin K fraction was
recovered and evaporated to dryness under a stream of dry N2, then redissolved in a
mobile phase of acetonitrile:dichloromethane:2-propanol(89: 10: 1, v/v/v). Vitamin K
was determined by analytical HPLC using a 4.6 X 250-mm column of Spherisorb
62 M. J. KOZIOJ!

ODS, 5 pm; mobile phase at 2 ml/min; detection at 248 nm, 0.01 AUFS, injecting
100 /.ll.
Thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, Be, and folic acid were determined by reverse phase
HPLC using a mobile phase prepared by dissolving 6.06 g of 1-pentanesulfonic acid
sodium salt monohydrate in about 650 ml distilled water then adding 158 ml methanol,
6.3 ml glacial acetic acid, and 2.5 ml triethylamine and making up to 1000 ml with
distilled water. Chromatographic conditions were a 4.6 X 250-mm column of Li-
Chrospher RP 8, 5 pm; mobile phase at 1.5 ml/min; detection at 275 nm, 2 AUFS
for niacin, 0.2 AUFS for thiamin, riboflavin, and B6 and detection at 360 nm at 0.1
AUFS for folic acid, injecting 50 ~1 of extract. Vitamins were extracted from a l.OO-
g sample dissolved in 20 ml distilled water at 80C together with 500 mg ascorbic
acid then sonicated for 1 min. The pH was adjusted with NaOH to 7.2-7.4, and the
solution filtered through a 0.45~pm membrane before analysis.
Vitamin C was extracted from 20.00 g of sample dissolved in 20 ml of water to
which 1.O g of claradiastase was added. The slurry was incubated at 40C for 15 min,
then transferred to a loo-ml volumetric flask, rinsing the flask that contained the
slurry first with 20 ml of a 10% solution of metaphosphoric acid, then with distilled
water and bringing to volume. After a vigorous shaking, the solution was filtered and
5 ml of 10% acetic acid added to an aliquot containing l-2 mg of ascorbic acid. The
sample was titrated with 0.05% dichlorophenol-indophenol to a pink end point which
persisted for 15 s.
Biotin was determined microbiologically with Lactobacillus plantarum (ATCC 80 14)
as the test organism. To 1.00-2.00 g of sample in a 150-ml Erlenmeyer flask was
added 50 ml of 6 N H2S04. After dispersion of the sample, the contents of the flask
were autoclaved at 120C for 1 h. When cool, the pH was adjusted to 4.6 and the
contents brought to a final volume of 250 ml. After filtering, the solution was diluted
to obtain a concentration of about 0.2 ng biotin/ml. Culture tubes were prepared
containing 5.0 ml of Bacto-biotin assay medium, O-3.0 ml of extract, and 2.0-5.0 of
water so that the combined volume of extract + water was 5.0 ml. These culture tubes
were sterilized at 115C for 15 min. To each tube 0.2 ml of a standardized culture of
L. plantarum was added, the contents of the tube swirled to disperse the microorganism,
and the culture tubes incubated at 37C for 18 h. Growth was suspended by plunging
the tubes into a cold water bath, the contents of the tubes mixed on a vortex mixer,
and the optical density of the cultures read at 575 nm. Biotin was quantitated from a
standard growth curve obtained with known concentrations of the vitamin.
Calcium panthothenate was determined microbiologically with L. pluntarum as the
test organism. To 1.00-2.00 g of sample weighed into a mortar was added 50 mg
takadiastase and 100 mg papain and the mixture carefully ground with a pestle before
adding 10 ml of a buffer solution at pH 4.6 ( 100 ml 1 N acetic acid and 50 ml 1 N
NaOH made up to 500 ml). The mortar was covered with aluminum foil and incubated
at 42C overnight. After incubation, the pH was checked and readjusted to 4.6 if
necessary and the mixture diluted to 100 ml and filtered. The filtrate was diluted to
obtain about 50 ng calcium pantothenate/ml. Culture tubes were prepared containing
5.0 ml of Bacto-pantothenate assay medium, O-3.0 ml of extract, and 2.0-5.0 ml
water so that the combined volume of extract + water was 5.0 ml. The culture tubes
were sterilized at 115C for 15 min. To each tube, 0.2 ml of a standardized culture
of L. plantarum was added; the tubes were swirled to disperse the microorganism and
incubated for about 16 h at 37C. Growth was suspended by plunging the tubes into
 NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF QUINOA 63

