Physics Notes For First Year Class by Dr. Ram Chand

PHYSICS REVIEW NOTES: XI
C OMPREHENSIVE P HYSICS REVIEW NOTES FOR CLASS FIRST YEAR
BY
D R . R AM C HAND
P H D(P HYSICS )
Principal/Head of Physics Department
Shaheed Benazir Bhutto Govt Girls Degree College,
Jhudo, District Mirpurkhas
03332513375, ram_r25@hotmail.com
http://www.facebook.com/ramcraguel
2017
RAMS OUTLINE SERIES
Copyright
c 2017, Department of Physics, Shaheed Benazir Bhutto Government Girls
Degree College, Jhudo
C OMPOSED BY D R . R AM C HAND
This manuscript is written in LATEX. The diagrams and images are created in open-source
applications IPE, LatexDraw, Freeplane, VUE and Blender 3D.
The author is a visiting scientist to Aspen Center for Physicist, USA, the University of
Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, the International Center for Theoretical Physics (ICTP),
Italy and the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China. The author is also a member
of American Association of Physics Teachers (AAPS), USA. The authors research prole
can be found at his LinkedIn page & Google Scholar page.
ram_r25@hotmail.com, raguelmoon@gmail.com
http://www.facebook.com/ramcraguel
@RamCRaguel
LinkedIn page: www.linkedin.com/in/ram-chand

Research page: https://sites.google.com/site/thecomphys/research-1/SoftCondensed-Matter-Theory
First printing, January 2017
Revised Edition, August 2017
Contents
1 SCOPE OF PHYSICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 SCALARS AND VECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3 MOTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4 MOTION IN TWO DIMENSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5 STATICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6 GRAVITATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8 WAVE MOTION AND SOUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9 NATURE OF LIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
10 GEOMETRICAL OPTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
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1. SCOPE OF PHYSICS
1.1 SCIENCE
The desire to know about things, events and natural phenomenon around us is called Science. The
word Science actually comes from the Latin word Scientia meaning "to know". We can know about
the universe by observing and by experiment. Hence Science= to observe + to do experiment.
Science is the sum of human knowledge which man has gained through ages. In past, this knowledge
was limited but as the knowledge expands, its complete study becomes impossible. Therefore
science is divided into two main branches:
Physical Science: It deals with the non-living objects and those functions of living objects which
are similar to non-living objects.
Biological Science: It deals with living objects only.
1.2 WHAT IS PHYSICS?

The word physics is derived from Greek word fusis which means "nature". Therefore, physics means
"Laws of nature". Physics is dened as that branch of science, which studies natural phenomena
in terms of basic laws and physical quantities. The whole natural universe consists of two basic
quantities : (i) matter and (ii) energy. Therefore we dene physics as:
Denition
Physics is the branch of physical science which deals with the study of matter,
energy, and the interaction between them.
Physics is a systematic study of the universe.

It is experimental science.
It is quantitative science.
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6 Chapter 1. SCOPE OF PHYSICS
Two principles thrust in the study of Physics are:-

Unication. which means explaining different physical phenomena by using few laws
and concepts.
Reductionism. which means explaining complex phenomena by breaking them into

smaller constituents and studying simpler parts.
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF PHYSICS

Physics can be classied into three main categories:
Classical Physics Also known as Macroscopic Physics (or Newtonian Physics) which deals
with the study of astronomical and other big elements. The macro-
scopic world contains the things we can see with our eyes. For example,
mechanics, thermodynamics, optics etc. Father of classical physics is
Newton.
Mesoscopic Physics Which deals with the study of hundreds of atoms or molecules. The
mesoscopic world is in between the microscopic and the macroscopic
world. This branch is very new and originated some ten years ago.
Application of this eld is largely found in the electronics industry.
Industry makes money out of the miniaturization of transistors, which
switch the electrical current on a computer chip. Father of Mesoscopic
Physics is Prof. Yoseph Imry.
Modern Physics Modern physics is a branch of physics that deals the topic where matter
and energy are not separate, but it is an alternate form of each other. It
often involves extreme conditions: either very small things for example
atoms and sub-atomic particles OR relativistic effects which involve
velocities compared to the speed of light. Father of modern physics is
Albert Einstein.
1.4 BRANCHES OF PHYSICS

There are many branches of physics. The oldest branch of physics is Mechanics. Detail of all
branches is given below:
MECHANICS: Mechanics is the branch of Physics which deals with the study of particles or
bodies when they are at rest or in motion. Mechanics is further divided into: -
1. Statics: Statics is the study of objects at rest; this requires the idea of forces in
equilibrium.
2. Dynamics: Dynamics is the study of moving objects. It comes from the Greek word
dynamis which means power. Dynamics is further subdivided into kinematics and
kinetics.
(a) Kinematics is the study of the relationship between displacement, velocity, ac-
celeration and time of a given motion, without considering the forces that cause
the motion.
(b) Kinetics deals with the relationship between the motion of bodies and forces
acting on them.
THERMODYNAMICS: The study of relationship between heat and other forms of energy.
Thermodynamics is only concerned with large scale observations.
ELECTROMAGNETISM: The study of properties of electric current and magnetism and their
relationship: -
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1.5 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS 7
1. Electrostatics: The study of electric charges at rest,

2. Electrodynamics: The study of moving electric charges.
3. Magneto-statics: The study of magnetic poles at rest.
FLUID DYNAMICS: The mechanics of motion in uids in both liquid and gaseous states are
investigated in studies of uid dynamics.
AERODYNAMICS: The branch of dynamics that deals with the motion of air and other gaseous
uids and with the forces acting on bodies in motion relative to such uids.
ATOMIC PHYSICS: Atomic physics is the branch of physics which deals with the composition
of atom apart from nucleus. It is mainly concerned with the arrangement and behaviour of
electrons in the shells around the nucleus.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS: The physics of atomic nuclei and their interactions, especially in the
generation of nuclear energy.
QUANTUM MECHANICS: The study of discrete (quantized) nature of phenomena at the atomic
and subatomic level.
PLASMA PHYSICS: The study of fourth state of matter - Plasma. Sun is made of plasma.
CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS: The study of properties of condensed materials (solid,
liquid and those intermediate between them and dense gas) with the ultimate goal and
developing new materials with better properties; it is extension of Solid State Physics.
STATISTICAL MECHANICS: The branch of physics that attempts to relate the properties of
macroscopic systems to their atomic and molecular constituents.
OPTICS: Optics is the branch of physics, which deals with the propagation, behaviour and
properties of light.
ACOUSTICS: The study of production and propagation of sound waves.
GEOPHYSICS: Geophysics is the branch of physics which deals with the study of earth. It is
mainly concerned with the shape, structure and composition of earth. It also studies the
gravitational force, magnetic elds, earthquakes, magmas, eruption of volcanoes etc.
BIOPHYSICS: The interdisciplinary study of biological phenomena and problems, using the
principles and techniques of physics.
ASTRONOMY: The branch of science which deals with celestial objects, space, and the physical
universe as a whole.
ASTROPHYSICS: Astrophysics is concerned with the study of universe i.e., stars, galaxies and
planets using the laws of physics.
COSMOLOGY: The study of the origin of the universe as a whole, of the contents, structure, and
evolution of the universe from the beginning of time to the future.
PARTICLE PHYSICS: The branch of physics that deals with the properties and behavior of
elementary particles. Also known as High Energy Physics.
CRYOGENICS: Also known as Cryophysics, is the study of matter at extremely low tempera-
tures.
1.5 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

Physical quantities are quantities that can be measured. A physical quantity is clearly dened with
a numerical value and a unit. A physical quantity can be measured using a standard size called the
unit.. These can be classied as:
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BASIC QUANTITIES: Those physical quantities which can not be derived and are basic in
nature. Seven basic quantities are chosen for their convenience.
DERIVED QUANTITIES: All other quantities are derived from one or more of the basic quan-
tities. These can be expressed in terms of fundamental physical quantities, e.g., speed =
distance/time.
1.6 CATEGORY OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Dimensional Costants These are the quantities which possess dimensions and have a xed value.
For example, Gravitational constants G, mass of earth ME , speed of light c etc.
Dimensional Variables These are the quantities which possess dimensions and do not have a xed
value; for example, velocity v, acceleration a, force F etc.
Dimensionless Constants These are the quantities which do not possess dimensions and have a
xed value; for example, .
Dimensionless Variables These are the quantities which are dimensionless and do not have a
xed value; for example, Strain, Steradian, Specic Gravity etc.
RAMS MIND MAP
UNIT
All physical quantities are measured with respective to standard magnitude of the same physical
quantity and these standards are called UNITS; e.g., second, meter, kilogram, etc.
1.7 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI)

The International System of Units (French: Systme international dunits, SI) is the modern form
of the metric system, and is the most widely used system of measurement throughout the world.
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1.8 SI Standards 9
Table 1.1: SI units

Quantity Unit Name Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Thermodynamic Temperature Kelvin K
Electric Current Ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous Intensity candela cd
1.8 SI Standards
In 1960, an international committee agreed on a set of denitions and standards to describe the
physical quantities. These standardized units are seven in number and are given as under: -
Length Length is dened as the distance between two points. The SI unit of length is metre.
One standard metre is equal to 1650763.73 wavelengths of the orange-red light emitted by
the individual atoms of Krypton 86 in a krypton discharge lamp.
Mass Mass is the quantity of matter contained in a body. It is independent of temperature and
pressure. It does not vary from place to place. The SI unit of mass is kilogram.
The kilogram is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram (a plantinum-
iridium alloy cylinder) kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres,
near Paris, France.
Time In 1967, an atomic standard was adopted for second, the SI unit of time.
One standard second is dened as the time taken for 9192631770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to unperturbed transition between hyperne levels of the ground state of
Cesium 133 atom. Atomic clocks are based on this. In atomic clocks, an error of one
second occurs only in 5000 years.
Ampere The ampere is the constant current which, owing through two straight parallel innitely
long conductors of negligible cross-section, and placed in vacuum 1m apart, would produce
between the conductors a force of 2 107 newton per unit length of the conductors.
1
Kelvin The Kelvin is the fraction of 273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of
water.
Mole The mole is the amount of substance which contains as many elementary entities as there
are atoms in 0.012kg of carbon-12.
Candela The candela is the luminous intensity in a given direction due to a source, which emits
monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 1012 Hz and of which the radiant intensity in
1
that direction is 683 watt per steradian.
DIMENSION
The word dimension means the physical nature of a quantity. It is used to nd the nature of
equation or expression in terms of fundamental quantities.
Dimension is an expression of the character of a derived quantity in relation to fundamental
quantities, without regard for its numerical value.
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For example, the distance between two points in space can be measured in feet, meters, or miles,
which are different ways of expressing the dimension of length. In any system of measurement, such
as the metric system, certain quantities are considered fundamental, and all others are considered to
be derived from them. The symbols that we use to specify the dimensions of length, mass, and time
are L, M, and T , respectively. The expression of any particular quantity in terms of fundamental
quantities is known as dimensional analysis and often provides physical insight into the results of
a mathematical calculation. During dimensional analysis on given equation, the following rules
may apply:
1. Dimensions on left hand side (LHS) of the equation must be equal to the dimensions on the
right hand side (RHS):
LHS = RHS
2. Dimensions can be treated as algebraic quantities.

3. During dimension analysis, coefcients of any kind in equations should be ignored. For
example:
v f = vi + at
v f = m/s = L/T ; vi = m/s = L/T ; a = m/t 2 = L/T 2
L L L L L L
= = + 2 T = + =2
T T T T T T
But 2 in above equation is coefcient which must be dropped:
L L
= 2
T T
Therefore,
L L
=
T T
= M 0 L1 T 1 = M 0 L1 T 1
In above dimension analysis, there is no mass involved so we write M 0 , power to mass shows
zero, while L has one power and T has negative one power.
4. Such quantities can be added or subtracted only if they have the same dimensions.
5. Convert all subtractions into additions. Dimensions can never be subtracted but always be
added and nally coefcient should be dropped:
v f = vi gt
In above equation, we can not subtract dimensions, but we have to add them.
6. Dimensionally correct equation does not mean that the equation is correct.
7. The correct equation always be dimensionally correct.
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1.8 SI Standards 11
RAMS MIND MAP
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND THEIR DIMENSIONS
Following physical quantities with their dimensions are given. Note that power to dimension shows
how many times the physical quantity is used in the equation or formula. If no physical quantity
(no unit) is used then power to that dimension is given as zero.
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES HAVING SAME DIMENSIONAL FORMULA
Distance, Displacement, radius, light year, wavelength, radius of gyration (L) .

Speed, Velocity, Velocity of light .
acceleration, acceleration due to gravity (g), intensity of gravitational eld, centripetal
acceleration .
Impulse, Change in momentum
Force, Weight, Tension, Thrust
Work, Energy, Moment of force or Torque, Moment of couple
Force constant, Surface Tension, Spring constant, Energy per unit area
Angular momentum, Angular impulse, Planks constant, Angular velocity, Frequency, Veloc-
ity gradient, Decay constant, rate of disintegration
Stress, Pressure, Modulus of Elasticity, Energy density
Latent heat, Gravitational potential
Specic heat, Specic gas constant
Thermal capacity, Entropy, Boltzmann constant, Molar thermal capacity,
wave number, Power of a lens, Rydberg constant
Time, RC, L R ,
Power, Rate of dissipation of energy,
Intensity of sound, Intensity of radiation
Expansion coefcient, Temperature, coefcient of resistance
Electric potential, potential difference, electromotive force
Intensity of magnetic eld, Intensity of magnetization
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Table 1.2: SI units and Dimensions

Quantity Unit Dimension
Area (A) m2 M 0 L2 T 0
Volume (V ) m3 M 0 L3 T 0
Density () kg/m3 M 1 L3 T 0
Velocity (v) m/s M 0 L1 T 1
Acceleration (a) m/s2 M 0 LT 2
Momentum (p) kg.m/s M 1 L1 T 1
Force (F) N (kg.m/s2 ) M 1 L1 T 2
Pressure (p) Pa (kg/m.s2 ) M 1 L1 T 2
Energy (E) J (kg.m2 /s2 ) M 1 L2 T 2
Power (P) W (kg.m2 /s3 ) M 1 L2 T 3
Frequency () Hz (1/s) M 0 L0 T 1
Strain () No unit M 0 L0 T 0
Stress ( ) Pas (N/m2 ) M 1 L1 T 2
Surface Tension () N/m M 1 L0 T 2
Entropy (S) J/K M 1 L2 T 2 K 1
Power of Lens (P) Diaptors M 0 L1 T 0
Electric Resistance (R) (V /A) M 1 L2 T 3 I 2
Electric Capacity (C) Farad M 1 L2 T 4 I 2
Electric Charge (Q) Coulomb M 0 L0 T 1 I 1
Electric Potential (E) V M 1 L2 T 3 I 1
Refractive Index (n) unit-less M 0 L0 T 0
Magnetic Flux ( ) weber M 1 L2 T 2 I 1
Coefcient of linear expansion 1/K M 0 L0 T 0 K 1
()
Magnetic eld (B) Tesla M 1 L0 T 2 I 1
Resistivity () m M 1 L3 T 3 I 1
Planks constant (h) J s M 1 L2 T 1
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Scientic notation is part of the language physics which allows us to deal with a vast array of
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1.8 SI Standards 13
numbers, large and small.

Scientic notation is dened as a standardized way to represent any number as the product of
a real number and a power of 10.
a 10b
In this form, a is called the coefcient and b is the exponent.
The coefcient is the value of any numerical expression in real number.
1.8.1 MULTIPLIERS AND PREFIX

In Physics, multipliers are dened in powers of 10 from 1024 to 1024 , proceeding in increments of
three orders of magnitude (103 or 1,000). These multipliers are denoted in Table No. 1.3 and in
Table No. 1.4.
Table 1.3: Bigger multipliers

Prex Symbol Multiplier
Yotta Y 1024
Zetta Z 1021
Exa E 1018
Peta P 1015
Tera T 1012
Giga G 109
Mega M 106
Hektokilo hk 105
Myria ma 104
Kilo k 103
Hekto h 102
Deka D 101
UNIT 1 100
ERRORS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

If two persons use the same instrument for measurement for nding the same measurement,
it is not essential that they may get the same results. There may arises a difference between their
measurements. This difference is referred to as an ERROR.
Denition
An error is dened as The difference between the measured value and actual value.
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Table 1.4: Smaller multipliers

Prex Symbol Multiplier
Yocto y 1024
Zepto z 1021
Atto a 1018
Femto f 1015
Pico p 1012
Nano n 109
Micro 106
milli m 103
Centi c 102
Deci d 101
The uncertainty in the measurement of a physical quantity is called an error.

The accuracy of a measurement is a measure of how close the measured value is to the true
value of the quantity.
Precision tells us to what limit the quantity is measured.
The ERRORS in measurement can be classied as: -
(1) PERSONAL ERROR
(2) SYSTEMATIC ERROR
(3) RANDOM ERROR
PERSONAL ERROR: An error comes into play because of faulty procedure adopted by
by the observer is called PERSONAL ERROR.
Personal error comes into existence due to making an error in reading a scale.
SYSTEMATIC ERRORS: These are the errors that tend to be either positive or negative.
Sources of systematic errors are
Instrumental errors
Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure
Personal errors
Systematic error can be removed by correcting measurement device.
RANDOM ERRORS :Those errors which occur irregularly. These errors arise due to
unpredictable uctuations in experimental conditions.
For example: Sudden change in temperature, change in humidity, uctuation in potential
difference (voltage). It is an accidental error and is beyond the control of the person making
measurement.
LEAST COUNT
Minimum measurement that can be made by a measuring device is known as "LEAST COUNT".
Least count error is the error associated with the resolution of the instrument.
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1.8 SI Standards 15
ABSOLUTE ERROR
The magnitude of the difference between the individual measurement and the true value of the
quantity is called the absolute error of the measurement.
a = |a amean |
RELATIVE ERROR
The relative error is the ratio of the mean absolute error to the mean value of the quantity measured.
Relative Error = a mean
amean
PERCENTAGE ERROR
When the relative error is expressed in per cent it is called the percentage error: -
Percentage Error = aamean 100
mean
1.8.2 CALCULATION OF ERRORS

ERROR OF SUM OR DIFFERENCE
Errors are always added.
When two quantities are added or subtracted, the absolute error in the nal result is the sums
of the absolute errors in the individual quantities: -
If C = A + B, then maximum possible error in C is C = A + B.
If C = A B, then maximum possible error in C is C = A + B.
ERROR OF PRODUCT OR DIVISION

Even though quantities are multiplied or divided, the errors are always added.
When two quantities are multiplied or divided the relative error is the sum of the relative
errors in the multipliers: -
If C = A B, then maximum possible error in C = C/C = (A/A + B/B).
If C = A/B, then maximum possible error in C = C/C = (A/A + B/B).
ERROR OF POWER
The relative error in a physical quantity raised to the power k is the k times the relative error
in the individual quantity :
Suppose C = Ak , then error in C = C/C = k(A/A).
1.8.3 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

The reliable digits plus the rst uncertain digit in a measurement are called Signicant Figures.
RULES FOR FINDING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN A MEASUREMENT : -

There are three rules on determining how many signicant gures are in a number:
Non-zero digits are always signicant.
Any zeros between two signicant digits are signicant.
A nal zero or trailing zeros in the decimal portion ONLY are signicant.
If the number is less than 1, the zero(s) on the right side of decimal point but to the left of
the rst non-zero digit are not signicant.
For example: In 0.00035 the underlined zeros are not signicant.
The nal or trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point are not signicant :
For example: 1885m = 188500cm = 1885000mm has four signicant gures.
The trailing zeros in a number with a decimal point are signicant :
For example: The numbers 75.00 or 0.06700 have four signicant gures each.
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Zeroz between any signicant gures are signicant. For example: in 406, the number 4 and
6 are signicant so is zero. This is sometimes called "captured zero".
Trailing zeros in a whole number: 200 is considered to have only ONE signicant gure if
this is based on the way each number is written. When whole number are written as above,
the zeros, BY DEFINITION, did not require a measurement decision, thus they are not
signicant.
If 200 really has two or three signicant gures then it must be written in scientic notation.
If 200 has two signicant gures, then 2.0 102 is used. If it has three, then 2.00 102 is
used. If it has four, then 200.0 is sufcient.
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1.8 SI Standards 17
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Q:1 Dene following? (i) Supplementary Units (ii) Radian (iii) Steradian
Ans 1. Supplementary Units: The General Conference on Weights and Measures has not yet
classied certain unit of SI under either base or derived units. These SI units are called
derived supplementary units. Radian and Steradian are supplementary units. See
Table.
Table 1.5: Supplementary units

Quantity Unit Name Symbol
Plane Angle radian rad

Solid Angle steradian sr
2. Radian: The 2D angle between two radii of a circle corresponding to the arc length of
one radius on its circumference is called radian.
3. Steradian: It is the 3D angle subtended at the center of the sphere corresponding to
its surface area equal to the square of radius of sphere.
Q:2 What are practical or special units?
Ans Larger number of units are used in general life for measurement of different quantities in
comfortable manner. But they are neither fundamental units nor derived units.
Generally, the length of a road is measured in mile. This is the practical unit of length. Some
practical units are given below :
Table 1.6: SPECIAL OR PRACTICAL UNITS: MASS:

Name Symbol & value Description
One slug 14.59kg

1 pound 0.453kg = 453.6 g weight
1 carat 200 milligrams = 3.09 grains Used for measurement of gold
and diamond
1 Tola 11.6638125g Used by Goldsmiths in Pakistan.
80 tola= 1kg
1 Metric Ton 1000kg
1 Atomic mass 1.671024 g = 1.671027 kg Used in Atomic and Nuclear
Unit (a.m.u) Physics
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Table 1.7: SPECIAL OR PRACTICAL UNITS: LENGTH:

1 Fermi 1 f m = 1015 m Used in Atomic Physics

1 X-ray unit lxu = 1013 m
1 Angstrom 1 = 1010 m
1 Micron 1m = 106 m
1 Astronomical 1Au = 1.49 1011 m Average distance between sun
Unit and earth, i.e., radius of earths
orbit
1 Light Year 1LY = 9.46 l015 m Distance that light travels in 1
year in vacuum
1 Parsec 1pc = 3.08 1016 m = 3.26 LY The distance at which a star sub-
tends an angle of parallex of 1 s
at an arc of 1 Au
1 Mile 1760 yard = 1.61 km= 8 furlongs
= 5280 feet
1 Yard 3 ft =36 inches
1 Inch 2.54cm
1 Degree (geo- 69.05 miles = 111.12 kilometers
graphical)
1 Hand = 4 inches = 10.16 centimeters
Table 1.8: SPECIAL OR PRACTICAL UNITS: TIME:

1 Solar day 24 hours The time taken by earth to complete one

rotation about its own axis with respect
to sun
Siderial day It is 4.1min shorter than Mean solar day
1 Solar year 365.24 Mean solar day
1 Lunar month 27.3 days Time taken by moon to complete one
rotation around earth is lunar month
One shake 108 second
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1.8 SI Standards 19
Table 1.9: SPECIAL OR PRACTICAL UNITS: AREA:

