6.

Gene technologies
6.1 Genetic modification/genetic engineering:
a. understand the process of genetic modification to include:
i. taking a copy of a gene from (DNA/chromosomes of) one organism
ii. insertion of that gene into the DNA of another organism

http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/guides/zx6g87h/revision/1

NOTE
b.recall examples of genetic modification in different cell types.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/guides/zx6g87h/revision/2

NOTE
GM crops
Genetic modification can be
used to produce plants that
improve food production. For
example, a plant may be
produced with improved
resistance to pests.
However, there are ethical
issues involved in genetic
modification. There are concerns
about the possible health risks of
genetically modified food. For
example, a GM food might
contain a substance that causes
an allergic reaction in some
people, or higher levels of a toxin
naturally found in the food.

Golden rice
Scientists have added a gene to
wild rice that makes it produce
beta carotene. This changes the
colour of the wild rice to a golden
colour. Beta carotene is needed by
humans in order to make vitamin A
- which is essential for good vision.

Herbicide-resistant crops
Scientists have added genes to crop plants that make them resistant to herbicides. This
means that less herbicide needs to be used. However, there are disadvantages to creating
these plants.
For example:
- the potential development of herbicide-resistant weeds
- loss of biodiversity because fewer weeds survive - resulting in reduced food and shelter
for animals
6.2 Stem cells:
a.understand that embryonic stem cells can give rise to any cell type
b.understand that cells lose this ability as an animal matures
c. recall that there are embryonic and adult stem cells.

Stem cells
During the development of an embryo, most of the cells become specialised. Their
structure develops to match their function, and they cannot later change to become a
different type of cell. However, stem cells are unspecialised cells that can grow into any
type of cell found in the body.

There are two types of stem cells:

adult stem cells - these can develop into many (but not all) types of cell
embryonic stem cells - these can develop into any type of cell

Adult stem cells come from tissues such as bone marrow and the lining of the small
intestine. Human embryonic stem cells can be removed from unused embryos left over
from fertility treatment, for example.

Uses of stem cells

Stem cells can be used in different ways. For example, they can:
make new brain cells to treat people with Parkinsons disease
rebuild bones and cartilage
repair damaged immune systems
make replacement heart valves
7. Variation
7.1 Natural selection and evolution: a.understand the sequence as:
(1) variation (2) leads to differential survival (3) as those best adapted survive; (4) these can
reproduce and (5) pass on genes/alleles/characteristics to the next generation.

NOTE

b.recall antibiotic-resistance/MRSA as an example of evolution through natural selection.

Antibiotic resistance
Over time, bacteria can become resistant to certain antibiotics. This is an example
of natural selection. In a large population of bacteria, there may be some that are not
affected by the antibiotic. These survive and reproduce, creating more bacteria that are not
affected by the antibiotic.

MRSA
MRSA is methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. It is very dangerous because it is
resistant to most antibiotics. To slow down or stop the development of other strains of
resistant bacteria, we should:
always avoid the unnecessary use of antibiotics
always complete the full course

Tuberculosis, or TB for short, is a disease caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium

tuberculosis. Most people who are infected do not show any symptoms. But about 10 per
cent go on to develop serious symptoms including shortness of breath, coughing, fever,
and even death.
Infected people without symptoms are usually given a course of one antibiotic. Those who
show symptoms need a course of several antibiotics at once. This is to reduce the chance
of strains of antibiotic-resistant bacteria emerging.
Development of resistance - higher only
The main steps in the development of resistance are:
1 Random changes or mutations occur in the genes of individual bacterial cells.
2 Some mutations protect the bacterial cell from the effects of the antibiotic.
3 Bacteria without the mutation die or cannot reproduce with the antibiotic present.
4 The resistant bacteria are able to reproduce with less competition from normal
bacterial strains.

7.2 Sources of variation:

a.recall that variation can be genetic/inherited
b.recall that variation can be environmental.

NOTE
7.3 Extinction: a.understand that extinction can occur if organisms cannot adapt quickly
enough.
10. Environment
10.1 Food chains:
a.understand the flow of energy in a food chain
b.understand that the energy flow limits the length of a food chain

Food chains
A food chain shows what eats what in a particular habitat. For example, grass seed is
eaten by a vole, which is eaten by a barn owl. The arrows between each item in the
chain always point in the direction of energy flow - in other words, from the food to the
feeder.

Common words used with food chains and their meaning

Word Meaning
Producers

Primary consumers

Secondary consumers

Predators

Prey

Scavengers

Decomposers
Energy transfer
Energy is transferred along food chains from one stage to the next. But not all of the
energy available to organisms at one stage can be absorbed by organisms at the next
one. The amount of available energy decreases from one stage to the next.
Some of the available energy goes into growth and the production of offspring. This energy
becomes available to the next stage, but most of the available energy is used up in other
ways:
- energy released by respiration is used for movement and other life processes, and
is eventually lost as heat to the surroundings
- energy is lost in waste materials, such as faeces
All of the energy used in these ways returns to the environment, and is not available to the
next stage. The animation shows how the level of available energy goes down as it is
transferred through a temperate forest food chain.

NOTE

c.understand the pyramid of biomass.

Pyramids of biomass
Biomass means the mass of living material at a stage in a food chain. The biomass
goes down as you go from one stage to the next, just like the amount of energy.
10.2 Organism interactions: a.appreciate that organisms interact.

NOTE

10.3 Population size: a.appreciate that a population can change in size.

Global population growth

Population pyramids show the structure of a population by comparing relative
numbers of people in different age groups. Population structures differ markedly
between LEDCs and MEDCs.
Demographic transition models show population change over time - and also show
marked differences between LEDCs and MEDCs.
At present the world's population is growing quickly, though this has not always been
the case.
- Until the 1800s the world's population grew slowly for thousands of years.
- In 1820 the world's population reached one billion.
 - In the early 1970s, the world's population reached three billion.
- In 1999, less than 30 years later, the population doubled to six billion.
- The global rate of population growth is now one billion every 15 years.

Causes and rates of change

The three main causes of population change
Births - usually measured using the birth rate (number of live births per
1,000 of the population per year).
Deaths - usually measured using the death rate (number of deaths per
1,000 of the population per year).
Migration - the movement of people in and out of an area.
Rate of change
Births and deaths are natural causes of population change. The difference between
the birth rate and the death rate of a country or place is called the natural increase.
The natural increase is calculated by subtracting the death rate from the birth rate.
natural increase = birth rate - death rate
10.4 Cycles: a.recall the carbon cycle to include the following processes:
i. photosynthesis
ii. respiration
iii. combustion
iv. decomposition

Carbon cycle
Most of the chemicals that make up living tissue contain carbon. When organisms die
the carbon is recycled so that it can be used by future generations. The model that
describes the processes involved is called the carbon cycle.

NOTE
b.recall the nitrogen cycle, to include the following: i. bacteria are involved
ii. process of nitrification
iii. process of decomposition
iv. nitrogen fixation
v. denitrification.

NOTE