a cold water bath, the contents of the tubes were mixed on a vortex mixer, and the
optical density of the cultures was read at 575 nm. Calcium pantothenate was quan-
titated from a standard growth curve obtained with known concentrations of the
vitamin.
Inositol was determined microbiologically with Succharomyces carfsbergensis
(ATCC 9080) as the test organism. To 5.00 g of sample weighed into a volumetric
flask was added 40 ml of distilled water at 50C and the contents were swirled to
obtain a homogeneous mixture. Upon cooling the volume was adjusted to 50 ml. A
IO-ml aliquot was transferred to a hydrolysis tube and to it was added 100 mg of a
hydrolysis mixture (500 mg pancreatic a-amylase, 100 mg phosphatase, and 9.4 g
lactose monohydrate). The tubes were capped with aluminum foil and incubated at
42C for 15 min before adding 20 mg papain and incubating for a further 15 min.
To the mixture was added 15 ml of a solution of 3 N HCl:methanol, 1: 1 (v/v) and
three glass beads. A condenser was fitted to the hydrolysis tube and the contents were
refluxed at 110C for 6 h. The hydrolysate was transferred to a 250-ml conical flask,
the pH adjusted to 5.2 with NaOH, and then transferred to a 150-ml volumetric flask
and brought to volume with distilled water. This solution was filtered and then diluted
to obtain an extract that contained 3-4 /*g inositol/ml. Culture tubes were prepared
containing 5.0 ml of Bacto inositol assay medium, O-3.0 ml of extract, and 2.0-5.0
ml of water so that the combined volume of extract + water was 5.0 ml. The culture
tubes were sterilized at 115 C for 15 min. To each tube was added 0.2 ml of a stan-
dardized culture of S. carlsbergensis previously washed and resuspended in saline
solution; the tubes were swirled to disperse the microorganism and incubated for
about 21 h at 30C. Growth of the microorganism was suspended by plunging the
culture tubes into a cold water bath, the contents of the tubes were mixed on a vortex
mixer, and the optical density of the cultures was read at 575 nm. Inositol was quan-
titated from a standard growth curve obtained with known concentrations of inositol.
Choline was determined spectrophotometrically using a chromogen prepared from
7.8 1 mg choline oxidase (12.8 U/mg), 1.3 1 mg peroxidase (190 U/mg), and 7.5 mg
4-aminoantipyrine dissolved in 50 ml of 0.05 MTris buffer (pH 8.0) containing 0.05%
phenol. To 5.00 g of sample weighed into a 250-ml flat bottomed round flask with
ground neck was added 30 ml of 1 N HCl. The contents of the flask were mixed before
fitting a condenser and refluxing for 5 h in a water bath equipped with magnetic stirrer.
After cooling the pH was adjusted with NaOH to 3.4-3.6 and the volume readjusted
to 50 ml. The hydrolysate was filtered, first using filter paper and then a 0.45~pm
membrane filter, if necessary, to obtain a clear filtrate. A reagent blank containing
0.10 ml distilled water + 3.00 ml chromogen and a filtrate blank containing 0.10 ml
filtrate + 3.00 ml distilled water were prepared in addition to the test portion containing
0.10 ml filtrate and 3.00 ml chromogen. The test tubes were placed into a water bath
at 37C for 10 min before reading absorbance at 505 nm. Filtrate and reagent blank
absorbances were subtracted from the absorbance of the sample. Choline concentrations
in the samples were determined from a standard curve.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Gratefully acknowledged is the spirit of collaboration shown over the years in this investigation into
quinoa by colleagues at Latinreco S.A., by Drs. U. Bracco, R. Brown, R. F. Hurrell, J. J. Pahud, C. Schwarz,
and H. Traitler and colleagues (Nestle Research Centre, Vers-chez-les-Blanc, Switzerland) and by Dr. E.
Tagliaferri and colleagues (Nestle Central Quality Assurance Laboratory, La Tour-de-Peilz, Switzerland),
64 M. J. KOZIOE

whose results have been reported here. Also most gratefully acknowledged are the helpful suggestions by
Drs. Richard C. Jansen and Ricardo Bressani for improving the manuscript.

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