1 Barn 1028 m2 to measure cross section of nuclei

1 Acre 4047m2 = 4840yard 2 = 43560 f t 2
Table 1.10: SPECIAL OR PRACTICAL UNITS: PRESSURE:

1 Atmospheric Pressure 1.013 105 N/m2 = 760mm of Hg

1 Bar 105 N/m2 or pascal
1 Torr 1 mm of Hg = 133.3N/m2
RAMS EXCLUSIVE
Converting physical quantity from one system to another system
Dimensional formula is useful to convert the value of a physical quantity from one system
to the other. Physical quantity is expressed as a product of numerical value and unit.
In any system of measurement, this product remains constant. By using this fact, we can
convert the value of physical quantity from one system to another. Let n1 is the numerical
value of the system u1 and let n2 is the numerical value of another system u2 , then:
n1 [u1 ] = n2 [u2 ]
Example: Convert one Joule into Erg.
Solution Joule and erg are units of work. The dimensions formula for work are: [ML2 T 2 ].
u1 = [M1 L12 T12 ], u2 = [M2 L22 T22 ]
Where u1 for SI and u2 for CGS. According conversion equation:

n1 [u1 ] = n2 [u2 ] = n1 [M1 L12 T12 ] = n2 [M2 L22 T22 ]
Here M1 = kg, L1 = meter and T1 = second. For u2 : M2 = grams, L2 = cm and

T2 = sec.
But M1 = 1000M2 , L1 = 100L2 , T1 = T2 and n1 = 1, so
(1)[1000M2 ][100L2 ]2 [T22 ] = n2 [M2 ][L22 ][T22 ]
1000M2 100L2 2 T2 2
n2 = [ ][ ] [ ]
M2 L2 T2
n2 = [1000][100]2 [1]2 = 1000 10000 = 10000000 = 107
1Joule = 107 erg.
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Points to Note:
There are three systems of units: SI (older name MKS system), CGS sys-
tem(also know as Gaussion System) and FPS System (Foot, Pound, Second
System).
Two or more physical quantities are added or subtracted when their units and
dimensions are same.
Two or more physical quantities are multiplied or divided even though their
units and dimensions are not same. After multiplication or division, the
resultant quantity may have different unit.
The unit is always written in singular form, e.g., meter not meters.
No punctuation marks are used after unit, e.g., sec not sec.
If a unit is named after a person, the unit is not written with capital initial
letter, e.g., newton not Newton.
If a unit is named after a person, the symbol used is a capital letter. The
symbols of other units are not written in capital letters, e.g., N for newton (not
n).
The dimensions are used:
1. To check the correctness of a given physical equation.
2. To derive new relation among physical quantities.
3. To convert a physical quantity from one system to another.
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2. SCALARS AND VECTORS
INTRODUCTION
There are many physical quantities in nature. For proper measurement and calculation each of
these quantities requires one or more dimensions to describe it mathematically. Here we can divide
them up into two types according to how many dimensions it uses to describe. These are called
vectors and scalars.
2.0.1 Scalars
Scalars are used to describe one dimensional quantities, that is, quantities which require only one
number to completely describe them. A scalar tells you how much of something there is.
Denition
A scalar is a physical quantity that has only a magnitude (size) along with a unit.
Scalar quantities change when their magnitudes change.
2.0.2 Vectors
Vectors are used to describe two-dimensional quantities. two-dimensional quantities are those
which require two numbers to completely describe them: magnitude and direction. (If there are
more than two dimensions then we use the term tensor). A vector tells you how much of something
there is and which direction it is in.
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22 Chapter 2. SCALARS AND VECTORS
Denition
A vector is a physical quantity that has both a magnitude and a direction.
Distance is a scalar quantity that refers to "how much ground an object has covered" during
its motion.
Displacement is a vector quantity that refers to "how far out of place an object is"; it is the
objects overall change in position.
The magnitude of v is written |v|.
Properties of Vectors:
1. Vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction.
2. Vectors must have the same units in order for them to be added or subtracted.
3. The negative of a vector has the same magnitude but opposite direction.
4. Subtraction of a vector is dened by adding a negative vector:
A B = A + (B)
Vector quantities change when:
1. their magnitude change
2. their direction change
3. their magnitude and direction both change
Electric current, velocity of light have both magnitude and direction but they do not obey the
laws of vector addition. Hence they are scalars.
Table 2.1: Comparison

Aspect Scalar Vector
Mathematics arithmetic: addition, trigonometry: vector addition, vector subtraction resul-

subtraction sum, dif- tant or net (), change ( ) dot product, cross product
ference multiplica-
tion
Represent a number with a unit
a number and a direction angle, both with units
OR
a number with a unit for each unit vector (i, j, k)
OR
an arrow drawn to scale in a specic direction
VECTOR NOTATION
Vectors are different to scalars and must have their own notation. There are many ways of writing
the symbol for a vector. Vectors can be shown by symbols with an arrow pointing to the right above
it. For example, force can be written as: F.
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23
Graphical representation of vectors

Vectors are drawn as arrows. An arrow has both a magnitude (how long it is) and a direction (the
direction in which it points). The starting point of a vector is known as the tail and the end point is
known as the head.
Figure 2.1: Vector
TYPES OF VECTORS
2.0.3 Real Vector OR Polar Vector

If the direction of a vector is independent of the coordinate system, then it is called a polar vector.
Example : linear velocity, linear momentum, force, etc.
2.0.4 Pseudo Vector OR Axial Vector

Vectors associated with rotation about an axis and whose direction is changed when the co-ordinate
system is changed from left to right, are called axial vectors (or) pseudo vectors.
Example : Torque, Angular momentum, Angular velocity, etc.
2.0.5 Position Vector

It is a vector that represents the position of a particle with respect to the origin of a co-ordinate
system. The Position Vector of a point (x, y, z) isr.
2.0.6 Unit Vector

It is a vector whose magnitude is unity (one). A unit vector is used to show the direction of a given

vector. Mathematically, it can be dened as: a = A .
A
2.0.7 Equal vectors

Two vectors are said to be equal if they have the same magnitude and same direction, wherever be
their initial positions.
2.0.8 Like vectors

Two vectors are said to be like vectors, if they have same direction but different magnitudes.
2.0.9 Unlike vectors

The vectors of different magnitude acting in opposite directions are called unlike vectors.
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2.0.10 Opposite vectors OR negative vector

The vectors of same magnitude but opposite in direction, are called opposite OR negative vectors.
2.0.11 Null vector or zero vector

and
A vector whose magnitude is zero, is called a null vector or zero vector. It is represented by O
its starting and end points are the same. The direction of null vector is not known.
2.0.12 Proper vector

All the non-zero vectors are called proper vectors.
2.0.13 Co-initial vectors

Vectors having the same starting point are called co-initial vectors. A and B start from the same
origin O. Hence, they are called as co-initial vectors.
2.0.14 Coplanar vectors

Vectors lying in the same plane are called coplanar vectors and the plane in which the vectors lie
are called plane of vectors.
RAMS MIND MAP
VECTOR ADDITION
When adding vector quantities remember that the directions have to be taken into account.
The result of adding vectors together is called the resultant.
When adding two vectors together:
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25
1. the greatest (maximum) resultant is equal to their sum

2. the smallest (minimum) resultant is equal to their difference
3. the resultant can have any value between these limits depending on the angle between
the two vectors
Pythagorean theorem is used to determine magnitude of the vector.
The tangent function is used to determine direction of the vector.
In problems, vectors may be added together by scale diagram or mathematically.
2.0.15 Addition of Vectors by Graphical Method

A process in which two or more vectors are added is called addition of vectors. Parallel or anti-
parallel vectors are added by simple arithmetic rules. For non-parallel vectors, vectors are not
added and subtracted by simple arithmetic rules. For this process vectors are added and subtracted
by head to tail method.
2.0.16 Head to tail Rule

Consider two vectors, A and B. In order to add we can place the tail of B so that it meets the head
of A. The sum, A + B, is the resultant vector from the tail of A to the head of B.
Figure 2.2: Head to tail Rule
2.0.17 Adding Parallel Vectors

If the vectors you want to add are in the same direction, they can be added using simple arithmetic.
Consider two vectors P and Q which are acting along the same line. To add these two vectors, join

the tail of Q with the head of P.
is R = P + Q.
The resultant of P and Q The length of the line AD gives the magnitude of R. R acts

in the same direction as that of P and Q.
Figure 2.3: (left) Vector Addition. (Right) Parallelogram Method.
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2.0.18 Parallelogram Law

In order to nd the sum of two vectors, which are inclined to each other, parallelogram law of
vectors, can be used.
According to the parallelogram law of vector addition:
If two vector quantities are represented by two adjacent sides or a parallelogram then the
diagonal of parallelogram will be equal to the resultant of these two vectors.
Consider two vectors A and B. To add A and B using the parallelogram method, place the tail
of B so that it meets the tail of A. Take these two vectors to be the rst two adjacent sides of a

parallelogram, and draw in the remaining two sides. The vector sum, A + B, extends from the tails
of A and B across the diagonal to the opposite corner of the parallelogram.
If the vectors are perpendicular and unequal in magnitude, the parallelogram will be a rectangle. If
the vectors are perpendicular and equal in magnitude, the parallelogram will be a square.
2.0.19 Adding Perpendicular Vectors

Consider two vectors A and B which are perpendicular to each other. Addition of these vectors can
be performed by head to tail rule and the magnitude of resultant vector A and B can be calculated
by using Pythagorean Theorem.
2.0.20 Triangle law of vectors

which are acting at an angle , following laws are used:
To nd the resultant of two vectors P and Q
Figure 2.4: Law of Sines and Law of Cosine
can be obtained by Law of

1. Law of Cosine: Magnitude of resultant of two vectors P and Q
Cosine:

2 2PQ
R2 = P2 + Q cos(180o ) |R| = P2 + Q 2 + 2PQ
cos
2. Law of Sines: This law is used to nd the direction of the resultant of these vectors:
P
Q R
= =
sin sin sin(180o )
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27
Properties of addition of vectors

1. Commutative law (The order of addition is unimportant.): A + B = B + A
2. Associative law : A + (B + C)
= (A + B) + C

3.
Distributive law : m(A + B) = mA + mB. Where m is a scalar
4. Binary operation: Vector addition is a binary operation. (Only two vectors can be added at a
time.)
VECTOR SUBTRACTION
Lets take the two vectors A and B as shown in gure.

To subtract B from A, take a vector of the same magnitude as B (negative of vector), but pointing
in the opposite direction, and add that vector to A, using either the head-to-tail method or the
parallelogram method.
VECTOR COMPONENTS
Angled Vector which is not along x-axis, y-axis or z-axis can be thought of as having an
inuence in three different directions. Each part of a 3-dimensional vector is known as a
component.
The combined inuence (Resultant) of the three components is equivalent to the inuence of
the single 3-dimensional vector.
RESOLUTION OF VECTORS
A vector directed at an angle with the co-ordinate axis, can be resolved into its components along
the axes. This process of splitting a vector into its components is known as resolution of a vector.
Explanation
Consider a vector R = OA making an angle with x axis. The vector R can be resolved into two
components along X axis and y axis respectively. Draw two perpendiculars from A to X and Y
x | and |R
axes respectively. The intercepts on these axes are called the scalar components |R y |.

Then, OP is |Rx |, which is the magnitude of x component of R and OQ is |Ry |, which is the magni-
tude of y component of R.
Rams Outline Series

From OPA,
x |
|R
cos = OP OA = |R| OR
x | = |R| cos
|R
|
|R
sin = OQ OA = |R| OR
y
y | = |R| sin
|R
And |R2 | = |R x 2 | + |R
y2|
Also, R can be expressed as:
R = |R x |i + |R
y | j
x and
where i and j are unit vectors. In terms of R

Ry , can be expressed as:
|
|R
= tan1 |Ry | .
x
MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS
There are two forms of vector multiplication: one results in a scalar, and one results in a vector.
2.0.21 Scalar product OR Dot product of two vectors

If the product of two vectors is a scalar, then it is called scalar product. If A and B are two vectors,
then their scalar product is written as A.B and read as A dot B. Hence scalar product is also called
dot product. This is also known as INNER or DIRECT PRODUCT.
The scalar product of two vectors is a scalar, which is equal to the product of magnitudes of the two
vectors and the cosine of the angle between them. The scalar product of two vectors A and may be
B expressed as:
A.B = |A||B| cos
where |A| and |B| are the magnitudes of A and B respectively and is the angle between A and B.
The magnitude of A or B can be calculated by using Pythagoras Theorem.
In Scalar Product, units vectors can be calculated as:
i.i = j. j = k.k = 1 i. j = i.k = j.k = 0
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29
NOTE: Dot Product of unit vectors always yield zero(0) OR one (1).
2.0.22 Vector product or Cross product of two vectors

If the product of two vectors is a vector, then it is called vector product. If A and B are two vectors,
then their vector product is written as A B and read as A cross B. This is also called as outer
product because the resultant vector is out of the plane containing two vectors.
The vector product or cross product of two vectors is a vector whose magnitude is equal to the
product of their magnitudes and the sine of the smaller angle between them and the direction is
perpendicular to a plane containing the two vectors.
If is the smaller angle through which A should be rotated to reach B, then the cross product of A
and B is expressed as,

= A B = |A||B| sin n
C
where |A| and |B| are the magnitudes of A and B respectively and n is a unit vector perpendicular to
both A and B. The resultant product can be expressed as C. The direction of C is perpendicular to

the plane containing the vectors A and B.
The magnitude of the cross product vector is equal to the area made by a parallelogram of A and B.
In other words, the greater the area of the parallelogram, the longer the cross product vector.
The resultant product C can be expressed in i, j, k form if A and B are given in unit vector form:

i j k

= A B = A
C A A
x y z
Bx By Bz
The magnitude of A, B or C

can be calculated by using Pythagoras Theorem.
In Vector Product, units vectors can be calculated as:
i i = j j = k k = 0
While combination of different unit vectors can be expressed as:
i j = k j k = i k i = j j i = k i k = j k j = i
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Figure 2.5: Technique of cross product
NOTE: Cross Product of unit vectors always yield zero(0) OR another unit vector.
Points to Note:
Vector does not obey the laws of simple algebra.
Vector obeys the laws of vector algebra.

Vector does not obey division law. e.g. BA is meaningless.
Division of a vector by a positive scalar quantity gives a new vector whose
direction is same as initial vector but magnitude changes.
A scalar quantity never be divided by a vector quantity.
The angle between two vectors is always lesser or equal to 180o . (i.e., 0 <
< 180o )
A vector never be equal to scalar quantity.
The magnitude or modulus of a vector quantity is always a scalar quantity.
Two vectors are compared with respect to magnitude.
The minimum value of a vector quantity is always greater than or equal to
zero.
The angle between like parallel vectors is zero and that of unlike parallel
vectors is 180o .
The magnitude of parallel vectors may or may not be same. If the magnitude
of like parallel vectors are same, then the vectors are known as equal vectors.
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3. MOTION
In this chapter we will study about MECHANICS. Mechanics is the branch of physics in which we
study the motion of bodies. We will start with Kinematics which is sub-branch of Mechanics as
mapped in Rams Mind Map.
KINEMATICS
In Kinematics we study the description of motion of bodies. We can describe the motion of any
body with its, distance, time, velocity, acceleration and time it takes.
3.0.1 Parameters used in Kinematics

Particle
A particle is ideally just a piece or a quantity of matter, having practically no linear dimensions but
only a position.
Rest
When a body does not change its position with respect to time and surroundings, then it is said to
be at rest.
Motion
Motion is the change of position of an object with respect to time and surroundings.
Distance and Displacement

The total length of the path is the distance traveled by the particle and the shortest distance between
the initial and nal position of the particle is the displacement.
The distance traveled is a scalar quantity and the displacement is a vector quantity.
SI unit of distance OR displacement is meter (m). The dimensions are : M o L1 T o
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32 Chapter 3. MOTION
Comparison between distance and displacement

For a moving particle in a given time interval distance can be many valued function,
but displacement would always be single valued function.
Displacement could be positive, negative or zero, but distance would always be
positive.
Displacement can decrease with time, but distance can never decrease with time.
Distance is always greater than or equal to the magnitude of displacement.
Distance would be equal to displacement if and only if the particle is moving along
straight line without any change in direction.
Speed
Distance covered by a body in unit time is known as speed.
Let a body covers a distance S in time t, then, mathematically:
distance
v=
time
S
v=
t
It is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is meter ms1 . The dimensions are: M o LT 1
Average Speed
The average speed is dened as total distance traveled by a body in a particular time interval divided
by the time interval. Thus, the average speed OR total distance covered divided by total time taken :
total distance covered total distance covered total distance covered

vavg = = OR vavg =
t2 t1 t total time taken
Velocity
The velocity of a particle is dened as the rate of change of displacement of the particle. It is also
dened as the speed of the particle in a given direction. The velocity is a vector quantity. It has
both magnitude and direction.
Its SI unit is ms1 and its dimensional formula is M 0 LT 1 .
Uniform Velocity
A particle is said to move with uniform velocity if it moves along a xed direction and covers equal
displacements in equal intervals of time, however small these intervals of time may be.
Instantaneous velocity
It is the velocity at any given instant of time or at any given point of its path. The instantaneous
velocity v is given by
S
v = lim
t0 t
Average Velocity
Let S1 be the displacement of a body in time t1 and S2 be its displacement in time t2 . The average
velocity during the time interval (t2 t1 ) is dened as:
S2 S1 S
vavg = =
t2 t1 t
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33
RAMS MIND MAP
NOTE. velocity = speed + direction of motion.
NOTE. Note that (delta) always means "nal minus initial".
NOTE. If the velocity of an object varies over time, then we must distinguish between the
average velocity during a time interval and the instantaneous velocity at a particular time.
Acceleration
Time rate of change of velocity is called acceleration. Mathematically:
v
a =
t
Acceleration is a vector quantity. Whenever magnitude or direction of velocity or both change then
there is acceleration. SI unit of acceleration is ms2 . Dimensions of acceleration are: M o LT 2 .
Uniform acceleration
If the velocity changes by an equal amount in equal intervals of time, the acceleration is said to be
uniform.
Retardation or deceleration
If the velocity decreases with time, the acceleration is negative. The negative acceleration is called
retardation or deceleration.
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Average Acceleration and Instantaneous Acceleration

In general, when a body is moving, its velocity is not always the same. A body whose velocity is
increasing is said to be accelerated.
Average acceleration is dened as change in velocity divided by the time interval.
Let us consider the motion of a particle. Suppose that the particle has velocity v1 at t = t1 and at a
later time t = t2 it has velocity v2 . Thus, the average acceleration during time interval t = t2 t1 is :
v2 v1 v
vavg = =
t2 t1 t
If the time interval approaches to zero, average acceleration is known as instantaneous acceleration.
Mathematically,
v
a = lim
t0 t
3.0.2 Representing Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

Speed v and Distance S are both always positive quantities, by denition. While Velocity
v
has both magnitude and direction. Therefore for 1D motion (motion along a straight line),
we can represent the direction of motion with a +/ sign:
Objects A and B have the same speed v = |v | = +10m/s, but they have different velocities.
Figure 3.1:
v = constant = v = 0 = a = 0
v increasing (becoming more positive) = a > 0
v decreasing (becoming more negative) = a < 0
In 1D, acceleration a is the slope of the graph of v vs. t
The direction of the acceleration

For 1D motion, the acceleration, like the velocity, has a sign ( + or ). Just as with velocity, we
say that positive acceleration is acceleration to the right, and negative acceleration is acceleration to
the left.
direction of a =direction of v.
direction of a = the direction toward which the velocity is tending = direction of v.
GRAPHS AND NATURE

Graphs are pictorial representations of data. In other words, graphs can show us a picture of data. It
is straight line or curve which gives the relationship between two quantities.
Graphs tell us TWO things: SLOPE and AREA UNDER CURVE
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35
Slope of a line
If we divide vertical value with horizontal value, we get slope. In other words, slope is the rate of
vertical line over horizontal line. For example, speed is slope of distance versus time.
Rams Outline Series

The negative slope means the magnitude of quantity is decreasing and positive means it is
increasing. Zero slope means the quantity is constant. The slope also shows how fast or how slow
is the rate.
Area under curve

If we multiply vertical value with horizontal value then we get area under the curve. For example,
in velocity-time graphs, if we multiply velocity (vertical) with time (horizontal), we get area under
curve which is total distance covered by the body.
Velocity-time Graph
The graph which shows variation of velocity of the body with respect to time is called velocity-time
graph.
CASE I: Graph of constant velocity: Consider a body which moves with constant velocity, the
acceleration of the body is zero. The velocity-time graph is horizontal straight line parallel
to the time-axis.
The area under curve gives the total distance covered by the body. This area can be calculated
by multiplying velocity with time:
area under curve = velocity time
S = vt
CASE II: Graph of uniform acceleration: When a velocity of a body increases with a constant
rate then the body is said to be moving with uniform or constant acceleration. The velocity-
time graph is straight line inclined to the time-axis (x-axis).
CASE III: Graph of variable acceleration: If the velocity of the body doesnt increase by equal
amounts in equal intervals of time, it is said to have variable acceleration.
The shape of velocity-time graph is curve.
CASE IV: Graph of average acceleration: Whenever the acceleration is uniform or variable, the
average acceleration can be calculated by the relation:
v
aavg =
t
The slope of graph between two points A and B gives the average acceleration:
v2 v1 v
aavg = =
t2 t1 t
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37
Area under the curve gives the total distance covered by the body.
distance = S = area of ABC
But, the area of ABC = 12 |Base| |Height|

the area of ABC = 12 AB BC
distance = 12 t v ( AB = t, BC = v)
1
S = vt
2
RAMS MIND MAP
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
If a body moves in straight line then the motion is said to be linear motion.
Suppose a body is moving with a constant acceleration a along a straight line. Let the initial velocity
of the body be vi and nal velocity b v f after time interval t during which distance covered is S.
Then the equations of motion are given as follows:
(1) v f = vi + at
(2) S = vi + 1/2 at 2
(3) 2aS = v2f v2i
v f + vi
(4) S = t
2
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Distance traveled in nth second
Let Sn is the distance traveled in one second between t = n and t = n 1 seconds, then equation for
calculating the distance traveled in nth second would be:
a
Sn = vi + (2n 1)
2
Motion under gravity or free fall motion
The most familiar example of motion with constant acceleration on a straight line is motion in a
vertical direction near the surface of earth. If air resistance is neglected, the acceleration of such
type of particle is gravitational acceleration which is nearly constant for a height negligible with
respect to the radius of earth. The magnitude of gravitational acceleration near surface of earth is
g = 9.81m/s2 = 32 f t/s2 .
Case I: If particle is moving upwards : In this case applicable kinematics equations of motion
are:
(1) v f = vi gt
(2) h = vi 1/2 gt 2
(3) 2gh = v2f v2i
Here h is the vertical height of the particle in upward direction. At maximum hight the nal
velocity v f = 0.
Case II: If particle is moving downward: In this case,
(1) v f = vi + gt
(2) h = vi + 1/2 gt 2
(3) 2gh = v2f v2i
Here h is the vertical height of the particle in downward direction. In this case the initial
velocity (vi ) of free fall body is taken as zero.
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39
RAMS MIND MAP
FORCE
Force is that agency which causes a body to change its state of motion or rest.
Force is vector quantity and it is denoted by F. The SI unit of force is newton (N).
The dimensions of F are MLT 2 .
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I Newton
Force which produces acceleration of 1m/s2 in a mass of 1kg is called 1 newton.
It is denoted by N. 1 newton = 1 kilogram second
meter
2
3.0.3 Types of forces

Forces can be categorizes in two types:
Contact Force
In which the two interacting objects are physically in contact with each other.
For example: friction force, normal force, spring force etc are contact forces.
Normal force: If two blocks come in contact, they exert force on each other. The component of
contact force perpendicular to the surface of contact is generally known as normal reaction.
String and Tension: If a block is pulled by a string, the string is in the condition of tension (T ).
Tension is also force which ows through string. SI unit of Tension is same as Force (i.e.; Newton).
There are two types of strings:
(i) Massless String: In the case of massless string, the tension, every where remains the same in it.
(ii) Massive String: The tension in massive rope varies point to point.
Action at a distance force

These forces (non- contact forces) are forces in which the two interacting objects are not in physical
contact which each other, but are able to exert a push or pull despite the physical separation.
For example: Gravitational force, electric force, magnetic force etc are action at a distance forces.
NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION

Sir Isaac Newtons three laws of motion describe the motion of massive bodies and how
they interact. Newton published his laws in 1687, in his book Philosophi Naturalis Principia
Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy).
3.1 Newtons First Law of Motion

Newtons rst law states that every object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line
unless compelled to change its state by the action of an external force.
If the sum of all the forces on a given particle is F and its acceleration is a, the above
statement may also be written as
a = 0, if and only if F = 0
In this case velocity of the body is zero or uniform. This law is also know as Law of Inertia.
There are many examples of rst law of motion in everyday life.
(i) A book lying on the table remains at rest unless it is lifted or pushed by exerting a force.
(ii) A satellite revolving around the Earth continues it motion forever with uniform velocity.
3.2 Newtons Second Law of Motion

The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the magnitude
of the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the
object.
Consider a body of mass m on which a force F is applied. The body will be accelerated in the
direction of force and let the acceleration produced be a. then according to 2nd Law of Motion:
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3.3 Newtons Third Law of Motion 41
a F ->(i)
a m1 ->(ii)
Combining equations (i) and (ii), we get:
F
a = m
or
F = ma
This is mathematical form of 2nd law of motion.
3.3 Newtons Third Law of Motion

It states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
whenever one body exerts a certain force on a second body, the second body exerts an equal
and opposite force on the rst. Newtons third law is sometimes called as the law of action and
reaction.
Let there be two bodies 1 and 2 exerting forces on each other. Let the force exerted on the body
1 by the body 2 be F12 and the force exerted on the body 2 by the body 1 be F21 . Then according to
third law,
F12 = F21
One of these forces, say F12 may be called as the action whereas the other force F21 may be called
as the reaction or vice versa. The action and reaction never cancel each other and the forces always
exist in pair.
The effect of third law of motion can be observed in many activities in our everyday life. The
examples are
(i) When a bullet is red from a gun with a certain force (action), there is an equal and opposite
force exerted on the gun in the backward direction (reaction).
(ii) When a man jumps from a boat to the shore, the boat moves away from him. The force he
exerts on the boat (action) is responsible for its motion and his motion to the shore is due to the
force of reaction exerted by the boat on him.
(iii) We will not be able to walk if there were no reaction force. In order to walk, we push our foot
against the ground. The Earth in turn exerts an equal and opposite force. This force is inclined to the
surface of the Earth. The vertical component of this force balances our weight and the horizontal
component enables us to walk forward.
Weight
It is dened as the force by which earth attracts a body towards its centre. Weight is denoted by W
and it is given by W = mg, where g = 9.81m/s2 . The SI unit of force is same as that of force, i.e.;
newton (N).
APPLICATION OF NEWTONS LAWS
MOTION OF BODIES CONNECTED BY A STRING

(A) When the bodies move vertically: Consider two bodies of unequal masses m1 and m2 connected
by the ends of a string, which passes over a frictionless pulley as shown in the diagram.
Rams Outline Series

Figure 3.2: Application of Newtons Law.
If mass of body A is greater than the mass of body B, i.e., m1 > m2 , the body A will move
downward with acceleration a and the body B will move up with same acceleration. Here we
have to nd the value of a and tension T .
There are two forces acting on A:
(i) Weight of body: W1 = m1 g
(ii) Tension in the string = T
The net force acting on the body is
F = m1 g T
Net force acting on body A is given by Newtons 2nd law as m1 a. Thus we have the equation for
the motion of body "A" as:
m1 a = m1 g T > (i)
There are also two forces acting on B (i) Weight of body: W2 = m2 g

(ii) Tension in the string = T
Since body "B" is moving up, the net force acting on body is
F = T m2 g
T m2 g = m2 a > (ii)
Adding (i) and (ii), we get:
m1 g m2 g = m1 a + m2 a = (m1 m2 )g = (m1 + m2 )a
(m1 m2 )
a= g
m1 + m2
Putting the value of a in equation (ii) to nd the magnitude of T :

(m1 m2 ) m2 g(m1 m2 )
T m2 g = m2 a = m2 g= + m2 g
m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2
m2 g{(m1 m2 ) + (m1 + m2 )} m2 g{m1 m 2 + m1 + 2}
m
T= =
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
2m1 m2 g
T=
(m1 + m2 )
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(B) One body placed on a horizontal surface and connected by another vertically falling body:
Two bodies of different masses are attached at two ends of a light string passing over a light pulley.
The mass m2 is placed on a horizontal surface and m1 is hanging freely in air.
For vertical equilibrium m2 : = N = m2 g
For horizontal acceleration of m2 : = T = m2 a
For vertically downward acceleration of m1 : = m1 g T = m1 a
m1
a= g
m1 + m 2
m1 m2 g
T=
(m1 + m2 )
(c) Motion on a smooth inclined plane: One body moves vertically and another on inclined plane
m1 g T = m1 a > (1)
T m2 g sin = m2 a > (ii)
m1 m2 sin
a= g
m1 + m2
m1 m2 (1 + sin )g
T=
(m1 + m2 )
+y
T
+x
N T
m2 g sin
m2 g m1 g
3.3.1 INCLINED PLANE

Any plane surface which makes an angle with the horizontal surface is called inclined plane such
that 0o < < 90o .
Inclined plane is an example of simple machine which is used to lift heavy bodies without applying
very huge force.
Motion of a body on inclined plane

Consider a block of mass m placed on an inclined plane, which makes an angle with the horizontal
plane. The weight W of the block is acting vertically downward. The weight of the block can be
resolved into two rectangular components:
W cos and W sin .
other forces acting on the block are:
(i) Normal reaction (R) which is perpendicular to the plane
(ii) Force of friction ( f ) acting opposite to the direction of motion of block.
Let us take x-axis perpendicular to the inclined plane. If the block is at rest, then W sin acting
down the plane balances the opposing frictional force. According to Newtons First Law of Motion:
Along x-axis:
Fx = 0
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f W sin = 0 > (1)
and along y-axis:
Fy = 0
R W cos = 0 > (2)
Since there is no motion in the direction perpendicular to the inclined plane, therefore W cos
is balanced by R i.e. R = W cos . If block slides down with an acceleration equal to a, then the
resultant force is equal to ma and the force on block will be:
W sin f
According to Newtons 2nd Law:
W sin f = ma
If the force of friction is negligible, then
W sin = ma
mg sin =
ma( W = mg)
a = g sin
This expression shows that if friction is negligible the acceleration of a body on an inclined plane is
independent of mass but is directly proportional to sin .
Particular cases
When = 0o : In this case body is lying on the surface.
a = g sin 0. Since sin 0 = 0, so a = g 0
a=0
When = 90o : In this case slope is perpendicular to the surface.

a = g sin 90. Since sin 90 = 1, so a = g 1
a=g
It means that body will move as free fall motion.
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RAMS MIND MAP
LINEAR MOMENTUM
The Linear momentum of a body is dened as the product of its mass and velocity. If m is the mass
of the body and v, its velocity, the linear momentum of the body is given by
P = mv
Momentum has both magnitude and direction and it is, therefore, a vector quantity. The direction
of momentum is same as that of velocity. The SI unit of momentum is kgms1 and its dimensional
formula is MLT 1 .
When a force acts on a body, its velocity changes, consequently, its momentum also changes. The
slowly moving bodies have smaller momentum than fast moving bodies of same mass.
Impulse of a force
The impulse I of a constant force F acting for a short time t is dened as the product of the force
and time.
Impulse = Force time
Impulse = Ft
Impulse of a force is a vector quantity and its SI unit is Ns. Examples of impulse: The blow of a
hammer, the collision of two billiard balls etc.
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Impulse and Momentum

By Newtons second law of motion, the force acting on a body is equal to ma where m is the mass
of the body and a is acceleration produced.
The impulse of the force = F t = (ma)t.
If u and v be the initial and nal velocities of the body then,
vu
a=
t
Therefore, impulse of the force = m (vu)
t t = m(v u) = mv mu.
Impulse = nal momentum of the body initial momentum of the body.
That is: Impulse of the force = Change in momentum
Impulse = P
Ft = P
P
F=
t
This equation is another form of Newtons Second Law of Motion. It states that the force is the rate
of change of linear momentum.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

The law of conservation of momentum states that: When some bodies constituting an isolated
system act upon one another, the total momentum of the system remains constant.
Consider an isolated system of two bodies "A" & "B" having masses m1 & m2 moving initially with
velocities u1 & u2 respectively. They collide with each other and after the impact their velocities
become v1 & v2 .
Total momentum of system before collision = m1 u1 + m2 u2
Total momentum of system after collision = m1 v1 + m2 v2
When the two bodies collide with each other, they come in contact for a short time t. During this
interval, let the average force exerted one of the bodies is F. We know that the rate of change of
linear momentum is equal to applied force, therefore:
FA = (m1 v1 m1 u1 )/t -> (1)
FB = (m2 v2 m2 u2 )/t -> (2)
According to the third law of motion :
FA = FB
Therefore: (m1 v1 m1 u1 )/t = (m2 v2 m2 u2 )/t
m1 v1 m1 u1 = (m2 v2 m2 u2 )
m1 v1 m1 u1 = m2 v2 + m2 u2
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
This is known as the Law of Conservation of Momentum. This expression shows that the total
momentum of an isolated system before and after collision remains constant i.e. the total momentum
of the system is conserved.
3.4 COLLISION
When a body strikes against body or one body inuences the other from a distance, collision is said
to be occur. Collisions are of two types :
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3.4 COLLISION 47
Elastic collision
An elastic collision is that in which the momentum of the system as well as kinetic energy of the
system before and after collision is conserved.
Inelastic collision
An inelastic collision is that in which the momentum of the system before and after collision is
conserved but the kinetic energy before and after collision is not conserved.
NOTE:. If the initial and nal velocities of colliding bodies lie along the same line then it
is known as head on collision.
Elastic collision in one dimension

Consider two non-rotating spheres of mass m1 and m2 moving initially along the line joining their
centers with velocities u1 and u2 in the same direction. Let u1 is greater than u2 . They collide with
one another and after having an elastic collision start moving with velocities v1 and v2 in the same
directions on the same line.
Momentum of the system before collision = m1 u1 + m2 u2
Momentum of the system after collision = m1 v1 + m2 v2
According to the law of conservation of momentum:
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
m1 v1 m1 u1 = m2 u2 m2 v2
m1 (v1 u1 ) = m2 (u2 v2 ) > (1)

Similarly
K.E of the system before collision = 1/2(m1 u21 ) + 1/2(m2 u22 )
K.E of the system after collision = 1/2(m1 v21 ) + 1/2(m2 v22 )
Since the collision is elastic, so the K.E of the system before and after collision is conserved.
Thus
1/2(m1 v2 ) + 1/2(m2 v2 ) = 1/2(m1 u2 ) + 1/2(m2 u2
1 2 1 2
1/2(m1 v2 + m2 v2 ) = 1/2(m1 u2 + m2 u2 )
1 2 1 2
m1 (v1 + u1 )(v1 u1 ) = m2 (u2 + v2 )(u2 v2 ) > (2)

Dividing equation (2) by equation (1)

1 (v1 + u1 )
m
(v
1 u1 ) 2 (v2 + u2 )
m
(v
2 u2 )
=
m
(v
1 1 u1 ) m
(v
2 2 u2 )
v1 + u1 = u2 + v2
From the above equation
v1 = u2 + v2 u1 > (a)
v2 = v1 + u1 u2 > (b)
Putting the value of v2 in equation (1)
m1 (v1 u1 ) = m2 (u2 v2 )
m1 (v1 u1 ) = m2 u2 (v1 + u1 u2 )
m1 (v1 u1 ) = m2 u2 v1 u1 + u2
m1 (v1 u1 ) = m2 2u2 v1 u1
m1 v1 m1 u1 = 2m2 u2 m2 v1 m2 u1
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m1 v1 + m2 v1 = m1 u1 m2 u1 + 2m2 u2
v1 (m1 + m2 ) = (m1 m2 )u1 2m2 u2
(m1 m2 )u1 2m2 u2

v1 = +
(m1 + m2 ) (m1 + m2 )
In order to obtain v2 putting the value of v1 from equation (a) in equation (1)
m1 (v1 u1 ) = m2 (u2 v2 )
m1 (u2 + v2 u1 u1 ) = m2 (u2 v2 )
m1 (u2 + v2 2u1 ) = m2 (u2 v2 )
m1 u2 + m1 v2 2m1 u1 = m2 u2 m2 v2
m1 v2 + m2 v2 = 2m1 u1 + m2 u2 m1 u2
v2 (m1 + m2 ) = 2m1 u1 + (m2 m1 )u2
2m1 u1 (m2 m1 )u2

v2 = +
(m1 + m2 ) (m1 + m2 )
Table 3.1: Difference between Elastic and Inelastic Collision

S.No Perfectly elastic collisions Perfectly Inelastic collisions
1 Particles do not stick together after col- Particles stick together after collision.
lision
2 Relative velocities of separation after Rel. vel. of separation after collision in
collision = relative velocities of ap- zero.
proach before collision
3 Coeff. of restitution, e = 1 Coeff. of restitution, e = 0
4 Linear momentum is conserved. Linear momentum is conserved.
5 K.E. is conserved. K.E. is NOT conserved.
FRICTION
The property by virtue of which the relative motion between two surfaces in contact is opposed
is known as friction.
Frictional Forces
Tangential forces developed between the two surfaces in contact, so as to oppose their relative
motion are known as frictional forces or commonly friction. It is denoted by f . SI unit of frictional
force is newton (N). Mathematically:
f = N
Where is the coefcient of friction and N is normal reaction force which is equal to the weight of
the body. Coefcient of friction is dimensionless quantity.
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3.5 Types of Frictional Forces 49
3.5 Types of Frictional Forces

Frictional forces are of three types :-
1. Static frictional force
2. Kinetic frictional force
3. Rolling frictional force
Static Frictional Force
Frictional force acting between the two surfaces in contact which are relatively at rest, so as to
oppose their relative motion, when they tend to move relatively under the effect of any external
force is known as static frictional force. Static frictional force is a self adjusting force and its value
lies between its minimum value up to its maximum value.
It is denoted by fs , mathematically:
fs = s N
Kinetic Frictional Force
Frictional force acting between the two surfaces in contact which are moving relatively, so as to
oppose their relative motion, is known as kinetic frictional force. Its magnitude is almost constant
and is equal to k N where k is the coefcient of kinetic friction for the given pair of surface and N
is the normal reaction acting between the two surfaces in contact. It is always less than maximum
value of static frictional force.
Mathematically:
fk = k N
Coefcient of kinetic friction is always less than the coefcient of static friction, i.e., k < s .
Rolling Frictional Force
Frictional force which opposes the rolling of bodies (like cylinder, sphere, ring etc.) over any
surface is called rolling frictional force. Rolling frictional force acting between any rolling body
and the surface is almost constant and is given by r N. Where r is coefcient of rolling friction
and N is the normal reaction between the rolling body and the surface. Mathematically:
fr = r N
Note:- Rolling frictional force is much smaller than maximum value of static and kinetic frictional
force.
fr << fk < fs(max) = r < k < s
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Points to Note:
If a particle moves a distance at speed v1 and comes back with speed v2 , then.
2v1 v2
vavg =
v1 + v2 n
But average velocity would be zero : vavg = 0.
If a particle moves in two equal intervals of time at different speeds v1 and v2
respectively, then vavg = v1 +v
2 .
2
The average velocity between two points in a time interval can be obtained
from a position versus time graph by calculating the slope of the straight line
joining the co-ordinates of the two points.
The area of speed-time graph gives distance.
The area of velocity-time graph gives displacement.
Speed can never be negative.
Average velocity may or may not be equal to instantaneous velocity.
If body moves with constant velocity, the instantaneous velocity is equal to
average velocity.
The instantaneous speed is equal to modulus of instantaneous velocity.
The area of velocity-time graph gives displacement.
The area of speed-time graph gives distance.
The slope of tangent at position-time graph at a particular instant gives instan-
taneous velocity at that instant.
The slope of velocity-time graph gives acceleration.
The area of acceleration-time graph in a particular time interval gives change
in velocity in that time interval.
Momentum depends on frame of reference.
A body cannot have momentum without having energy but the body may have
energy (i.e., potential energy) without having momentum.
The momentum of a body may be negative.
The slope of p versus t curve gives the force.
The area under F versus t curve gives the change in momentum.
A meteorite burns in the atmosphere. Its momentum is transferred to air
molecules and the earth.
The relation between momentum and kinetic energy KE :
p2
KE =
2m
Here p = momentum of the particle of the mass m.

If light (m1 ) and heavy (m2 ) bodies have same momenta, then
KE1 m2
=
KE2 m1
When two bodies of same mass are approaching each other with different
velocities and collide, then they simply exchange the velocities and move in
the opposite direction.
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3.5 Types of Frictional Forces 51
When a heavy body moving with velocity u collides with a lighter body at
rest, then the heavier body remains moving in the same direction with almost
same velocity. The lighter body moves in the same direction with a nearly
velocity of 2u.
When a body of mass M suspended by a string is hit by a bullet of mass m
moving with velocity v and embeds in the body, then common velocity of the
system:
mv
v =
m+M
The velocity of the bullet is:
m+M
v= 2gh
m

The height to which system rises is: h = v2g2
Two bodies A and B having masses m1 and m2 have equal kinetic energies. If
they have velocities v1 and v2 , then

v1 m2 p1 m1
= , =
v2 m1 p2 m2
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4. MOTION IN TWO DIMENSION
4.1 PROJECTILE MOTION
A body thrown with some initial velocity and then allowed to move under the action of gravity
alone, is known as a projectile.
If we observe the path of the projectile, we nd that the projectile moves in a path, which can
be considered as a part of parabola. Such a motion is known as projectile motion.
A few examples of projectiles are (i) a bomb thrown from an aeroplane (ii) a javelin or a
shot-put thrown by an athlete (iii) motion of a ball hit by a cricket bat etc.
The projectiles undergo a vertical motion as well as horizontal motion. The two components
of the projectile motion are (i) vertical component and (ii) horizontal component. These two
perpendicular components of motion are independent of each other.
The motion of the projectile can be discussed separately for the horizontal and vertical parts. We
take the origin at the point of projection. The instant when the particle is projected is taken as t = 0.
The plane of motion is taken as the X Y plane. The horizontal line OX is taken as the X axis and
the vertical line OY as the Y axis. Vertically upward direction is taken as the positive direction of
the Y axis.
Let a projectile is thrown in X Y plane with initial velocity vo as shown in Figure. Now we have
vx = vo cos ; ax = 0
vy = vo sin ; ay = g.
4.1.1 Horizontal Motion
As ax = 0, we have
vx = vo cos
and x = vo cos t.
The x-component of the velocity remains constant as the particle moves.
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54 Chapter 4. MOTION IN TWO DIMENSION
4.1.2 Vertical Motion

The acceleration of the particle is g in the downward direction. Thus, ay = g. The y-component
of the initial velocity is vy . In this case we can use three equations of motion.
The vertical motion is identical to the motion of a particle projected vertically upward with
speed vo sin . The horizontal motion of the particle is identical to a particle moving horizontally
with uniform velocity vo cos .
4.1.3 Time of Flight

Time of ight is the total time taken by the projectile from the instant of projection till it strikes the
ground.
As the projectile goes up and comes back to the same level, thus covering no vertical distance i.e.,
S = h = 0. Thus the time of ight t can be nd out by using 2nd equation of motion:
1
S = viyt + ayt 2
2
Here S = h = 0, voy = vo sin and ay = g,
1
0 = vo sin t gt 2
2
1 2
gt = vo sin t
2
2vo sin
t=
g
This is the expression of time of ight of a projectile.
4.1.4 Maximum Height Reached

Consider a projectile is thrown upward with initial velocity vo making an angle with horizontal.
Initially, the vertical component of velocity is vo sin . At maximum height, the value of vertical
component of velocity becomes zero. If t is the time taken by the projectile to attain the maximum
height h, then by using 3rd equation of motion:
2ay h = v2f y v2oy
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4.2 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 55
Here v f y = 0, voy = vo sin and ay = g,

2gh = 0 v2oy
v2o sin2
h=
2g
This is the expression of the height attained by the projectile during its motion.
4.1.5 Range (R)

Range of a projectile is the horizontal distance between the point of projection and the point where
the projectile hits the ground.
In projectile motion, the horizontal component of velocity remains same. Therefore the range R of
the projectile can be determine using formula:
R = vix t
where vox is the horizontal component of velocity and t is the time of ight of projectile. Putting
the value of vox = vo cos and t = 2vo gsin into above equation we get:
2vo sin
R = vo cos
g
v2o
R= 2 sin cos
g
According to trigonometric identities: 2 sin cos = sin 2
v2o
R= sin2
g
Thus the range of projectile depends upon the velocity of projection and angle of projection.
Maximum Horizontal Range (Rmax )

It is seen from the equation that for the given velocity of projection, the horizontal range depends
on the angle of projection only. The range is maximum only if the value of sin 2 is maximum.
Maximum value of sin 2 = 1, = 2 = sin1 (1)
The value of sin1 (1) = 90o , hence,
2 = 90o , = = 45o .
Therefore the range is maximum when the angle of projection is 45o .
v2o
Rmax =
g
4.2 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

When an object moves in a circular path such that the magnitude of velocity is constant then, the
motion is called uniform circular motion.
4.2.1 ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT

The angle traveled by a body during its motion around a circular path is called its angular
displacement.
Consider a particle moves in a circular path from a point P1 to P2 in an interval of time t. It
travels an angle P1 OP2 = which is called angular displacement of the particle.
The direction of angular displacement is along the axis of rotation and is given by right hand rule.
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Radian
One radian is the angle traced by an arc of length equal to radius of circle.
Length of circular track of radius r is 2r. Therefore numbers of radians in a circle of radius r will
be
= 2r/r = 2
Angle at the centre of circle in one complete rotation = 360o = 2rad.
180o = or

1o = rad
180o
The length of arc S is directly proportional to angle subtended (measured in radians) traced at the
centre of circle by ends of the arc:
S
S = r
Where r is radius of circle.
4.2.2 ANGULAR VELOCITY

The rate of change of angular displacement is called the angular velocity of the particle.
Let be the angular displacement made by the particle in time t , then the angular velocity of the
particle is

=
t
Its SI unit is rads1 and dimensional formula is T 1 . For one complete revolution, the angle swept
by the radius vector is 360o or 2 radians. If T is the time taken for one complete revolution, known
as period, then the angular velocity of the particle is:
2
= =
t T
If the particle makes f revolutions per second, then
1
= 2 = 2 f
T
where f = T1 is the frequency of revolution.
4.2.3 Average Angular Velocity

The ratio of total angular displacement of the total interval of time during circular motion is called
average angular velocity.
Let is the angular displacement during the time interval , the average angular velocity during
this interval is:

avg =
t
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4.2.4 Instantaneous Angular Velocity

The angular velocity of the object at any instant of time is called instantaneous angular velocity.
If is the angular displacement during the time interval , then its instantaneous angular velocity
ins is described by the relation:

ins = lim
t0 t
In the limit when t approaches zero, the angular displacement will be innitesimally small. So it
would be a vector quantity. Its direction will be along axis of rotation and is given by right hand
rule.
4.2.5 Angular Acceleration

The time rate of change of angular velocity is called angular acceleration. It is denoted by .
Mathematically,

=
t
It is a vector quantity and its direction is along the axis of rotation. The SI unit of angular
acceleration is rad s2 . The dimensions are: M o Lo T 2
4.2.6 Average Angular Acceleration

The ratio of the total change in angular velocity to the total interval of time is called average angular
acceleration.
Let i and f are the angular velocities at instants ti and t f , respectively. The average angular
acceleration during interval t f ti is described as:
f i
avg = =
t f ti t
4.2.7 Instantaneous Angular Acceleration

The angular acceleration of the body at any instant of time is called instantaneous angular accelera-
tion.
If is the angular velocity during the time interval t, as t approaches to zero, then the
instantaneous angular acceleration ins is described by the relation:

ins = lim
t0 t
4.2.8 Relation Between Angular Velocity and Linear Velocity

Consider a particle "P" in an object (in XY-plane) moving along a circular paths of radius "r" about
an axis through "O" , perpendicular to plane i.e. z-axis. Suppose the particles moves through an
angle in time t sec.
If S is its distance for rotating through angle then,
S
=
r
Dividing both sides by t, we get
S S
= = r =
t rt t t
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If time interval t is very small t 0, then the angle through which the particle moves is also
very small and therefore the ratio /t gives the instantaneous angular speed ins .
S
lim = r lim
t0 t t0 t
Now by denition:
S
v = lim and = r lim
t0 t t0 t
Therefore
v = r
Tangential Velocity
If a particle "P" is moving in a circle of radius "r", then its linear velocity at any instant is equal to
tangential velocity which is :
vt = r
Tangential Acceleration
Suppose an object rotating about a xed axis changes its angular velocity by in time t sec,
then the change in tangential velocity vt at the end of this interval will be:
vt = r
Change in velocity in unit time is given by:
vt r
=
dt dt
If t approaches to zero then vt /t will be instantaneous tangential acceleration and /t will

be instantaneous angular acceleration :
at = r
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4.2.9 Centripetal Acceleration

When a body performs uniform circular motion its speed remains constant but velocity continuously
changes due to change of direction. Hence a body is continuously accelerated and the acceleration
experienced by the body is known as centripetal acceleration (that is the acceleration directed
towards the center). It is denoted by ac .
Consider a particle performing uniform circular motion with speed v. When the particle changes
its position from P1 to P2 its velocity changes from v1 to v2 due to change of direction. The change
in velocity from P1 to P2 is v which is directed towards the center of the circular path according to
triangle law of subtraction of vectors.
From gure OP1 P2 and ABC are similar, hence applying the condition of similarity:
BC P1 P2 v S
= = =
AB OP1 v r
vS
v =
r
Dividing both sides by t, we get
v vS
=
t tr
v S
But t = a and t = v, therefore:
v2
ac =
r
Putting v = r,
ac = r 2
Since the change of velocity is directed towards the center of the circular path, the acceleration
responsible for the change in velocity is also directed towards center of circular path and hence it is
known as centripetal acceleration.
4.2.10 Centripetal Force

Force responsible for producing centripetal acceleration is known as centripetal force. Since
centripetal acceleration is directed towards the center of the circular path the centripetal force is
also directed towards the center of the circular path.
If a body is performing uniform circular motion with speed v and angular velocity on a
circular path of radius r, then centripetal force is given by:
mv2
Fc = = mr 2
r
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Points to Note:
If for the two angles of projection 1 and 2 , the speeds are same then ranges
will be same. The condition is 1 + 2 = 90o .
The weight of a body in projectile motion is zero as it is freely falling body.
Tangential acceleration (in circular motion) changes the magnitude of the
velocity of the particle.
Regarding circular motion following possibilitieswill exist: [ar = radial
acceleration, at = tangential acceleration and a = a2r + at2 ].
1. If ar = 0 and at = 0, then a = 0 and motion is uniform translatory.
2. If ar = 0 and at = 0, then a = at and motion is accelerated translatory.
3. If ar = 0 but at = 0, then a = ar
and motion is uniform circular.
4. If ar = 0 and at = 0, then a = a2r + at2 and motion is non-uniform
circular.
The maximum velocity of vehicle on a banked road is rg tan .
The weight that we feel is the normal force and not the actual weight.
In the case of circular motion, centripetal force changes only the direction of
velocity of the particle.
Centrifugal force is equal and opposite to centripetal force.
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5. STATICS
Denition
STATICS deals with the studies of bodies at rest or in motion under number of forces, the equilib-
rium and the conditions of equilibrium.
5.0.1 Moment Arm

The perpendicular distance between the axis of rotation and the line of the action of force is called
the moment arm of the force.
5.0.2 Rigid body

A rigid body is dened as that body which does not undergo any change in shape or volume when
external forces are applied on it. When forces are applied on a rigid body, the distance between any
two particles of the body will remain unchanged, however, large the forces may be.
5.1 CENTER OF MASS

Centre of mass is an imaginary point in a body (object) where the total mass of the body can be
thought to be concentrated to make calculations easier.
Explanation
Let us consider a collection of N particles. Let the mass of the ith particle be mi and its coordinates
with reference to the chosen axes be xi , yi , zi . Write the product mi xi for each of the particles
and add them to get mi xi . Similarly get mi yi , and mi zi . Then the coordinates of the center of
i i i
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62 Chapter 5. STATICS
mass are X, Y and Z:

1 1 1
M
X= mi xi , Y = mi yi , Z = mi zi
i M i M i
where M = imi , is the total mass of the system. Locate the point with coordinates (X,Y, Z). This
point is called the centre of mass of the given collection of the particles. If the position vector of
the i th particle isri , the centre of mass is dened to have the position vector:
RCM = 1 imiri
M
5.1.1 EQUILIBRIUM
A body will be in equilibrium if the forces acting on it must be cancel the effect of each other. In
the other word we can also write that:
A body is said to be in equilibrium condition if there is no unbalance or net force acting on it.
Static Equilibrium
When a body is at rest and all forces applied on the body cancel each other then it is said to be in
static equilibrium.
Dynamic Equilibrium
When a body is moving with uniform velocity and forces applied on the body cancel each other
then it is said to be in the dynamic equilibrium.
5.1.2 CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM

FIRST CONDITION OF EQUILIBRIUM
A body will be in rst condition of equilibrium if sum of all forces along X-axis and sum of all
forces along Y-axis are are equal to zero, then the body is said to be in rst condition of equilibrium.
Fx = 0 and Fy = 0
SECOND CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM

A body will be in second condition of equilibrium if sum of clockwise(Moment) torque must be
equal to the sum of anticlockwise torque(Moment), then the body is said to be in second condition
of equilibrium.
= 0
5.2 TORQUE
The turning effect of a force with respect to some axis, is called moment of force or torque due to
the force. Torque is measured as the product of the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular
distance of the line of action of the force from the axis of rotation. It is denoted by Greek letter .
Mathematically,
=r F
It is vector quantity. The magnitude of torque is give by:

= rF sin
SI unit of torque is Nm. The dimensions are : ML2 T 2 . The direction of torque is perpendicular to
the planer F.
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5.3 ANGULAR MOMENTUM 63
5.2.1 COUPLE OF FORCE

Two forces which are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction and not acting along the same
line constitute a couple.
Consider two equal and opposite forces F and F acting oppositely along parallel lines on two
points A and B. Let r1 and r2 are their position vectors with respect to origin.
Torque due to F = r1 F
Torque due to -F = r F
1
Total torque = 1 + 2 = r1 F r2 F
Total torque = (r1 r2 ) F
Butr = r1 r2 is the displacement vector from B to A, therefore:
Total torque =r F
Magnitude of torque is given by: = rF sin , where is the angle betweenr and F.
r sin is the perpendicular distance between the line of action of the two forces. Let it is denoted
by d. Thus the magnitude of the torque of couple will be:
= Fd
Where d is called the moment arm of the couple.

Now the magnitude of the couple = Magnitude of any of the forces forming couple moment arm
of couple.
Examples
Examples of couple are
1. Forces applied to the handle of a screw press,
2. Opening or closing a water tap.
3. Turning the cap of a pen.
4. Steering a car.
5.3 ANGULAR MOMENTUM

The measure of the quantity of motion possessed by a body in rotational motion is called ANGULAR
MOMENTUM.
"The angular momentum of a body is equal to cross product of its linear momentum and the vector
distance from the axis of rotation."
If a body of mass m is moving in a circle or radiusr with velocity v, the linear momentum of
body is P. The angular momentum of the body is given by:
L =r P
Putting the value of P, we get
L =r mv = L = m(r v)
Magnitude of angular momentum is given by:
L = mvr sin
Angular momentum is vector quantity and its S.I unit is Joule.second (J.s). The dimensions of L
are :[L2 MT 1 ].
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64 Chapter 5. STATICS
5.3.1 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

"When the net external torque acting on a system about a given axis is zero , the total angular
momentum of the system about that axis remains constant."
Mathematically,
If = 0 then L = constant
Proof
According to the second law of motion net force acting on a body is equal to its rate of change of
linear momentum, i.e.,

F = d P
dt
Taking vector product ofr on both side of above expression:
d P
r F =r
dt
Butr F is the torque acting on the body:
d P
=r > (1)
dt
Angular momentum is dened as:
L =r P
Differentiating both sides with respect to t:
dL d(r P)

=
dt dt
dL
dP
dr
=r + P
dt dt dt
dL
dr
= + P
dt dt

dr
But =v
dt
dL
= + P v
dt
Since P = mv

dL
= + m(v v)
dt
dL
= + m 0(v v = 0)
dt
dL
=
dt
This expression states that the torque acting on a particle is the time rate of change of its angular
momentum. If the net external torque on the particle is zero, then,
dL
= 0 = L = 0
dt
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5.3 ANGULAR MOMENTUM 65
Integrating both sides:

dL = 0
L = constant
Thus the angular momentum of a particle is conserved if and only if the net external torque acting
on a particle is zero.
Points to Note:
1. The centre of mass need not to lie in the body.
2. Internal forces do not change the centre of mass.
3. When a cracker explodes in air, the centre of mass of fragments travel along
parabolic path.
4. The sum of moment of masses about its centre of mass is always zero.
5. The position of centre of mass does not depend upon the co-ordinate system
chosen.
6. Positive torque: If a body rotates about its axis in anti clockwise direction,
then the torque is taken positive .
7. Negative torque: If the body rotates in the clockwise direction, then the torque
is taken as negative .
8. The angular velocity of all points of a rigid body are same. But in the case
of non-rigid body, greater the distance of the point from the axis of rotation,
greater will be its angular displacement.
9. The angular velocity depends on the point about which rotation is considered.
10. The sum of moment of masses about its centre of mass is always zero.
11. Moment of inertia depends upon the position of the axis of rotation.
12. If a number of torques acted on a system and the system is in rotational
equilibrium, then clockwise torque = anticlockwise torque.
13. If a body or system is in Complete equilibrium, then net force and net torque
on the body or system are zero.
14. In the case of couple, the sum of moment of all forces about any point is the
same.
(Class Review Notes for XI Physics)

By
Dr. Ram Chand, Government Girls Degree College, Jhudo
For video lectures please visit college fb page:
www.facebook.com/ggdcjhudo
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6. GRAVITATION
6.1 KEPLERS LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION

Keplers rst law (law of elliptical orbit):-
A planet moves round the sun in an elliptical orbit with sun situated at one of its foci.
Keplers second law (law of areal velocities):-

A planet moves round the sun in such a way that its areal velocity is constant.
Keplers third law (law of time period):-

A planet moves round the sun in such a way that the square of its period is proportional to the cube
of semi major axis of its elliptical orbit.
T 2 R3
Here R is the radius of orbit.
4 2 3
T2 = R
GM
6.2 NEWTONS LAW OF GRAVITATION

Newton proposed the theory that all objects in the universe attract each other with a force known as
gravitation. the gravitational attraction exists between all bodies. Hence, two stones are not only
attracted towards the earth, but also towards each other.
Denition
It states that gravitational force of attraction acting between two point mass bodies of the universe
is directly proportional to the product of their masses and is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.
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68 Chapter 6. GRAVITATION
Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 with their centres separated by a distance r. The gravita-
tional force between them is
F m1 m2
m1 m2
F 1/r = F 2
2
r
m1 m2
F =G 2
r
Where G = 6.67 1011 Nm2 /kg2 is universal gravitational constant. In vector form, it can be
stated as:
F = G m1 m2 r12
r12
2
Minus shows that force is attractive. Unit vector r12 shows that force acts along the line joining the
m1 and m2 .
Gravitational constant (G)

It is equal to the force of attraction acting between two bodies each of unit mass, whose centres are
placed unit distance apart. Value of G is constant throughout the universe. It is a scalar quantity.
The dimensional formula is G = [M 1 L3 T 2 ].
Gravitational force is central force and conservative in nature. The value of G is determined by
Cavendish method in 1798. Gravitational force is always attractive in nature.
6.2.1 Gravity
It is the force of attraction exerted by earth towards its centre on a body lying on or near the surface
of earth. Gravity is the measure of weight of the body. The weight of a body of mass m is equal to
mass acceleration due to gravity. The unit of weight of a body will be the same as those of force.
Acceleration due to gravity (g)

It is dened as the acceleration set up in a body while falling freely under the effect of gravity
alone. It is vector quantity. The value of g changes with height, depth and rotation of earth. The
value of g is zero at the centre of the earth. The value of g on the surface of earth is 9.81m/s2 . The
acceleration due to gravity (g) is related with gravitational constant (G) by the relation:
GM
g=
R2
where M = mass of earth, R = radius of earth.
Mass of the Earth

From the expression g = GM
R2
, the mass of the Earth can be calculated as follows:
gR2 9.81 (6.38 106 )2

M= =
G 6.67 1011
M = 5.98 1024 kg
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6.2 NEWTONS LAW OF GRAVITATION 69
6.2.2 The variation of g

Variation of g with altitude (height)
Let P be a point on the surface of the Earth and Q be a point at an altitude h. Let the mass of the
Earth be M and radius of the Earth be R. Consider the Earth as a spherical shaped body.
The acceleration due to gravity at P on the surface is:
GM
g= > (1)
R2
Let the body be placed at Q at a height h from the surface of the Earth. The acceleration due to
gravity at Q is
GM
gh = > (2)
(R + h)2
dividing (2) by (1):
gh R2 R 2 h
= = gh = g( ) = g(1 + )2
g (R + h)2 R+h R
By simplifying and expanding using binomial theorem (supposing h << R):
2h
gh = g(1 )
R
The value of acceleration due to gravity decreases with increase in height above the surface of the
Earth.
Figure 6.1: Variation of g (left g for height and right g for depth)
Variation of g with depth

Consider the Earth to be a homogeneous sphere with uniform density of radius R and mass M. Let
P be a point on the surface of the Earth and Q be a point at a depth d from the surface.
The acceleration due to gravity at P on the surface is:
GM
g= > (1)
R2
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If be the density, then, the mass of the Earth is:
4
M = R3
3
4
g = GR
3
The acceleration due to gravity at Q at a depth d from the surface of the Earth is:
GMd
gd =
(R d)2
where Md is the mass of the inner sphere of the Earth of radius (R d).
4
Md = (R d)3
3
4
g = G(R d) > (2)
3
dividing (2) by (1),
gd Rd
=
g R
d
gd = g(1 )
R
The value of acceleration due to gravity decreases with increase of depth.

Due to rotation of earth, the value of g decreases as the speed of rotation of earth increases.
The value of acceleration due to gravity at a latitude is
g = g R 2 cos2
At equator, = 0o and at the pole, = 90o

1. At the equator, gE = g R 2
2. At the pole, g pole = g
6.3 Gravitational eld

Two masses separated by a distance exert gravitational forces on one another. This is called action
at-a-distance. They interact even though they are not in contact. This interaction can also be
explained with the eld concept. A particle or a body placed at a point modies a space around it
which is called gravitational eld. When another particle is brought in this eld, it experiences
gravitational force of attraction.
Denition
The gravitational eld is dened as the space around a mass in which it can exert gravitational force
on other mass.
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6.3 Gravitational eld 71
6.3.1 Gravitational eld intensity

Gravitational eld intensity or strength at a point is dened as the force experienced by a unit mass
placed at that point. It is denoted by E. It is a vector quantity. Its unit is Nkg1.
Consider a body of mass M placed at a point Q and another body of mass m placed at P at a
distance r from Q.
The mass M develops a eld E at P and this eld exerts a force F = mE. The gravitational
force of attraction between the masses m and M is
Mm
F =G
R2
The gravitational eld intensity at P is E = m
F
:
GM
E=
r2
Gravitational eld intensity is the measure of gravitational eld.
Gravitational potential difference

Gravitational potential difference between two points is dened as the amount of work done in
moving unit mass from one point to another point against the gravitational force of attraction.
Consider two points A and B separated by a distance r in the gravitational eld. The work
done in moving unit mass from A to B is U = WAB . Gravitational potential difference is:
U = Er
Here negative sign indicates that work is done against the gravitational eld.
6.3.2 Gravitational Potential Energy

The gravitational potential energy of a point mass m placed in the gravitational eld of a point mass
M can be found out by the work done in moving that point mass m from innity to the point at
which gravitational potential energy is to be determined i.e.,
Denition
Gravitational potential at a point is dened as the amount of work done in moving unit mass from
the point to innity against the gravitational eld.
Mathematically,
GM GMm
U = mV = m( )=
r r
It is a scalar quantity. Its unit is Nmkg1 .
6.3.3 Satellite
A satellite is a body which is revolving continuously in an orbit around a comparatively much larger
body. Orbital speed of satellite is the speed required to put the satellite into given orbit around
earth.
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Orbital velocity
Articial satellites are made to revolve in an orbit at a height of few hundred kilometres. At this
altitude, the friction due to air is negligible. The satellite is carried by a rocket to the desired height
and released horizontally with a high velocity, so that it remains moving in a nearly circular orbit.
The horizontal velocity that has to be imparted to a satellite at the determined height so that it
makes a circular orbit around the planet is called orbital velocity.
Let us assume that a satellite of mass m moves around the Earth in a circular orbit of radius r with
uniform speed vo . Let the satellite be at a height h from the surface of the Earth. Hence, r = R + h,
where R is the radius of the Earth. The centripetal force required to keep the satellite in circular
orbit is:
mv2o mv2o
F= =
r R+h
The gravitational force between the Earth and the satellite is:
Mm mM
F =G =G
r 2 (R + h)2
For the stable orbital motion,
mv2o mM
=G
R+h (R + h)2
Since the acceleration due to gravity on Earths surface is g = GM

R2
, therefore:

gR2
vo =
R+h
If the satellite is at a height of few hundred kilometres (say 200km), (R + h) could be replaced by R:

Orbital velocity is vo = gR
Time period of Satellite(T)

It is the time taken by satellite to complete one revolution around the earth.
circumference of the orbit

T=
orbital velocity
2r 2(R + h)
T= =
vo vo

GM
vo = so
R+h

R+h (R + h)3
T = 2(R + h) = 2
GM GM
As GM = gR2 , therefore:

(R + h)3
T = 2
gR2
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6.3 Gravitational eld 73
If the satellite orbits very close to the Earth, then h << R:

R
T = 2
g
Escape Velocity
It is dened as minimum speed of projection with which if a body is projected upwards, then it
does not return back to earth.

2GM
Mathematically, vesc = = 2gR
R
Where M is the mass and R is the radius of the planet.
Geostationary satellite
A satellite which revolves around the earth with the same angular speed in the same direction as is
done by the earth around its axis is called geostationary or geosynchronous satellite. The height of
geostationary satellite is 36000km and its orbital velocity is 3.1kms1 .
6.3.4 Real Weight

The real weight of the object is the gravitational pull of the earth on the object.
6.3.5 Apparent Weight

The reading of weight on the scale of a spring balance is called apparent weight. Generally the
weight of the object is measured by spring balance. The force exerted by the object on the scale is
equal to weight of the object. This is not always true, so we call the reading of the scale as apparent
weight.
Apparent weight of a man inside a lift

(a) The lift possesses zero acceleration : W = mg
(b) The lift moving upward with an acceleration a:
W = mg + ma = mg + mg
W = 2mg
(c) The lift moving downward with an acceleration a:
W = mg ma = mg mg
W =0
6.3.6 Weightlessness
It is a situation in which the effective weight of the body becomes zero.
6.3.7 Articial Gravity

The weightlessness in satellite may affect the performance of astronaut in it. To overcome this
difculty, an articial gravity is created in the satellite. For this, the satellite is set into rotation
around its own axis.
Consider a satellite having outer radius R rotates around its own central axis with angular speed ,
then the centripetal acceleration ac is
ac = R 2
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But = 2
T where T is the period of the revolution of spaceship:
2 2 2
ac = R( ) = 4R 2
T T
As the frequency f = T1 , therefore

ac 1 ac
ac = 4R f 2 2
= f =
2
2
= f =
4R 2 R
The frequency f is increased to such an extent that ac equals to g. Therefore,

1 g
f=
2 R
This is the expression of frequency for producing the articial gravity in satellite equal to that of
earth.
Points to Note:
If the earth stops spinning, then the value of g will increase slightly ( g).
The earth has a bulge at the equator because of the spinning motion.
Escape velocity is independent of the mass of projectile, but it depends on the
mass of planet.
Escape velocity does not depend on angle of projection.
If a particle of mass m is dropped from the end of tunnel along diameter of
earth,then the motion of the particle is S.H.M. having angular frequency of
g
= R
For earth, the value of escape speed is 11.2kms1 .
For a point close
to the earths surface , the escape speed and orbital speed are
related as vesc = 2vo .
If a planet moves around sun, work done by gravitational force is zero. So,
total mechanical energy of planet remains constant.
The total energy of a satellite in the orbit is always negative i.e., the body is
bound to the earth.
Weightless" does not mean "no weight". "Weightless" means "free fall",
means the only force acting is gravity.
Gravitational potential energy increases as height increases.
Mechanical energy (PE + KE) does not change for a free falling mass or a
swinging pendulum (when ignoring air friction).
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7. WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
7.1 WORK
The terms work and energy are quite familiar to us and we use them in various contexts. In everyday
life, the term work is used to refer to any form of activity that requires the exertion of mental or
muscular efforts.
Denition
In physics, work is said to be done by a force or against the direction of the force, when the point
of application of the force moves towards or against the direction of the force.
If no displacement takes place, no work is said to be done. Therefore for work to be done, two
essential conditions should be satised:
a force must be exerted
the force must cause a motion or displacement
If a particle is subjected to a force F and if the particle is displaced by an innitesimal displacement
s , the work done W by the force is the scalar product given as:
W = F.s
W = |F||s| cos
where is the angle between F and s. Work is a scalar quantity.

Units:
In S.I system, the unit is Joule (J), in C.G.S, it is Erg and in F.P.S. system, the unit is ft.lb.
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76 Chapter 7. WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
Conversions between Different Systems of Units
1Joule = 1N.m = 105 dyne = 107 erg

1watt = 1Joule/s = 107 erg/s
1kwh = 103 watt.hr = 3.6 106 Joule
1HP = 746watt
1MW = 106 watt
1cal = 4.2Joule
1eV = 1.6 1019 Joule
(e = magnitude of charge on the electron in coulombs)
SIGN CONVENTION
(i) Positive work:
If force and displacement are in the same direction, work will be positive or if = 0 or < 90o
(ii) Zero work:
If force and displacement are perpendicular to each other, work will be zero. i.e., cos 90o = 0.
(iii) Negative work:
In force and displacement are in the opposite direction, work will be negative:
W = Fs cos 1800 = Fs (1) = Fs.
NOTE:- A positive work can be dened as the work done by a force and a negative work as
the work done against a force.
7.2 WORK DONE BY VARIABLE FORCE

Force varying with displacement
In this condition we consider the force to be constant for any elementary displacement and work
done in that elementary displacement is evaluated. Total work is obtained by integrating the
elementary work from initial to nal limits:
dW = F.ds
s2
W= F.s
s1
Force varying with time

In this condition we consider the force to be constant for any elementary displacement and work
done in that elementary displacement is evaluated:
dW = F.ds
Multiplying and dividing by dt:
F.ds.dt
dW =
dt
dW = F.vdt( v = ds/dt)
Total work is obtained by integrating the elementary work from initial to nal limits.
t2
W= F.vdt
t1
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7.3 ENERGY 77
7.3 ENERGY
Denition
Energy can be dened as the capacity to do work.
Energy can manifest itself in many forms like mechanical energy, thermal energy, electric energy,
chemical energy, light energy, nuclear energy, etc.
Mechanical Energy
Denition
The energy possessed by a body due to its position or due to its motion is called mechanical energy.
The mechanical energy of a body consists of potential energy and kinetic energy.
7.3.1 Potential energy

The potential energy of a body is the energy stored in the body by virtue of its position or the state
of strain.
For example: water stored in a reservoir, a wound spring, compressed air, stretched rubber chord,
etc, possess potential energy. Potential energy is given by the amount of work done by the force
acting on the body, when the body moves from its given position to some other position.
Expression for the potential energy

Let us consider a body of mass m, which is at rest at a height h above the ground. The work done in
raising the body from the ground to the height h is stored in the body as its potential energy and
when the body falls to the ground, the same amount of work can be got back from it. Now, in order
to lift the body vertically up, a force mg equal to the weight of the body should be applied.
When the body is taken vertically up through a height h, then work done is:
W = Force Displacement
W = mg h
This work done is stored as potential energy in the body
P.E = mgh
7.3.2 Kinetic Energy

The kinetic energy of a body is the energy possessed by the body by virtue of its motion.
It is measured by the amount of work that the body can perform against the impressed forces before
it comes to rest. A falling body, a bullet red from a rie, a swinging pendulum, etc. possess kinetic
energy. A body is capable of doing work if it moves, but in the process of doing work its velocity
gradually decreases. The amount of work that can be done depends both on the magnitude of the
velocity and the mass of the body.
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Expression for Kinetic energy

Consider a body of mass m starts moving from rest. After a time interval t its velocity becomes
v. If initial velocity of the body is vi = 0, nal velocity v f = v and the displacement of body is d.
Then using equation of motion:
2aS = V f2 Vi2
Putting the above mentioned values
v2
2ad = v2 0 = a =
2d
Now force is given by
F = ma
Putting the value of acceleration
F = m(v2 /2d)
As we know that
Work done = Fd
Putting the value of F
v2
Work done = ( )(d)
2d
mv2
Work done = = W = 1/2 mv2
2
Since the work done of motion is called Kinetic Energy:
1
KE = mv2
2
7.3.3 Principle of work and energy (work energy theorem)
Denition
The work done by a force acting on the body during its displacement is equal to the change in the
kinetic energy of the body during that displacement.
Consider a body of mass m is moving with velocity vi . A force F acting through a distance d
increases the velocity to v f , then from the 3rd equation of motion:
2ad = v2f v2i
v2f v2i
d= > (1)
2a
From the second law of motion:
F = ma > (2)
Multiplying equation (1) and (2), we have:
1
Fd = m(v2f v2i )
2
1 1
Fd = mv2f mv2i > (3)
2 2
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7.3 ENERGY 79
Where the left hand side of the above equation gives the work done on the body and the right
hand side gives the change in kinetic energy of the body. This is the mathematical form of work
energy principle. It can also be written as:
work-done = KE
7.3.4 Conservative forces and non-conservative forces

Conservative forces
If the work done by a force in moving a body between two positions is independent of the path
followed by the body, then such a force is called as a conservative force.
Examples : force due to gravity, spring force and elastic force. The work done by the conservative
forces depends only upon the initial and nal position of the body.
The work done by a conservative force around a closed path is zero.
Non-Conservative forces
Non-conservative force is the force, which can perform some resultant work along an arbitrary
closed path of its point of application. The work done by the non-conservative force depends upon
the path of the displacement of the body. For example: frictional force, viscous force, etc.
7.3.5 Law of conservation of energy

The law states that, if a body or system of bodies is in motion under a conservative system of forces,
the sum of its kinetic energy and potential energy is constant. OR
Denition
Energy can neither be created nor it is destroyed, however energy can be converted from one form
energy to any other form of energy
Explanation
From the principle of work and energy:
Work done = change in the kinetic energy

W12 = KE2 KE1 > (1)
If a body moves under the action of a conservative force, work done is stored as potential energy:
W12 = (PE2 PE1 ) > (2)
Work done is equal to negative change of potential energy. Combining the equation (1) and (2):
KE2 KE1 = (PE2 PE1 )

PE1 + KE1 = PE2 + KE2
which means that the sum of the potential energy and kinetic energy of a system of particles remains
constant during the motion under the action of the conservative forces.
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7.3.6 Power
It is dened as the rate at which work is done:
Work done W
Power = = P =
time t
Power is scalar quantity and its SI unit is watt (W) and dimensional formula is ML2 T 3 .
Power is said to be one watt, when one joule of work is said to be done in one second.
If W is the work done during an interval of time t then:
W
P=
t
But W = (F cos )s, where is the angle between the direction of the force and displacement.
F cos is component of the force in the direction of the small displacement s. Therefore:
(F cos )s s s
P= = (F cos ) = (F cos )v( v = )
t t t
Power = P = (F cos )v
If F and v are in the same direction, then power = Fv cos = Fv = Force velocity. It is also
represented by the dot product of F and v:
P = F.v
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7.3 ENERGY 81
Points to Note:
Work depends upon the frame of reference.
Work is used to convert energy from one form to another form.
Work done by conservative force doesnt depend upon path followed by the
object.
Work done by constant force doesnt depend upon path.
Two bodies of mass m1 (heavy) and mass m2 (light) are moving with same
kinetic energy. If they are stopped by the same retarding force, then
1. The bodies cover the same distance before coming to rest.
2. The time taken to come to rest is lesser for m2 and it has less momentum
i.e., t = P/F
3. The time taken to come to rest is more for m1 as it has greater momen-
tum.
When a light and a heavy body have same kinetic energy, the heavy body has
greater momentum according to p = 2mKE.
A body cannot have momentum without kinetic energy.
Mechanical energy of a particle, object or system is dened as the sum KE
and PE.
Kinetic energy changes only if velocity changes.
A body can have mechanical energy without having either kinetic or potential
energy.
Mechanical energy of a body or a system can be negative and negative me-
chanical energy implies that potential energy is negative and in magnitude it
is more than KE. Such a state is called bound state.
The concept of potential energy exists only in the case of conservative forces.
If a body moves along a rough horizontal surface, with a velocity v, then the
power required is P = mgv.
If a block is pulled along the smooth inclined plane with constant velocity v,
the power spent is P = (mg sin )v.
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8. WAVE MOTION AND SOUND
The motion of a all physical system can be classied into two broad categories: translatory or linear
and vibratory or oscillatory.
8.1 TYPES OF VIBRATORY MOTION

1. Periodic Motion
When a body or a moving particle repeats its motion along a denite path after regular intervals
of time, its motion is said to be Periodic Motion and interval of time is called time or harmonic
motion period (T). The path of periodic motion may be linear, circular, elliptical or any other curve.
2. Oscillatory motion
To and Fro type of motion is called an Oscillatory Motion. It need not be periodic and need not
have xed extreme positions. The force acting in oscillatory motion (directed towards equilibrium
point) is called restoring force.
3. Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple harmonic motion is the motion in which the restoring force is proportional to displacement
from the mean position and opposes its increase.
8.1.1 Simple harmonic motion (SHM)

A particle is said to move in SHM, if its acceleration is proportional to the displacement and is
always directed towards the mean position.
Explanation
Consider a particle P executing SHM along a straight line between A and B about the mean position
O. The acceleration of the particle is always directed towards a xed point on the line and its
magnitude is proportional to the displacement of the particle from this point.
ax By denition a = 2 x
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84 Chapter 8. WAVE MOTION AND SOUND
where is a constant known as angular frequency of the simple harmonic motion. The negative
sign indicates that the acceleration is opposite to the direction of displacement. If m is the mass of
the particle, restoring force that tends to bring back the particle to the mean position is given by
Hookes Law
F = m 2 x = F = kx
The constant k = m 2 , is called force constant or spring constant. Its unit is Nm1 . The restoring
force is directed towards the mean position. From Newtons 2nd Law of motion F = ma, so
ma = kx = a = (k/m)x
where (k/m) is constant, so a x. Thus, Simple harmonic motion is dened as oscillatory motion
about a xed point in which the restoring force is always proportional to the displacement and
directed always towards that xed point.
Condition for S.H.M

The conditions for simple Harmonic Motion are given below:
Some resisting force must act upon the body.
Acceleration must be directly proportional to the displacement.
Acceleration should be directed towards mean position.
System should be elastic.
Motion under the inuence of the type of force describe by the Hookes Law:
F = kx
Examples
Following are the examples of S.H.M:
Body attached to a spring horizontally on an ideal smooth surface.
Motion of a simple and compound pendulum.
Motion of a swing.
Motion of the projection of a body in a circle with uniform circular motion.
8.1.2 Important terms in simple harmonic motion

Hookes Law
Springs extend in proportion to load, as long as they are under their proportional limit.
Limit of proportionality
Point at which load and extension are no longer proportional.
Elastic limit
Point at which the spring will not return to its original shape after being stretched.
Displacement (x)
It is the distance of a vibrating body at any instant from the equilibrium position. It is a vector
quantity. SI unit of displacement (x) is meter (m).
Amplitude (A)
The maximum distance of the body on either side of its equilibrium position is known as amplitude.
It is scalar quantity. SI unit of amplitude is meter (m).
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8.2 Linear simple harmonic oscillator 85
Time Period (T)

The time required to complete vibration is known as time period. The SI unit of time period is
second (s).
Frequency
It is the number of vibrations executed by an oscillating body in one second. It is denoted by f :
f = 1/T
SI unit of f is s1 .
Energy
E = KE + PE E = 1/2KA2 = 1/2kx2 + 1/2mv2
Period of Mass Oscillating on a Spring

m
T = 2
k
Wave Length
The distance between two consecutive crests and troughs is called wavelength. It is denoted by
Greek letter . SI unit of wave length is meter (m).
Velocity of wave
It is the distance travelled by the wave during the time (T), a particle completes one vibration.
velocity of wave = (frequency) (wavelength)
v = f
Phase
The phase of a particle vibrating in SHM is the state of the particle as regards to its direction of
motion and position at any instant of time. In the equation y = Ao sin(t + ) the term (t + ) is
known as the phase of the vibrating particle.
Phase difference
If two vibrating particles executing SHM with same time period, cross their respective mean
positions at the same time in the same direction, they are said to be in phase.
If the two vibrating particles cross their respective mean position at the same time but in the
opposite direction, they are said to be out of phase (i.e they have a phase difference of ).
8.2 Linear simple harmonic oscillator

The block-spring system is a linear simple harmonic oscillator. All oscillating systems like diving
board, violin string have some element of springiness, k (spring constant) and some element of
inertia, m.
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Figure 8.1: Mass-spring system
8.2.1 Horizontal oscillations of spring

Consider a mass (m) attached to an end of a spiral spring (which obeys Hookes law) whose other
end is xed to a support as shown in gure. The body is placed on a smooth horizontal surface.
Let the body be displaced through a distance x towards right and released. It will oscillate about
its mean position. The restoring force acts in the opposite direction and is proportional to the
displacement.
Restoring force: F = kx.
From Newtons second law, we know that F = ma:
k
ma = kx = a = x
m
Comparing with the equation of SHM a = 2 x, we get

k k 2
2 = = = But: T =
m m

m 1 k
Time Period: T = 2 Frequency: f =
k 2 m
8.2.2 Vertical oscillations of a spring

When a mass m is attached to a light, elastic spiral spring suspended vertically from a rigid support,
the spring is extended by a length l such that the upward force F exerted by the spring is equal to
the weight mg.
The restoring force: F = kl and kl = mg > (1)
where k is spring constant. If we further extend the given spring by a small distance by applying a
small force by our nger, the spring oscillates up and down about its mean position.
The resultant force is proportional to the displacement of the body from its equilibrium position
and the motion is simple harmonic. As the force acts in the opposite direction to that of displacement,
the restoring force is ky and the motion is SHM.
k
F = ky, and also, ma = ky = a = y a = 2 y (expression for SHM)
m
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Comparing the above equations, = k
m

2 m
But: T = = 2
k
From equation (1): mg = kl
m l
=
k g

l 1 g
Therefore time period: T = Frequency: f =
g 2 l
8.2.3 Relationship between Circular Motion and Simple Harmonic Motion

Consider a point P moves in a circle of radius x0 , with uniform angular frequency = 2T . It can
be visualized that when the point P moves along the circle of radius x0 , its projection (point N)
execute simple harmonic motion on the diameter DE of the circle.
Thus the expression of displacement, velocity and acceleration for the object executing SHM
can be derived using the analogy between the uniform circular motion of point P and SHM of point
N on the diameter of the circle.
Displacement
It is the distance of projection of point N
from the mean position O at any instant.
According to geometry:
O1 OP = NPO =
If x0 is the amplitude and x is the dis-

placement of point N at any instant, then
from triangle OPN, we have
ON x
sin = =
OP x0
x = x0 sin > (1)
This is the expression of instantaneous displacement for the object executing SHM.
Velocity
If the point P is moving in a circle of radius x0 with uniform angular velocity then the tangential
velocity of point P will be:
v p = x0
We want to nd out the expression of velocity for point N, which is executing SHM. The velocity
of N is actually the component of velocity v p in the direction parallel to the diameter DE. Thus we
can write the velocity v of point N as:
v = v p sin(900 ) = v p cos
v = x0 cos > (2)
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As from equation (1), we have: sin = x/x0 , so

x2 x02 x2 x02 x2
cos = 1 sin2 = 1 2 = =
x0 x02 x0
Putting this value in equation (2), we get:

x02 x2
v = x0 ( ) = x02 x2
x0
This is the expression of velocity of the object executing simple harmonic motion.
Acceleration
When the point P moves in a circle of radius x0 , then it will have an acceleration a p = x0 2 that
will be directed towards the center of the circle. We want to nd out the expression of acceleration
of point N that is executing SHM at the diameter of the circle. The acceleration a of point N is the
vertical component of acceleration a p along the diameter DE is:
a = a p sin = x0 2 sin > (3)
As from equation (1), we have: sin = x/x0 , therefore the equation (3) will become:
x
a = x0 2 ( )
x0
a = 2x
Comparing the case of displacement and acceleration, it can be seen that the direction of displace-
ment and acceleration are opposite to each other. Considering the direction of x as reference, the
acceleration will be represented by:
a = 2 x
This expression shows that acceleration of SHM is proportional to displacement is directed towards
the mean position.
8.2.4 Simple Pendulum

Simple Pendulum consists of a heavy mass particle suspended by a light, exible and in-extensible
string. If mass is given small displacement, it will oscillate back and forth around the mean position
and execute SHM.
In order to prove this fact consider a simple pendulum having a bob of mass m and the length of
pendulum is l. Assuming that the mass of the string of pendulum is negligible. When the pendulum
is at rest at position A, the only force acting is its weight and tension in the string. When it is
displaced from its mean position to another new position say B and released, it vibrates to and fro
around its mean position.
Suppose that at this instant the bob is at point B as shown below:
1. Weight of the bob (W ) acting vertically downward.
2. Tension in the string (T ) acting along the string.
The weight of the bob can be resolved into two rectangular components:
W cos along the string and W sin perpendicular to string.
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Figure 8.2: Simple Pendulum
Since there is no motion along the string, therefore, the component W cos must balance the tension
(T ). This shows that only W sin is the net force which is responsible for the acceleration in the
bob of pendulum.
According to Newtons second law of motion W sin will be equal to ma, i.e.,
W sin = ma
Since W sin is towards the mean position, therefore, it must have a negative sign:
ma = W sin
ma = mg sin ( W = mg)
a = g sin
In our assumption is very small because displacement is small, in this condition we can take
sin . Hence,
a = g > (1)
If x be the linear displacement of the bob from its mean position, then from gure, the length of arc
AB is nearly equal to x. From elementary geometry we know that:
x
S = r = x = l OR =
l
Where S = x and r = l. Putting the value of in equation (1), we get:
x
a = g
l
For a given pendulum g and l are constants, so
a = (constant)x = a x
As the acceleration of the bob of simple pendulum is directly proportional to displacement and is
directed towards the mean position, therefore the motion of the bob is simple harmonic when it is
given a small displacement.
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Time period of Simple Pendulum

Time required to complete one vibration is called time period.
When the bob of the pendulum completes one vibration it travels 360o or 2 i.e. = 2. Using the
relation:
2
T= =

We know that a = 2 x, and also for simple pendulum:
g
a= x
l
Comparing two equations, we get:
g g
2x = = 2 =
l l
2 2 2 g T2 l
But = , so: ( ) = = =
T T l 4 2 g

2l l
T = 4
2
= T = 2
g g
This expression indicates that the time period of simple pendulum is independent of its mass but it
depends on the length of pendulum.
Second Pendulum
A seconds pendulum is a pendulum whose period is precisely two seconds; one second for a swing
in one direction and one second for the return swing, a frequency of 1/2Hz.
(a) T = 2 seconds
(b) length = 0.9925m
8.3 WAVE AND WAVE MOTION

"A method of energy transfer without transferring mass and involving some form of vibration is
known as a WAVE."
WAVE MOTION is a form of disturbance, which travels through a medium due to periodic motion
of particles of the medium about their mean position.
Experiment
We see that if we dip a pencil into a tap of water and take it out a pronounced circular ripple is set
up on the water surface and travels towards the edges of the tub. However if we dip the pencil and
take it out many times, a number of ripples will be formed one after the other.
Waves can also be produced on very long ropes. If one end of the rope is xed and the other end is
given sudden up and down jerk, a pulse-shaped wave is formed which travels along the rope.
8.3.1 TYPES of WAVE

There are three types of wave:
Mechanical wave
he wave which need material medium for their propagation are mechanical wave. For eg: the sound
waves are mechanical wave and hence need a material medium for propagation.
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8.3 WAVE AND WAVE MOTION 91
Electromagnetic wave
The waves which do not need material medium for their propagation are called electromagnetic
waves. For eg: Light waves are electromagnetic waves and hence do not need material medium for
propagation or propagates even in vacuum. The electromagnetic are caused to propagate by two
electromagnetic forces.
Matter wave
Also called de Broglie waves. These are associated with high speed moving mass.
According to the modes of vibration of the particles, in the medium, there are two types of the
wave.
8.3.2 Transverse Wave

"The wave in which amplitude is perpendicular to the direction of wave motion is known as
Transverse Wave."
In the transverse wave the medium particle or disturbance travels in the form of crest and trough.
Examples
Radio Waves
Light Waves
Micro Waves
Waves in Water
Waves in String
Water wave
8.3.3 Longitudinal Wave

"The wave in which amplitude is parallel to wave motion is called longitudinal wave."
The longitudinal wave travels in the form compression and rarefaction.
Example
Sound Waves
Seismic Waves
8.3.4 PROGRESSIVE WAVE

Also called traveling wave. A wave in which the crest and trough or compression and rarefaction
travel toward is called progressive wave. In progressive wave, the crest and trough or compression
and rarefaction changes its position continuously and the velocity of move equals to the velocity of
wave.
Consider a wave travelling along positive X-axis with a velocity v. If Y be the displacement of the
particle along Y-axis then,
Y = Ao sin t
where Ao is amplitude and is angular velocity of the wave. Consider a particle at p which is at
a distance x from point p. Since the particle at mean position O and p are not in the same phase.
Then displacement of the particle Y is given by,
Y = Ao sin(t )
where is phase difference of the particle at O and p. Here = kx, then general form of Progressive
wave can be written as:
Y = Ao sin(t kx)
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If the sign of f and x are opposite, wave is propagating along positive x-axis. If the sign of f and x
are same, then wave is propagating in negative x-direction. If phase of wave t kx is constant,
then the shape of wave remains constant.
8.3.5 STANDING WAVE

Also called Stationary wave. When two progressive wave of the same frequency and amplitude,
travelling through a medium with the same speed but in opposite direction superimpose on each
other and they give rise to a wave called stationary wave. In stationary wave, it does not seem to be
moving and there is no net ow of energy, along the wave.
When a stationary wave is formed due to the super position of the two waves of equal frequency and
amplitude travelling in opposite direction, the points of maximum and zero amplitude are resulted
alternatively. The points where amplitude is maximum are called anti nodes (AN) and those with
zero amplitude are called nodes (N).
Consider a progressive wave travelling in positive X-axis and another wave travelling in X-axis the
equation of the wave travelling along positive X-axis is given by,
RAMS MIND MAP
Y1 = Ao sin(t kx)
The equation of the wave travelling along negative X-axis is given by
Y2 = Ao sin(t + kx)
According to the super position principle, the displacement of resultant wave is given by,
Y = Y1 +Y2 = Ao sin(t kx) + Ao sin(t + kx)

t + kx + t kx t + kx t + kx
Y = Ao 2 sin( ) cos( )
2 2
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Y = 2Ao sin t. cos kx

This is the displacement of resultant wave and A = 2Ao cos kx is the amplitude of resultant wave.
This implies that the amplitude of the stationary wave different at different points i.e., amplitude
become zero at some points and maximum at some other points.
Condition for maximum amplitude:

The amplitude of resultant wave is A = 2Ao cos kx. For amplitude to be maximum,
cos kx = 1 = kx = n; where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
kx = 0, 1, 2, .... But k = 2/ , so
x = 0, /2, , 3 /2, 4 /2, .....
Hence anti-nodes occur at the distance of x = 0, /2, , 3 /2, 4 /2, .....
Condition for minimum amplitude:

For amplitude to be maximum,
cos kx = 0 = kx = (2n + 1); where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
Where k = 2/ , so
x = /4, 3 /4, 5 /4, .....
Hence nodes will be formed at the distance of x = /4, 3 /4, 5 /4, .....
Characteristics of stationary wave:

The stationary waves are produced when two progressive waves of equal frequency and
amplitude travel in medium in opposite direction.
In the stationary wave, the disturbance or energy is not transmitted from particle to particle.
At nods, the particles of the medium are permanently at rest.
The particle at the anti-nodes vibrates with the maximum amplitude which is equal to twice
the amplitude of either waves.
The period of vibration of stationary wave is equal to that of either of wave.
The amplitude of particles on either side of an antinode gradually decreases to zero.
Difference between Standing waves and Progressive waves
Stationary Waves Progressive Waves
Stores energy Transmits energy

Have nodes & antinodes No nodes & antinodes
Amplitude increases from node to antinode Amplitude remains constant along length
of the wave
Phase change of at node No phase change
8.3.6 Organ Pipe

Organ pipe is a pipe in which if the vibration is passed from the one end it is then reected from
the other end and stationary wave is formed in the pipe. These are musical instruments which are
used to produce musical sound by blowing air into the pipe. There are two types of Organ pipe.
Closed organ pipe

The organ pipe in which one end is opened and another end is closed is called closed organ pipe.
Bottle, whistle, etc. are examples of closed organ pipe.
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If the air is blown lightly at the open end of the closed organ pipe, then the air column vibrates
in the fundamental mode. There is a node (N) at the closed end and an antinode (A) at the open
end. If L is the length of the tube: -
1
L= or 1 = 4L
4
If f1 is the fundamental frequency of the vi-
brations and v is the velocity of sound in air,
then
v v
f1 = =
1 4L
If air is blown strongly at the open end, fre-
quencies higher than fundamental frequency
can be produced.
33 4L
L= or 3 =
4 3
v 3v v
f3 = = = 3 f1 ( f1 = )
3 4L 4L
This is the rst overtone or third harmonic.
Similarly:
5v
f5 = = 5 f1
4L
This is called as second overtone or fth harmonic. Therefore the frequency of nth overtone
is (2n + 1) f1 where f1 is the fundamental frequency. In a closed pipe only odd harmonics are
produced. The frequencies of harmonics are in the ratio of 1 : 3 : 5......
fn = (2n + 1) f1 , where n = 1, 2, 3, ....
Open organ pipe

The pipe in which the both of its ends are
open is called open organ pipe. Flutes is the
example of open organ pipe.
When air is blown into the open organ pipe,
the air column vibrates in the fundamental
mode. Antinodes are formed at the ends and
a node is formed in the middle of the pipe. If
L is the length of the pipe, then
1
L= or 1 = 2L
2
The fundamental frequency f1 is
v
f1 =
2L
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In the next mode of vibration additional nodes and antinodes are formed
v
f2 = 2 = 2 f1
2L
v
f3 = 3 = 3 f1
2L
v
f4 = 4 = 4 f1
2L
.
.
.
fn = n f1
where fn is the nth harmonic and n = 1, 2, 3, ..... Hence, it is proved that all harmonics are present
in an open organ pipe.
8.3.7 Ripple Tank

RIPPLE TANK is an apparatus which is used to study the features or characteristics of waves
mechanics.
A ripple tank consists of a rectangular tray containing water. It is provided with a transparent
glass sheet at the bottom. A screen is placed well below the tray to observe the characteristics of
waves generated in water. A lamp is placed above the tray.
Working
When an observer dips a rod or his nger into the water of ripple tank, waves are generated. There
is also a mechanical way to generate pulses in water i.e. electric motor. The lamp enlightens the
waves which are focused on the bottom screen. The wave crests act as converging lenses and tend
to focus the light from the lamp. The wave troughs act as diverging lenses and tend to spread it.
This results that crests appear as bright bends and troughs as dark bends on the screen.
PRODUCTION OF STRAIGHT RIPPLES: Straight pulses are produced by dipping a nger
or a straight rod periodically in water.
PRODUCTION OF CIRCULAR RIPPLES: Circular pulses are produced by dipping the
pointed end of a rod periodically in water.
If straight pulses are generated and a piece of paper is thrown on the surface of water, it is found
that the paper simply moves up and down as each of the waves passes across it. By means of a stop
watch time period of the rod and paper is measured. The two time periods are found to be equal.
This shows that the particles of medium execute simple harmonic motion with the same time period
as that of the body generating pulses.
8.3.8 Sonometer
A Sonometer is a device for demonstrating the relationship between the frequency of the sound
produced by a plucked string, and the tension, length and mass per unit length of the string.
These relationships are usually called Mersennes laws after Marin Mersenne (1588-1648), who
investigated and codied them.
The sonometer consists of a hollow sounding box about a metre long. One end of a thin metallic
wire of uniform cross-section is xed to a hook and the other end is passed over a pulley and
attached to a weight hanger. The wire is stretched over two knife edges P and Q by adding sufcient
weights on the hanger. The distance between the two knife edges can be adjusted to change the
vibrating length of the wire.
A transverse stationary wave is set up in the wire. Since the ends are xed, nodes are formed at
P and Q and antinode is formed in the middle.
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The length of the vibrating segment is l = /2.

= 2l. If f is the frequency of vibrating segment, then
v v
f= =
2l

We know that v = T , where T is the tension and is the mass per unit length of the wire.

1 T
f=
2l
This relationship shows that for small amplitude vibration, the frequency is proportional to:
1. the square root of the tension of the string,
2. the reciprocal of the square root of the linear density (mass per unit length) of the string,
3. the reciprocal of the length of the string.
8.3.9 Sound
"A vibration transmitted by air or other medium in the form of alternate compressions and rarefac-
tions of the medium is known as Sound."
Sound wave is longitudinal mechanical wave producing sensation of hearing on the ear. On the
basis of what range of frequency of longitudinal mechanical wave can be detected by our ear. The
longitudinal mechanical waves are divided into 3 types
1. Audible wave:
Range of frequency from 20Hz to 20kHz which can produce sensation of hearing in our ears is
called audible wave, which is in fact a sound wave. The sound wave can be produced by vibration
of tuning forks, air column human vocal cord etc.
2. Infrasonic wave:
The longitudinal wave whose frequency lies below lowest audible range are called infrasonic wave.
The frequency of earthquakes lies in this range.
3. Ultrasonic wave:
Range lies above the 20kHz is ultra-sonic wave. The frequency given by vibration quartz crystal is
ultrasonic wave.
Production of Sound
Sound is produced by a vibrating body like a drum, bell, etc, when a body vibrates. due to the
to and fro motion of the drum, compressions and rarefactions are produced and transmitted or
propagated in air.
Properties of Sound
Longitudinal in nature.
It requires a material medium for its propagation.
Sound waves can be reected.
Sound waves suffer refraction.
Sound waves show the phenomenon of interference
Sound waves shows diffraction
Sound propagates with a velocity much smaller than that of light.
Sound gets absorbed in the medium through which it passes.
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8.3.10 Characteristics of musical sound

Musical Sound: A musical sound consists of a quick succession of regular and periodic rarefactions
and compressions without any sudden change in its amplitude.
Pitch
The pitch is the characteristics of a musical sound which depends upon the frequency. The sound
with low frequency is low pitch able sound and the sound with high frequency is high pitch able
sound.
Loudness
The loudness of musical sound is related to the intensity of the sound the higher is the intensity, the
higher will be the loudness.
Quality OR Timber
It measure the complexity of sound. Quality of sound depends upon the number and intensity of
harmonics present in the sound. A pure sound produces comparatively less pleasing effect on ears
then sound consisting of a number of harmonics. Usually a sounding body produce a complex
sound of frequency. The fo , 2 fo , 3 fo , etc, where fo is called fundamental frequency. The fo , 2 fo ,
3 fo etc are called rst, 2nd, 3rd harmonics. In the voice of different peoples different harmonics are
present. Due to the different harmonics present in the voices, we characteristics of sound is called
Quality or Timber.
8.3.11 Intensity of sound

The intensity of sound at a point is dened as the amount of sound energy crossing the point per
unit area per second. Then the unit of intensity I of the sound is given by J/m2 s or W m2 .
Sound intensity level

Sound intensity levels are quoted in decibels (dB) much more often than sound intensities in watts
per meter squared. How our ears perceive sound can be more accurately described by the logarithm
of the intensity rather than directly to the intensity. The sound intensity level in decibels of a
sound having an intensity I in watts per meter squared is dened to be:
I
(dB) = 10 log10 ( )
Io
where Io = 1012W /m2 is a reference intensity. In particular, Io is the lowest or threshold intensity
of sound a person with normal hearing can perceive at a frequency of 1000Hz. Sound intensity level
is not the same as intensity. The units of decibels (dB) are used to indicate this ratio is multiplied
by 10 in its denition. The bel, upon which the decibel is based, is named for Alexander Graham
Bell, the inventor of the telephone.
The decibel level of a sound having the threshold intensity of 1012W /m2 is = 0dB, because
log10 1 = 0. That is, the threshold of hearing is 0 decibels.
Threshold of hearing:
The threshold of hearing is the lowest intensity of the sound that can be detected by our ear within
the range of audibility. The sensitivity of ears caries with the frequency i.e. the sensitivity of ears is
different range of frequencies. Also the threshold of hearing at a frequency may very form ear to
ear. Hence, the threshold of hearing has been dened for a normal ear at a frequency of 1000Hz.
The threshold of hearing is taken as 1012 Watt m2 at the frequency of 1000Hz.
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8.3.12 BEATS
When two sound waves of same amplitude and nearly equal frequency move in the same direction
then these two waves superimpose to each other giving rise to alternating hearing of the sound.
This phenomenon is called Beat.
The no of hearing produce in one second is beat frequency.
Consider two waves having frequency f1 and f2 then the displacement equation of these two waves
are given by:
y1 = Ao cos 2 f1t and y2 = Ao cos 2 f2t. If the two waves are sounded together, they will interfere
and the resulting displacement y according to the principle of super position is given by,
y = y1 + y2 = Ao cos 2 f1t + Ao cos 2 f2t
Using a trigonometric identity, it can be shown that
y = 2Ao cos(2 fBt) cos(2 favgt)
where: fB = | f1 f2 |
is the beat frequency, and favg is the average of f1 and f2 . These results mean that the resultant
wave has twice the amplitude and the average frequency of the two superimposed waves, but it also
uctuates in overall amplitude at the beat frequency fB . The rst cosine term in the expression
effectively causes the amplitude to go up and down. The second cosine term is the wave with
frequency favg . This result is valid for all types of waves. However, if it is a sound wave, providing
the two frequencies are similar, then what we hear is an average frequency that gets louder and
softer (or warbles) at the beat frequency.
Some important points regarding beats:

The beats frequency = number of beats per second=| f1 f2 |.
In the case of beats, the intensity at a point varies periodically.
If beats frequency is fraction then round off is not allowed, e.g., if beats frequency is 5.2 Hz,
then in ve second 26 beats (not 25) are heard.
Due to waxing or wanning to a tuning fork, frequency decreases.
Due to ling a tuning fork, frequency increases.
Human ear can hear fB = 7Hz.
8.4 Velocity of sound

Velocity of sound in a medium is given by

E
v=

where E is the modulus of elasticity and is the density of the medium.

Velocity of sound is maximum in solids and minimum in gases since, solids are more elastic.
In a solid, elasticity E is replaced by Youngs modulus Y so that

Y
v=

In a uid (liquid or gas) E is replaced by Bulks modulus B so that

B
v=

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8.4 Velocity of sound 99
In a gas,

RT P
v= =
M
C
Here, = cvp = adiabatic constant
P = Normal pressure and = density of gas.
8.4.1 Newtons formula

On the basis of theoretical considerations, Newton proved that the velocity of sound in any medium
is given by:

E
v= > (1)

Sound waves travels in gases in the form of compressions and rarefactions. Newton assumed
that when a sound wave travels through air, the temperature of the air during compression and
rarefaction remains constant. Such a process is called an isothermal process.
Let V be the volume of a gas at pressure P, then Boyles Law for the isothermal process is:
PV = constant > (2)
If pressure increases from P to (P + P) at constant temperature, then its volume decreases from V
to (V V ). Now, according to Boyles Law:
(P + P)(V V ) = constant > (3)
Comparing equations (2) and (3),
PV = (P + P)(V V )
PV = PV PV +V P PV
0 = PV +V P PV
The product PV is very small and can be neglected. So above equation becomes:
0 = PV +V P
PV = V P
V P P Stress
P= = P = =
V V /V Volumetric Strain
P=E
Put this value in equation (1):

E P
v= =

Where atmospheric pressure P = 1.013 105 N/m2 and density of air is 1.293kg/m3 . The speed of
sound could be found as:

1.013 105
v= = 280m/s
1.293
As, the experimental value of speed of sound in air is 332m/s and theoretical value comes out to be
280m/s. This shows that Newtons formula was not correct.
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8.4.2 Laplaces correction

The formula given by Newton is modied by Laplace assuming that propagation of sound in air is
an adiabatic process. In sound waves, the compressions and rarefactions occurs so rapidly that heat
produced in compressed regions does not have time to ow to the neighboring rarefactions. This
means that during compression, temperature rises and during rarefaction, temperature falls. Hence,
temperature of the air does not remain constant.
Now, Boyles law for adiabatic process is:
PV = constant > (1)

molar specic heat of gas at constant pressure
Where = molar specic heat of gas at constant volume
Cp
=
Cv
If pressure of a given mass of a gas is changed from P to (P + P) and volume changes from V to
(V V ), then
(P + P)(V V ) = constant > (2)
Comparing equations (1) and (2), we get:
PV = (P + P)(V V )
V
PV = (P + P)[V (1 )]
V
vV
PV = (P + P)V (1 )
V
V
P = (P + P)(1 )
V
Applying Binomial Theorem:
V V
(1 + ) = 1 + ( ) + neglecting higher power terms
V V
V V
(1 + ) = 1
V V
Put this value in equation (3), we get:
V
P = (P + P)(1
)
V
PV PV
P = P + P
V V
PV PV
0= + P
V V
As V << V , so (V P)/V can be neglected.
PV
0= + P
V
PV
= P
V
P Stress
P = =
V /V Volumetric Strain
P = E
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8.5 DOPPLERS EFFECT 101
Hence, Laplace formula for speed of sound in a gas is:

E P
v= =

Putting the value of atmospheric pressure P = 1.013 105 N/m2 , density = 1.293kg/m3 and
= 1.4 for air:

1.4 1.013 105
v= = 333m/s
1.293
This value of speed of sound is very close to the experimental value. Hence Laplaces formula for
speed of sound is correct.
If M is the mass and V is the volume of the air then: = M/V , then Laplaces equation can be
written as:

P PV
v= =
M
But PV = nRT , therefore:

nRT
v=
M
In the above equation , n, R, and M all are constants:

v T
Thus, the velocity of sound in air is directly proportional to the square root of its absolute tempera-
ture.
Some important points regarding velocity of sound in air or gaseous medium:

1. The speed of sound does not change due to variation of pressure.
2. Velocity of sound and temperature of the medium are related as:

v2 T2
=
v1 T1
3. Due to change of temperature by 1oC, the speed of sound is changed by 0.01m/s.

4. For small variation of temperature, vt = (vo + 0.61t)m/s where, vo = speed of sound at 0oC
vt = speed of sound at t oC.
5. The speed of sound increases due to increase of humidity.
6. The velocity of sound in air is measured by resonance tube.
7. The velocity of sound in gases is measured by Quinkes tube.
8. Kundts tube is useful to measure the speed of sound in solid and gases.
8.5 DOPPLERS EFFECT

The Doppler effect is an alteration in the observed frequency of a sound due to motion of either the
source or the observer. For example, if you ride a train past a stationary warning bell, you will hear
the bells frequency shift from high to low as you pass by.
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Denition
The actual change in frequency due to relative motion of source and observer is called a Doppler
Shift. The phenomena is known as Dopplers Effect.
The Doppler effect and Doppler shift are named for the Austrian physicist and mathematician
Christian Johann Doppler (18031853), who did experiments with both moving sources and moving
observers.
The apparent frequency due to Doppler effect for different cases can be deduced as follows:
8.5.1 Both source and observer at rest

Suppose S and O are the positions of the source and the observer respectively. Let f be the frequency
of the sound and v be the velocity of sound. In one second, f waves produced by the source travel a
distance SO = v. The wavelength is:
v
=
f
8.5.2 Source is moving and observer is at rest

(1) When the source moves towards the stationary observer
If the source moves with a velocity vs towards the stationary observer, then after one second, the
source will reach S , such that SS = vs . Now f waves emitted by the source will occupy a distance
of (v vs ) only. Therefore the apparent wavelength of the sound is:
v vs
=
f
The apparent frequency is:
v v
f = =( )f
v vs
As f > f , the pitch of the sound appears to increase.
(ii) When the source moves away from the stationary observer
If the source moves away from the stationary observer with velocity vs , the apparent frequency will
be given by:
v v
f = ( )f = ( )f
v (vs ) v + vs
As f < f , the pitch of the sound appears to decrease.
8.5.3 Source is at rest and observer in motion

(i) When the observer moves towards the stationary source
Suppose the observer is moving towards the stationary source with velocity vo . After one second
the observer will reach the point O such that OO = vo . The number of waves crossing the observer
will be f waves in the distance OA in addition to the number of waves in the distance OO which is
equal to vo / . Therefore, the apparent frequency of sound is:
vo vo
f = f + = f+ f
v
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v + vo
f = ( )f
v
As f > f , the pitch of the sound appears to increase.
(ii) When the observer moves away from the stationary source
In this case velocity of observer is taken as negative:
v + (vo ) v vo
f = ( )f = ( )f
v v
As f < f , the pitch of sound appears to decrease.

Note: If the source and the observer move along the same direction, the equation for apparent
frequency is:
v vo
f = ( )f
v vs
General Equation
The apparent frequency f is given as:
v vo
f = ( )f
v vs
8.5.4 Application of Dopplers Effect
Doppler shifts and sonic booms are interesting sound phenomena that occur in all types of waves.
They can be of considerable use. For example, the Doppler shift in ultrasound can be used to
measure blood velocity, while police use the Doppler shift in radar (a microwave) to measure car
velocities. In meteorology, the Doppler shift is used to track the motion of storm clouds; such
Doppler Radar can give velocity and direction and rain or snow potential of imposing weather
fronts. In astronomy, we can examine the light emitted from distant galaxies and determine their
speed relative to ours.
As galaxies move away from us, their light is shifted to a lower frequency, and so to a longer
wavelengththe so-called red shift. Such information from galaxies far, far away has allowed us to
estimate the age of the universe (from the Big Bang) as about 14 billion years.
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RAMS MIND MAP
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Points to Note:
In the case of S.H.M., total energy of the system remains constant at every
instant.
In the case of S.H.M., particle is in stable equilibrium at the mean position.
At mean position, velocity is maximum and at extreme position, velocity is
zero
Acceleration is zero at mean position while maximum at extreme position.
If the spring is massless, then time period (T ) is given by:

m
T = 2
k
If the spring is massive of mass ms , then

m + m3s
T = 2
k
In series combination of springs, the equivalent spring constant k can be
calculated as:
1 1 1 1
= + + + ....
k k1 k2 k3
For parallel combination of springs: k = k1 + k2 + k3 + ....
If a person sitting on an oscillating swing stands up, the time period of the
swing decreases.
The time period of a simple pendulum having long length is:

lR
T = 2
(l + R)g

where R is radius of the earth. If length is innite, then: T = 2 Rg
If time period of one spring is T1 and
that of second spring is T2 and if they are
connected in series, then Tseries = T12 + T22 . If they are connected in parallel
then:
T1 T2
Tseries =
T12 + T22
A surface wave is a mixture of transverse and longitudinal waves, and a wave

pulse is a single disturbance of a medium.
Compression occur when the air particles are closer together and the air
pressure is higher than the surrounding pressure.
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Rarefaction occurs when the air particles are further apart and the air pressure
is lower than the surrounding pressure.
A stationary wave is formed when two progressive waves of the same fre-
quency, amplitude and speed, travelling in opposite directions are superposed.
Node: region of destructive superposition where waves always meet out of
phase by , = displacement = zero.
Antinode: region of constructive superposition where waves meet in phase;
in this case particles vibrate with max amplitude.
Neighboring nodes & antinodes separated by 1/2 .
When a string vibrates in one segment, the sound produced is called funda-
mental note. The string is said to vibrate in fundamental mode.
Harmonics are the integral multiples of the fundamental frequency. If fo be
the fundamental frequency, then n fo is the frequency of nth harmonic.
Overtones are the notes of frequency higher than the fundamental frequency
actually produced by the instrument.
In the strings all harmonics are produced.
In the open organ pipe all the harmonics are produced while in the closed
organ pipe only the odd harmonics are produced.

By
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9. NATURE OF LIGHT
9.1 What is Light?

Light is form of energy and it is electromagnetic in nature. The speed of light is constant which is
denoted by c. The value of speed of light is 3 108 m/s. Currently light is considered to have dual
nature. Following are theories of light.
9.1.1 Newtons Corpuscular Theory of Light

This theory which was proposed by Newton is as follows:
1. Light is emitted from a luminous body in the form of tiny particles called corpuscles.
2. The corpuscles travel with the velocity of light.
3. When corpuscles strike the retina they make it sense light.
4. Medium is necessary for the propagation of light.
5. Velocity of light is greater in denser medium.
9.1.2 Wave Theory of Light

In 1676, Huygen proposed this theory. According to this theory:
1. Light propagates in space in the form of waves.
2. It can travel in space as well as in a medium.
3. Light does not travel in a straight line but in sine wave form.
4. Velocity of light is greater in rarer medium.
5. Medium is not necessary for propagation.
9.1.3 Quantum Theory of Light

Quantum Theory was proposed by Max Plank in 1901. According to this theory of Max Plank:
1. Light is emitted from a source discontinuously in the form of bundles of energy called
Photons or Quantum.
2. It travels in space as well as a medium.
3. Speed of light is greatest in space or vacuum.
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108 Chapter 9. NATURE OF LIGHT
9.1.4 Dual Nature of Light

Light has dual nature, it behaves not only as a particle (photon) but also as a wave. This is called
dual nature of light.
9.2 Wavefronts
The surface over which particles are vibrating in the same phase. The surface is normal to rays in
isotropic media.
Explanation
Consider a point source of light as S. Waves emitted from this source will propagate outwards in all
directions with speed c (c is the speed of light). After time t, they will reach the surface of a sphere
with center as S and radius ct. Every point on the surface of this sphere will be set into vibration by
the waves reaching there. As the distance of all these points from the source is the same, so their
state of vibration will be identical. In other words we can say that all the points on the surface of
the sphere will have the same phase.
Figure 9.1: Wavefront
Denition
Such a surface on which all the points have the same phase of vibration is known as wavefronts.
Thus in case of a point source, the wavefront is spherical in shape. A line normal to the wavefront
including the direction of motion is called a ray of light.
With time, the wave moves farther giving rise to new wave fronts. All these wavefronts will
be concentric spheres of increasing radii. Thus the wave propagates in space by the motion of the
wavefronts is one wavelength. It can be seen that as we move away at greater distance from the
source, the wavefronts are parts of spheres of very large radii. A limited region taken on such a
wavefront can be regarded as a plane wavefront. For example, light from the sun reaches the Earth
in plane wavefronts.
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9.3 Huygens Principle 109
9.3 Huygens Principle

The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens (16291695) developed a useful technique for determining
in detail how and where waves propagate. Huygenss principle states that:
Denition
Every point on a wavefront is a source of wavelets that spread out in the forward direction at the
same speed as the wave itself. The new wavefront is a line tangent to all of the wavelets.
Knowing the shape and location of a wavefront at any instant t, Huygens principle enables us to
determine the shape and location of the new wavefront at a later time t + t. This principle consists
of two parts:
1. Every point of a wavefront may be considered as a source of secondary wavelets which
spread out in forward direction with a speed equal to the speed of propagation of the wave.
2. The new position of the wavefront after a certain interval of time can be found by constructing
a surface that touches all the secondary wavelets.
9.4 TERMS USED IN LIGHT

9.4.1 Coherent Sources
Coherent sources are the sources which either have no phase difference or have a constant difference
of phase between them.
9.4.2 Principle of superposition

It states that a number of waves travelling, simultaneously, in a medium behave independent of each
other and the net displacement of the particle, at any instant, is equal to the sum of the individual
displacements due to all the waves.
9.4.3 Interference
The modication in the distribution of light energy obtained by the superposition of two or more
waves is called interference.
Conditions for interference:-

The two sources should emit, continuously, waves of same wavelength or frequency.
The amplitudes of the two waves should be either or nearly equal
The two sources should be narrow.
The sources should be close to each other.
The two sources should be coherent one.
Condition for constructive interference

Path difference = (2n) /2
Phase difference = (2n)
Condition for destructive interference

Path difference = (2n + 1) /2
Phase difference = (2n + 1)
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9.4.4 Fringe Width

It is the distance between two consecutive bright and dark fringes:
L
x =
d
9.4.5 Maxima
A point having maximum intensity is called maxima.
x = 2n( /2)
A point will be a maxima if the two waves reaching there have a path difference of even multiple of
/2.
9.4.6 Minima
A point having minimum intensity is called a minima.
x = (2n + 1)( /2)
A point will be a minima if the two waves reaching there have a path difference of odd multiple of
/2.
9.5 NEWTONS RINGS

If monochromatic beam of light is allowed to fall normally on plano-convex lens placed on a plane
glass plate, and the lm is viewed in reected light, alternate bright and dark concentric rings are
seen around the point of contact. These rings were rst discovered by Newton, thats why they are
called NEWTONS RINGS.
Explanation
When a Plano convex lens of long focal length is placed in contact on a plane glass plate, a thin
air lm is enclosed between the upper surface of the glass plate and the lower surface of the lens.
The thickness of the air lm is almost zero at the point of contact O and gradually increases as one
proceeds towards the periphery of the lens. Thus points where the thickness of air lm is constant,
will lie on a circle with O as center.
Let us consider a system of plano-convex lens of radius of curvature R placed on at glass plate it
is exposed to monochromatic light of wavelength normally.
The incident light is partially reected from the upper surface of air lm between lens and glass
and light is partially refracted into the lm which again reects from lower surface with phase
change of 180 degree due to higher index of glass plate. Therefore the two parts of light interfere
constructively and destructively forming alternate dark and bright rings.
Now consider a ring of radius r due to thickness t of air lm as shown in the gure given below:
According to geometrical theorem, the product of intercepts of intersecting chord is equal to the
product of sections of diameter then,
DB BE = AB BC
But BD = BE = r, AB = t and BC = 2R t:
r r = t(2R t) = r2 = 2Rt t 2
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9.5 NEWTONS RINGS 111
Figure 9.2: Newtons Rings
Since "t" is very small as compared to "r", therefore, neglecting "t 2 "
r2 = 2Rt > (1)
In thin lms, path difference for constructive interference (bright ring) is:
2nt cos = (m + 1/2)
Where n is refractive index. for air the value of n = 1, therefore:
2t cos = (m + 1/2) > (2)
For rst bright ring m = 0, for second bright ring m = 1, for third bright ring m = 2. Similarly, for
N t h bright ring m = N 1. Putting the value of m in equation(2), we get:
2t cos = (N 1 + 1/2) = 2t cos = (N 1/2)
t = 1/2 cos (N 1/2) > (3)

Now putting the value of t from equation (3) into equation (1), we get the radius of bright ring as:
r2 = 2Rt = r2 = 2R 1/2 cos (N 1/2)

R (N 1/2)
rn = > Bright Ring
cos
This is the expression for the radius of N th bright ring where
rn = radius of N th bright ring, N =Ring number, R =radius of curvature of lens, =Wave length
of light and is angle of reection in air lm.
For destructive interference OR dark ring, the path difference is:
2t cos = m
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Putting in equation (1) and re-arranging, we get

r2 m
=
R cos

m R
rn = > Dark Ring
cos
9.5.1 YOUNGS DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

The rst practical demonstration of optical interference was provided by THOMAS YOUNG in
1801. His experiment gave a very strong support to the wave theory of light.
Consider S is a slit, which receives light from a source of monochromatic light. As S is a
narrow slit so it diffracts the light and it falls on slits A and B. After passing through the two slits,
interference between two waves takes place on the screen. The slits A and B act as two coherent
sources of light. Due to interference of waves alternate bright and dark fringes are obtained on the
screen.
Let the wave length of light =
Distance between slits A and B = d
Distance between slits and screen = L
Consider a point P on the screen where the light waves coming from slits A and B interfere such
that PC = y. The wave coming from A covers a distance AP = r1 and the wave coming from B
covers a distance BP = r2 such that PB is greater than PA.
Path difference = BP AP = BD
S = r2 r1 = BD
In right angled BAD
sin = BD/AB = sin = S/d
S = d sin (1)
Since the value of d is very very small as compared to L, therefore, will also be very small. In
this condition we can assume that: sin = tan . Therefore, equation (1) will become:
S = d tan (2)
In right angled PEC:
tan = PC/EC = y/L
Putting the value of tan in eq. (2), w get
S = dy/L
Or
SL
y= (3)
d
FOR BRIGHT FRINGE

For bright fringe S = m . Therefore, the position of bright fringe is:
m L
y=
d
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Figure 9.3: Youngs Double Slit Experiment
FOR DARK FRINGE

For destructive interference (dark fringe), path difference between two waves is (m + 1/2) .
Therefore, the position of dark fringe is:
1 L
y = (m + )
2 d
FRINGE SPACING
The distance between any two consecutive bright fringes or two consecutive dark fringes is called
fringe spacing. Fringe spacing or thickness of a dark fringe or a bright fringe is equal. It is denoted
by x.
m L
Consider bright fringe: y =
d
1L
For bright fringe m=1: y1 =
d
2L
For next order bright fringe m=2: y2 =
d
fringe spacing = y2 y1
2L 1L
x =
d d
L
x = (2 1)
d
L
x =
d
9.5.2 Interference in thin lms

Thin lms (e.g. soap bubbles,oil on water) often display brilliant coloration when reecting white
light and show fringes when in monochromatic light.
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Explanation
A thin lm is a transparent medium whose thickness is comparable with the wavelength of light.
Brilliant and beautiful colors in soap bubbles and oil lm on the surface of water are due to
interference of light reected from the two surfaces of the lm.
Consider a thin lm of a reecting medium. A beam AB of monochromatic light of wavelength
is incident on its upper surface. It is partly reected along BC and partly refracted into the
medium along BD. At D it is again partly reected inside the medium along DE and then at E
refracted along EF.
Figure 9.4: Thin Film
Reected light has phase reversal of 180o (path difference of /2) as it is reected from a
surface beyond which there is medium of higher refractive index (noil > nair ). But refracted ray has
no phase change as it is reected from a surface beyond which there is a medium of lower index.
Therefore the condition for constructive and destructive interference are reversed then the Youngs
double slit experiment. For nearly normal incidence the path difference between the two interfering
rays is twice the thickness of the lm i.e equal to 2t where t is the thickness of the lm. If n is the
refractive index of medium of the lm then:
Path difference = 2tn
Hence condition for the maxima or constructive interference is,
1
2nt = (m + ) , (where m = 0, 1, 2, 3....)
2
similarly condition for the minima or destructive interference is,
2nt = m , (where m = 0, 1, 2, 3....)
In case of varying thickness of lm, there will be a pattern of alternate dark and bright fringes.
9.5.3 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

The bending and spreading of light waves around sharp edges or corner or through small openings
is called Diffraction of Light.
Diffraction effect depends upon the size of obstacle. Diffraction of light takes place if the size of
obstacle is comparable to the wavelength of light. Light waves are very small in wavelength, i.e.
from 4 107 m to 7 107 m. If the size of opening or obstacle is near to this limit, only then we
can observe the phenomenon of diffraction.
Diffraction of light can be divided into two classes:
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Fraunhoffer diffraction
In Fraunhoffer diffraction: -
Source and the screen are far away from each other.
Incident wave fronts on the diffracting obstacle are plane.
Diffracting obstacle give rise to wave fronts which are also plane.
Plane diffracting wave fronts are converged by means of a convex lens to produce diffraction
pattern
Fresnel diffraction
In Fresnel diffraction: -
Source and screen are not far away from each other.
Incident wave fronts are spherical.
Wave fronts leaving the obstacles are also spherical.
Convex lens is not needed to converge the spherical wave fronts.
9.5.4 DIFFRACTION GRATING

A diffraction grating is an optical device consists of a glass or polished metal surface over which
thousands of ne, equidistant, closely spaced parallel lines are been ruled.
Figure 9.5: Diffraction Grating
Principle
Its working principle is based on the phenomenon of diffraction. The space between lines act as
slits and these slits diffract the light waves there by producing a large number of beams which
interfere in such away to produce spectra.
In diffraction grating, each ray travels a distance d sin different from that of its neighbor,
where d is the distance between slits. If this distance equals an integral number of wavelengths, the
rays all arrive in phase, and constructive interference (a maximum) is obtained. Thus, the condition
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necessary to obtain constructive interference for a diffraction grating is:
d sin = m , for m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...(constructive)
where d is the distance between slits in the grating, is the wavelength of light, and m is the order
of the maximum. Note that this is exactly the same equation as for double slits separated by d.
However, the slits are usually closer in diffraction gratings than in double slits, producing fewer
maxima at larger angles.
Grating Element
Distance between two consecutive slits(lines) of a grating is called grating element. If "a" is the
separation between two slits and "b" is the width of a slit, then grating element "d" is given by: -
length of grating L
d = a + b OR d = = d =
number of lines N
Here, N is the total number of lines on the grating and L is the length of the grating.
9.5.5 Diffraction of X-Rays by Crystals

X-rays is a type of electromagnetic radiation of much shorter wavelength, about 1010 m. In order
to observe the effects of diffraction, the grating spacing must be of the order of the wavelength of
the radiation used. The regular array of the atoms in a crystal forms a natural diffraction grating
with spacing that is typically 1010 m. The scattering of X-rays from the atoms in a crystalline
lattice gives rise to diffraction effects very similar to those observed with visible light incident on
ordinary grating.
The study of atomic structure of crystals by X-rays was initiated in 1914 by W. H. Bragg and
W. L. Bragg with remarkable achievements. They found that a monochromatic beam of X-rays was
reected from a crystal plane as if it acted like mirror. To understand this effect, a series of atomic
planes of constant inter planer spacing d parallel to a crystal face are shown by lines PP, P1 P1 ,
P2 P2 and so on.
Figure 9.6: X-ray Diffraction
Suppose an X-rays beam is incident at an angle on one of the planes. The beam can be
reected from both the upper and the lower planes of atoms. The beam reected from lower plane
travels some extra distance as compared to the beam reected from the upper plane. The effective
path difference between the two reected beams is 2d sin , where d is atom spacing. Therefore,
for constructive interference, the path difference should be an integral multiple of the wavelength.
Thus:
2d sin = m
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The value of m is referred to as the order of reection. The above equation is known as the Bragg
equation. It can be used to determine inter planar spacing between similar parallel planes of a
crystal if X-rays of known wavelength are allowed to diffract from the crystal.
X-ray diffraction has been very useful in determining the structure of biologically important
molecules such as hemoglobin, which is an important constituent of blood, and double helix
structure of DNA.
9.5.6 Polarization
Light is an electromagnetic wave in which electric and magnetic eld are varying in time and space
at right angle to the direction of the propagation of the wave. The process of conning the vibration
of these electric vectors of light waves to the one direction it is called polarization of light. Since
the polarization is the characteristics of the transverse wave we can say light wave is transverse
wave.
Unpolarized light
A beam of ordinary light consisting of large number of planes of vibrations, vibrates in all directions
in all possible directions perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Such a beam is called
unpolarized light. For example, the light emitted by an ordinary incandescent bulb (and also by the
sun) is unpolarized because its (electrical) vibrations are randomly oriented in space.
Types of polarization
1. Plane polarized light
If the electric vector vibrates in the straight line perpendicular to the plane of direction of polarization
then the light is said to be plane polarized light.
2. Circularly polarized light

When the plane polarized light waves superimposed, the resultant light vector rotates in constant
magnitude in a plane perpendicular to the direction of polarization. The tip of vectors traces the
circular path and light is said to be circularly polarized.
3. Elliptically polarized light

If the magnitude of light vectors changes periodically during rotation,the tip of vectors traces the
ellipse and the light is said to be elliptically polarized light.
We can produce the polarized light by following ways:
1. Polarization by reection
2. Polarization by selective absorption
3. Polarization of light by scattering
Polariod
Polaroids are the devices used to produce plane polarized light. It is made from the crystal of
iodosulpahate of quinine in thin sleet mounted between two thin sheets of glass of cellulose. When
the unpolarized light falls on the polariod, only the electric eld vector oscillating in the direction
perpendicular to the alignment of molecules passes through polariod so, the transmitted light has the
electric eld vector oscillating perpendicular to the the direction of the alignment of the molecules.
These transmitted light are plane polarized.
The applications of the Polaroid are:
1. Polaroids are used in glass windows in train and aero planes to have desire intensity of light.
2. They are used in three dimensional moving pictures.
3. They are used in headlight of vehicle to eliminate the dazzling light.
4. Polaroid are used in photo elasticity
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5. They are used to produce and analyze the plane polarized light.
6. They are used as Polarized sun glass as they prevent the light from the shining surface to
reach the eye.
Points to Note:
Wavefront is the peak of a transverse wave or the compression of a longitudinal
wave.
The high points of each wave are the crests; the low points are the troughs.
The wave that strikes the boundary between the 2 media is the incident wave
The wave that continues in the new medium is the transmitted wave.
A part of the wave moves back away from the boundary as a wave in the old
medium, this is the reected wave.
A soap bubble or oil lm on water appears coloured in white light due to
interference of light reected from upper and lower surfaces of soap bubble or
oil lm.
In interference fringe pattern central bright fringe is brightest and widest, and
remaining secondary maximas are of gradually decreasing intensities.
The difference between interference and diffraction is that the interference is
the superposition between the wavelets coming from two coherent sources
while the diffraction is the superposition between the wavelets coming from
the single wavefront.
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10. GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
10.1 LENS
A lens is one of the most familiar optical devices. A lens is made of a transparent material bounded
by two spherical surfaces. If the distance between the surfaces of a lens is very small, then it is a
thin lens. The word lens derives from the Latin word for a lentil bean, the shape of which is similar
to the convex lens.
As there are two spherical surfaces, there are two centres of curvature C1 and C2 and corre-
spondingly two radii of curvature R1 and R2 . The line joining C1 and C2 is called the principal
axis of the lens. The centre O of the thin lens which lies on the principal axis is called the optical
centre.
Denition
A portion of refracting material bound between two spherical surfaces is called a lens.
There are two types of lens:
1. Convex OR Converging lens

A lens is said to be converging if the width of the beam decreases after refraction through it. In
another way:
The lens in which light rays that enter it parallel to its axis cross one another at a single point
on the opposite side with a converging effect is called converging lens.
It has three types:
1. Double Convex Lens
2. Plano Convex Lens
3. Concavo Convex Lens OR Converging Meniscus
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120 Chapter 10. GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
Figure 10.1: Types of lenses
2. Concave OR Diverging lens

A lens is said to be diverging lens if the width of the beam increases after refraction through it. In
another way:
A lens that causes the light rays to bend away from its axis is called a diverging lens.
It has three types:
1. Double Concave Lens
2. Plano Concavo Lens
3. Convex Concave Lens OR Diverging Meniscus
Figure 10.2: Convex and Concave lenses
10.1.1 Useful terms:

Center of curvature
Center of curvature of a surface of a lens is dened as the center of that sphere of which that surface
forms a part.
Radius of curvature
Radius of curvature of a surface of a lens is dened as the radius of that sphere of which the surface
forms a part.
Focal point
The point at which the light rays cross is called the focal point F of the lens.
Principal focus
The point where rays parallel to the principal axis converge with a converging lens.
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10.1 LENS 121
Focal length
Distance from the principle focus and the optical centre. It is denoted by f .
Principal axis
The line the goes through the optical centre, and the 2 foci.
Figure 10.3: Lens
10.1.2 Thin Lens

A thin lens is dened to be one whose thickness allows rays to refract but does not allow properties
such as dispersion and aberrations.
An ideal thin lens has two refracting surfaces but the lens is thin enough to assume that light
rays bend only once. A thin symmetrical lens has two focal points, one on either side and both at
the same distance from the lens. Another important characteristic of a thin lens is that light rays
through its center are deected by a negligible amount.
Ray Tracing
Ray tracing is the technique of determining or following (tracing) the paths that light rays take. For
rays passing through matter, the law of refraction is used to trace the paths.
Rules for Ray Tracing:
A ray entering a converging lens parallel to its axis passes through the focal point F of the
lens on the other side.
A ray entering a diverging lens parallel to its axis seems to come from the focal point F.
A ray passing through the center of either a converging or a diverging lens does not change
direction.
A ray entering a converging lens through its focal point exits parallel to its axis.
A ray that enters a diverging lens by heading toward the focal point on the opposite side
exits parallel to the axis.
Real Image
The image in which light rays from one point on the object actually cross at the location of the
image and can be projected onto a screen, a piece of lm, or the retina of an eye is called a real
image.
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Virtual Image
An image that is on the same side of the lens as the object and cannot be projected on a screen is
called a virtual image.
10.1.3 Thin lens Formula

Let AB represents an object placed at right angles to the principal axis at a distance greater than the
focal length f of the convex lens. The image A B is formed beyond 2F2 and is real and inverted.
Figure 10.4: Thin lens formula
OA = object distance = p
OA = image distance = q
OF2 = focal length = f
OAB and OA B are similar, therefore:

A B OA
= > (1)
AB OA
Similarly OCF2 and F2 A B are similar:
A B F2 A
=
OC OF2
But we know that OC = AB, therefore, above equation can be written as:
A B A B F2 A A B F2 A
= = = > (2)
OC AB OF2 AB OF2
From equation (1) and (2), we get:
OA F2 A
=
OA OF2
From gure, OA = q, OA = p, OF2 = f and F2 A = q f , therefore:
q q f
=
p f
q f = p(q f ) = pq p f
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10.1 LENS 123
Dividing whole equation by pq f , we get:

1 1 1
=
p f q
1 1 1
= +
f p q
This is know as thin lens equation. It can be also used for concave lens by applying appropriate
sign convention.
10.1.4 Formation of Image by Convex Lens

The nature of images formed by a convex lens depends upon the distance of the object from the
Optical Center of the lens. Let us now see how the image is formed by a convex lens for various
positions of the object.
1. When the Object is Placed between F1 and O:
Figure 10.5: The object is placed between F1 and O
Here we consider two rays starting from the top of the object placed at F1 and optical center.
The ray parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes through the focus (F2 ). The ray passing
through the optical center goes through the lens undeviated. These refracted rays appear to meet
only when produced backwards. Thus, when an object is placed between F1 and O of a convex
lens, a virtual, erect and magnied image of the object is formed on the same side of the lens as the
object.That is:-
Formed on the same side of the lens
Virtual
Erected
Magnied
2. When the Object is Placed at F1

Consider two rays coming from the top of the object. One of the rays which is parallel to the
principal axis after refraction passes through F2 and the other ray which passes through the optical
center comes out without any deviation. These two refracted rays are parallel to each other and
parallel rays meet only at innity. Thus, when an object is placed at F1 of a convex lens, the image
is formed at innity and it is inverted, real and magnied.That is:-
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Figure 10.6: The object is placed at F1
Formed at innity
Real
Inverted
Magnied
3. When the Object is Placed between F1 and F2
Figure 10.7: The object is placed between F1 and F2
Let us consider two rays coming from the object. The ray which is parallel to the principal axis
after refraction passes through the lens and passes through F2 on the other side of the lens. The ray
passing through the optic center comes out of the lens without any deviation. The two refracted
rays intersect each other at a point beyond 2F2 . So, when an object is placed between F1 and 2F1 of
a convex lens the image is formed beyond 2F2 . That is:
Formed beyond 2F2
Real
Inverted
Magnied
4. When the Object is Placed at 2F1

Here one of the rays starting from the top of the object placed at 2F1 passes through the optic center
without any deviation and the other ray which is parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes
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10.1 LENS 125
Figure 10.8: The object is placed at 2F1
through the focus. These two refracted rays meet at 2F2 . Thus, when an object is placed at 2F1 of a
convex lens, inverted and real image of the same size as the object is formed at 2F2 on the other
side of the lens.
Formed at 2F2
Real
Inverted
Same size as the object
Figure 10.9: The object is placed beyond 2F1
5. When the Object is Placed beyond 2F1

The ray parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes through F2 and the ray which passes
through the optical center comes out without any deviation. The refracted rays intersect at a point
between F2 and 2F2 . The image is inverted, real and diminished. That is:
Formed between F2 and 2F2
Real
Inverted
Diminished
6. When the Object is Placed at Innity

When the object is at innity, the rays coming from it are parallel to each other. Let one of the
parallel rays pass through the focus F1 and the other ray pass through the optical center. The ray
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which passes through F1 becomes parallel to the principal axis after refraction and the ray which
passes through the optical center does not suffer any deviation. That is:
Formed at F2 .
Real
Inverted
Highly diminished
Figure 10.10: The object is placed at innity
The table 10.5 gives at a glance the position, size and nature of the image formed by a convex lens
corresponding to the different positions of the object and also its application.
10.1.5 Formation of Image by Concave Lens

Because the rays always diverged by a concave lens, the emerging rays do not actually intersect.
But they deem to intersect on the incidence side by tracing backwards the emerging rays. Hence
concave lens images are always virtual images. Let us now draw ray diagrams to show the position
of the images when the object is placed at different positions.
1. When the Object is at Innity:
Figure 10.11: Object is at innity
Nature of image is given below:
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10.1 LENS 127
Formed at F1 .
Erected
Virtual
Diminished
2. When the Object is Placed between O and F:
Figure 10.12: Object is Placed between O and F
In this case the nature of image is given below:

Formed between O and F1
Erected
Virtual
Diminished
3. When the Object is Placed at any Position between O and Innity:
Figure 10.13: Object is placed at any position between O and innity
In this case the nature of image is given below:

Formed between O and F1
Erected
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Virtual
Diminished
Concave Lens Examples

The door eye is the most practical use of a concave lens. A door eye is a small concave lens tted
in the entrance door of a house. Since a concave lens produces the image of a real object much
closer, you can identify the person who is knocking the door even if he/she stands far from the door.
Door eyes are extensively used as safety measure.
10.1.6 Magnication
Let us consider an object OO placed on the principal axis with its height perpendicular to the
principal axis. The ray OP passing through the optic centre will go undeviated. The ray O A parallel
to the principal axis must pass through the focus F2 . The image is formed where O PI and AF2 I
intersect. Draw a perpendicular from I to the principal axis. This perpendicular II is the image of
OO .
Figure 10.14: Magnication
The linear or transverse magnication is dened as the ratio of the size of the image to that of
the object.
Size of the image II h2

Magnication m = =
=
Size of the object OO h1
where h1 is the height of the object and h2 is the height of the image.
From the similar right angled triangles OO P and II P, we have II PI
II PI

=
OO PO
Applying sign convention,
II = h2 ; OO = +h1 ; PI = +q; PO = p;
Substituting this in the above equation, we get magnication

h2 +q
m= = (10.1)
+h1 p
q
m=+ (10.2)
p
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10.1 LENS 129
The magnication is negative for real image and positive for virtual image. In the case of a concave
lens, it is always positive.
Using lens formula the equation for magnication can also be obtained as
h2 q f q f
m= = = =
h1 p f f +p
This equation is valid for both convex and concave lenses and for real and virtual images.
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10.1.7 Power of a lens

Power of a lens is a measure of the degree of convergence or divergence of light falling on it. The
power of a lens (P) is dened as the reciprocal of its focal length:
1
P=
f
The unit of power is dioptre (D) : 1D = 1m1 . The power of the lens is said to be 1 dioptre if the
focal length of the lens is 1 metre. P is positive for converging lens and negative for diverging lens.
Thus, when an optician prescribes a corrective lens of power +0.5D, the required lens is a convex
lens of focal length +2m. A power of 2.0D means a concave lens of focal length 0.5m.
10.1.8 Combination of thin lenses in contact

Let us consider two lenses A and B of focal length f1 and f2 placed in contact with each other. An
object is placed at O beyond the focus of the rst lens A on the common principal axis. The lens A
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Table 10.1: Sign conventions for thin lens

Quantity Symbol In front In back
Object location p +
Image location q +
Lens radii R1 , R2 +
Figure 10.15: Combination of lenses
produces an image at I1 . This image I1 acts as the object for the second lens B. The nal image is
produced at I. Since the lenses are thin, a common optical centre P is chosen.
Let PO = p, object distance for the rst lens (A), PI = q, nal image distance and PI1 = q1 ,
image distance for the rst lens (A) and also object distance for second lens (B).
For the image I1 produced by the rst lens A,
1 1 1
+ = > (1)
q1 p f1
For the nal image I, produced by the second lens B,
1 1 1
= > (2)
q q1 f2
Adding equations (1) and (2),
1 1 1 1
+ = + > (3)
q p f1 f2
If the combination is replaced by a single lens of focal length F such that it forms the image of O at
the same position I, then
1 1 1
+ = > (4)
q p F
From equations (3) and (4)
1 1 1
= + > (5)
F f1 f2
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10.2 Aberrations 131
Here F is the focal length of the equivalent lens for the combination.
The derivation can be extended for several thin lenses of focal lengths f1 , f2 , f3 ... in contact.
The effective focal length of the combination is given by
n
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ... = = > (6)
F f1 f2 f3 F i=1 fi
In terms of power, equation (6) can be written as
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ....
The power of a combination of lenses in contact is the algebraic sum of the powers of individual
lenses.
The combination of lenses is generally used in the design of objectives of microscopes, cameras,
telescopes and other optical instruments.
10.2 Aberrations
Lenses usually do not give a perfect image. Some causes are:
1. Chromatic aberration is caused by the fact that n = n( ). This can be partially corrected
with a lens which is composed of more lenses with different functions ni ( ). Using N lenses
makes it possible to obtain the same f for N wavelengths.
2. Spherical aberration is caused by second-order effects which are usually ignored; a spheri-
cal surface does not make a perfect lens. In coming rays far from the optical axis will more
bent.
3. Coma is caused by the fact that the principal planes of a lens are only at near the principal
axis. Further away of the optical axis they are curved. This curvature can be both positive or
negative.
4. Astigmatism: from each point of an object not on the optical axis the image is an ellipse
because the thickness of the lens is not the same everywhere.
5. Field curvature can be corrected by the human eye.
6. Distortion gives aberrations near the edges of the image. This can be corrected with a
combination of positive and negative lenses.
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10.3 Optical Instruments

10.3.1 Simple Microscope
Convex lens is called simple microscope as it is often used as a magnier when an object is brought
within the focal length of convex lens. The magnied and virtual image is formed at least distance
of distinct vision d. A lens is placed in front of the eye in such a way that a virtual image of the
object is formed at a distance d from the eye. The size of the image is now much larger than without
the lens. If and are respective angles subtended by the object when seen through lens (simple
microscope) and when viewed directly, then angular magnication M is dened as:

M= > (1)

When angles are small, then they are nearly equal to their tangents:
Size of object O
= tan = = > (2)
distance of object d
Similarly:
Size of image I
= tan = = > (3)
distance of image q
Since the image is at the least distance of distinct vision, so q = d. Therefore, the equation (3)
becomes:
I I
= =
q d
Putting vales of and in equation (1), we have:
I/d I
M= =
O/d O
As we already know that:
I Size of image distance of image q
= = =
O size of object distance of object p
Therefore:
q d
M= =
p p
For virtual image, the lens formula if written as:
1 1 1 1 1 1
= = =
f p q f p d
Multiplying both sides of equation by d, we have:
d d d d
= 1 = = 1 +
f p p f
Since d/p = M, therefore:
d
M = 1+
f
It is seen that for a lens of high angular magnication, the focal length should be small.
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10.3 Optical Instruments 133
10.3.2 Compound Microscope

Compound microscope is an optical instrument which is used to obtain high magnication. It
consists of two converging lenses:
Objective: The lens in front of object is called objective. Its focal length f1 = fo is taken to be very
small .The objective forms a real, inverted, and magnied image of the object placed just beyond
the focus of objective.
Eye piece The lens towards the observers eye is called piece. Focal length of eye piece is greater
than the focal length of objective. Eye piece works as a magnifying glass.
The objective is so adjusted that the object is very closed to its focus. The objective forms a
real, inverted and magnied image of the abject beyond 2 fo on the right hand side. The eye piece is
so adjusted that it forms a virtual image at the least distance of distinct vision d. The nal image is
highly magnied.
Magnifying power
In order to determine the magnifying power of a compound microscope, we consider an object OO
placed in front of objective at a distance p1 . Objective forms an inverted image II at a distance of
q1 from the objective. Magnication produced by the objective is given by:
size of image q1
Mo = = Mo = (1)
size of object p1
Eye piece works as a magnifying glass. It further magnies the rst image formed by objective.
Magnication produced by the eye piece is given by:
size of image
Me =
size of object
We know that the eye piece behaves as a magnifying glass therefore the nal image will be formed
at least distance of distinct vision i.e at 25cm from the eye. Hence q2 = d
d
Me = (2)
p2
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Using thin lens formula for eye piece :

1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = = +
f p q f2 q2 p2
Here f2 = fe , q2 = d and p = p2 :
1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
fe d p2 d p2
Multiplying both sides by d,
d d
= 1 +
fe p2
d d
= 1 + > (3)
p2 fe
Comparing equation (2) and (3):
d
Me = 1 + (4)
fe
Total magnication is equal to the product of the magnication produced by the objective and the
eye piece:
M = Mo Me
q1 d
M = ( )(1 + )
p1 fe
In order to get maximum magnication, we must decrease p1 and increase q1 . Thus maximum
possible value of p1 is fo i.e p = fo and maximum possible value of q1 is the length of microscope
i.e q1 = L. Therefore, the magnication produced by a compound microscope is given by:
L d
M=( )(1 + )
fo fe
10.3.3 Astronomical Telescope

It is an optical instrument used to view heavenly bodies such as moon, stars, planets and distant
objects. Astronomical telescope consists of two convex lenses:
Objective:The objective is a convex lens of large focal length and large aperture. It usually made
of two convex lenses in contact with each other to reduce the chromatic and spherical aberrations.
Eye piece: The eye piece is also a convex lens. Its focal length is smaller than that of objective. It
is also a combination of two lenses.
The objective is mounted on a wide metallic tube while the eye piece is mounted on a small
tube. The distance between the eye piece and the objective can be changed by moving tubes.
Working
The rays coming from a distant object falls on objective as parallel beam at some angle say and
these rays after refraction and passing through the objective converge at its focus and make an
inverted and real image AB. This image acts as an object for the eye piece. The distance of the eye
piece is so adjusted that the image lies within the focal length of the eye piece. The eye piece forms
the nal image .The nal image is magnied, virtual and inverted with respect to object. The nal
image is formed at innity.
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10.4 Spectrometer 135
Figure 10.16: Astronomical Telescope
Magnifying Power
The magnifying power (M) of astronomical telescope is given by:
Angle suspended by nal image @ eye Angle suspended by nal image @ eye
M= =
Angle suspended by object @ eye Angle suspended by object @ object:
It is because the object is at innite distance and hence the angle subtended by the object at eye
may be taken as the angle subtended by the object at objective: M = . Since and are small
angles, therefore we can take: = tan and = tan . Hence
tan
M=
tan
In right angled triangles ABO1 ABO2 :
AB/AO2 AO1 f0
M= = = M =
AB/AO1 AO2 fe
focal length of objective

M=
focal length of eye piece
This expression shows that in order to obtain high magnication, focal length of object must be
large and that of eye piece is small.
Length of Telescope
The distance b/w objective lens and the eye piece is equal to the length of the telescope.
From gure: O1 O2 =length of telescope = L. But O1 O2 = O1 A + AO2 . Where O1 A = f e and
AO2 = fo . Therefore:
L = fo + fe
Or, L =focal length of objective + focal length of eye piece.
10.4 Spectrometer
The spectrometer is an optical instrument used to study the spectra of different sources of light
and to measure the refractive indices of materials. It consists of basically three parts. They are
collimator, prism table and Telescope.
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Collimator
The collimator is an arrangement to produce a parallel beam of light. It consists of a long cylindrical
tube with a convex lens at the inner end and a vertical slit at the outer end of the tube. The distance
between the slit and the lens can be adjusted such that the slit is at the focus of the lens. The slit is
kept facing the source of light. The width of the slit can be adjusted. The collimator is rigidly xed
to the base of the instrument.
Turn table
The turn table is used for mounting the prism, grating etc. It consists of two circular metal discs
provided with three levelling screws. It can be rotated about a vertical axis passing through its
centre and its position can be read with verniers V1 and V2 . The prism table can be raised or lowered
and can be xed at any desired height.
Telescope
The telescope is an astronomical type. It consists of an eyepiece provided with cross wires at one
end of the tube and an objective lens at its other end co-axially. The distance between the objective
lens and the eyepiece can be adjusted so that the telescope forms a clear image at the cross wires,
when a parallel beam from the collimator is incident on it.
The telescope is attached to an arm which is capable of rotation about the same vertical axis as
the prism table. A circular scale graduated in half degree is attached to it.
10.5 Human eye

Eyes are organ of the sight approximately 2.5cm in diameter. It consists of one convex lens. It
is composed of three layers. They are: sclera, choroid and retina. It consists of two types of
muscles called irish and ciliary muscles. Irish helps to regulate the amount of light entering the
eyeball whereas ciliary muscles helps to focus light at the retina by contraction and relaxation of
the ligaments attached to the ciliary muscles. Inverted image is formed on retina.
Defects
For a normal eye, far point is innity and near point is 25cm from the eye. When an eye cannot
focus the light at the retina, the object cannot be seen clearly. Such defects of eyes vision observed
in human eye are as Myopia or Hypermetroypia.
Myopia: Also called nearsightedness, is common name for impaired vision in which a
person sees near objects clearly while distant objects appear blurred. In such a defective
eye, the image of a distant object is formed in front of the retina and not at the retina itself.
Consequently, a nearsighted person cannot focus clearly on an object farther away than the
far point for the defective eye. This defect can be corrected by using a concave (diverging)
lens. A concave lens of appropriate power or focal length is able to bring the image of the
object back on the retina itself.
Hypermetroypia: Also called farsightedness, common name for a defect in vision in which
a person sees near objects with blurred vision, while distant objects appear in sharp focus.
In this case, the image is formed behind the retina. This defect can be corrected by using a
convex (converging) lens of appropriate focal length.
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10.5 Human eye 137
Table 10.2: Sign conventions for thin lens

Quantity Positive when ... Negative when...
Object location Object is in the front of lens. Object is in the back of lens. (vir-
(p) (Real object) tual object)
Image location Image is in the back of lens. Image is in the front of lens. (Vir-
(q) (Real image) tual image)
Image height Image is upright Image is inverted
(h )
R1 and R2 Center of curvature is in the back Center of curvature is in the front
of lens of lens
Focal length ( f ) Converging lens Diverging lens
Points to Note:
Light waves slow down when they pass from a less to a more dense material
and vice versa.
When a wave is slowed down, it is refracted towards the normal and when a
wave is sped up, it is refracted away from the normal.
A converging lens is one which has a positive focal length. It is also called a
positive lens.
A diverging lens is dened to be a lens which has a negative focal length. It is
also called a negative lens.
Lens formula is only applicable for thin lens.
Magnication formula is only applicable when object is perpendicular to
optical axis.
Lens formula and the magnication formula is only applicable when medium
on both sides of lenses are same.
Thin lens formula is applicable for converging as well diverging lens.
If a lens is cut along the diameter, focal length does not change.
If lens is cut by a vertical, it converts into two lenses of different focal lengths.
The minimum distance between real object and real image in the case of thin
lens is 4 f .
If a number of lenses are in contact, then:
1 1 1 1
= + + + ...
f f1 f2 f3
Real images are always inverted and Virtual images are always upright.
Diverging lens (concave) produce only small virtual images.
The focal length of a converging lens (convex) is shorter with a higher index
(n) value lens or if blue light replaces red.
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Table 10.3: Formation of Image by Convex Lens

Position of Position of Nature Size of the Application
the object the image of the image
image
Between O on the same Erected Magnied Magnifying lens (simple micro-

and F1 side of the and scope), eye piece of many instru-
lens virtual ments
At 2F1 At 2F2 Inverted Same size Photocopying camera
and real
Between F Beyond At Inverted Magnied Projectors, objectives of microscope
and 2F1 2F2 and real
At F1 At innity Inverted Magnied Theater spot lights
and real
Beyond At Between F2 Inverted Diminished Photocopying (reduction camera)
2F1 and 2F2 and real
At innity At F2 Inverted Diminished Objective of a telescope
and real
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APPENDIX
10.6 Useful Formula

Pythagorass Theorem: C = A2 + B2 (10.3)

b b2 4ac
Quadratic Formula: x = (10.4)
2a
circumference: C = 2r (10.5)
Area of circle: A = r2 (10.6)
4
Voulme of sphere: V = r3 (10.7)
3
Volume of cylinder: V = r2 h (10.8)

n
n nk k
Binomial Theorem: (a + b) =
n
a b (10.9)
k=0
k
where

n n!
=
k k!(n k)!
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Physical Constants
Name Symbol Value Unit

Number 3.14159265358979323846
Number e e 2.71828182845904523536
Elementary charge e 1.60217733 1019 C
Gravitational constant G 6.67259 1011 m3 kg1 s2
Speed of light in vacuum c 2.99792458 108 m/s (def)
Permittivity of the vacuum 0 8.854187 1012 F/m
Permeability of the vacuum 0 4 107 H/m
(40 )1 8.9876 109 Nm2 C2
Plancks constant h 6.6260755 1034 Js
Bohr magneton B = eh/2me 9.2741 1024 Am2
Bohr radius a0 0.52918
Rydbergs constant Ry 13.595 eV
Stefan-Boltzmanns constant 5.67032 108 Wm2 K4
Wiens constant kW 2.8978 103 mK
Molar gas constant R 8.31441 Jmol1 K1
Avogadros constant NA 6.0221367 1023 mol1
Boltzmanns constant k = R/NA 1.380658 1023 J/K
Electron mass me 9.1093897 1031 kg
Proton mass mp 1.6726231 1027 kg
Neutron mass mn 1.674954 1027 kg
Elementary mass unit mu = 1 12
12 m( 6 C) 1.6605656 1027 kg
Nuclear magneton N 5.0508 1027 J/T
Mass of the moon MM 7.36 1022 kg
Radius of the moon RM 1.74 106 m
Mean earth-moon distance dEM 3.84 108 m
Diameter of the Sun D 1392 106 m
Mass of the Sun M 1.989 1030 kg
Rotational period of the Sun T 25.38 days
Radius of Earth RA 6.378 106 m
Mass of Earth MA 5.976 1024 kg
Escape speed from the earth vesc 11.2 km/s
Escape speed from the moon vesc 2.38 km/s
Rotational period of Earth TA 23.96 hours
Earth orbital period Tropical year 365.24219879 days
Astronomical unit AU 1.4959787066 1011 m
Light year lj 9.4605 1015 m
Parsec pc 3.0857 1016 m
Hubble constant H (75 25) kms1 Mpc1
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10.6 Useful Formula 141
Trigonometric Identities
sin2 + cos2 = 1 (10.10)

sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B (10.11)
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B (10.12)
tan + 1 = sec
2 2
(10.13)
1 + cot = csc
2 2
(10.14)
cos( ) = cos (10.15)
sin( ) = sin (10.16)
cos(A B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B (10.17)
1 1
sin A cos B = sin(A B) + sin(A + B) (10.18)
2 2
1 1
cos A cos B = cos(A B) + cos(A + B) (10.19)
2 2
1 1
sin A sin B = cos(A B) cos(A + B) (10.20)
2 2
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A (10.21)
cos 2A = cos A sin A
2 2
(10.22)
1
cos2 A = (1 + cos 2A) (10.23)
2
1
sin A = (1 cos 2A)
2
(10.24)
2
tan A + tan B
tan(A + B) = (10.25)
1 tan A tan B
tan A tan B
tan(A B) = (10.26)
1 + tan A tan B

By
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Physics Notes For First Year Class by Dr. Ram Chand

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PHYSICS REVIEW NOTES: XI

C OMPREHENSIVE P HYSICS REVIEW NOTES FOR CLASS FIRST YEAR

LinkedIn page: www.linkedin.com/in/ram-chand

2 SCALARS AND VECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

4 MOTION IN TWO DIMENSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

7 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

8 WAVE MOTION AND SOUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

9 NATURE OF LIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

10 GEOMETRICAL OPTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

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1.2 WHAT IS PHYSICS?

Physics is a systematic study of the universe.

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Two principles thrust in the study of Physics are:-

Reductionism. which means explaining complex phenomena by breaking them into

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF PHYSICS

1.4 BRANCHES OF PHYSICS

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1. Electrostatics: The study of electric charges at rest,

1.5 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

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1.6 CATEGORY OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

1.7 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI)

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Table 1.1: SI units

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2. Dimensions can be treated as algebraic quantities.

But 2 in above equation is coefcient which must be dropped:

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RAMS MIND MAP

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND THEIR DIMENSIONS

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES HAVING SAME DIMENSIONAL FORMULA

Distance, Displacement, radius, light year, wavelength, radius of gyration (L) .

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Table 1.2: SI units and Dimensions

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numbers, large and small.

1.8.1 MULTIPLIERS AND PREFIX

Table 1.3: Bigger multipliers

ERRORS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

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Table 1.4: Smaller multipliers

The uncertainty in the measurement of a physical quantity is called an error.

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1.8.2 CALCULATION OF ERRORS

ERROR OF PRODUCT OR DIVISION

1.8.3 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

RULES FOR FINDING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN A MEASUREMENT : -

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Table 1.5: Supplementary units

Plane Angle radian rad

Table 1.6: SPECIAL OR PRACTICAL UNITS: MASS:

One slug 14.59kg

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Table 1.7: SPECIAL OR PRACTICAL UNITS: LENGTH:

1 Fermi 1 f m = 1015 m Used in Atomic Physics

Table 1.8: SPECIAL OR PRACTICAL UNITS: TIME:

1 Solar day 24 hours The time taken by earth to complete one

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Table 1.9: SPECIAL OR PRACTICAL UNITS: AREA:

1 Barn 1028 m2 to measure cross section of nuclei