0 5 Semiconductor Microwave Devices In this chapter we will study the limitation of the operation of ordinary transistors in the microwave frequencies and about those semiconductor devices which can generate and handle microwave power alongwith the high frequency transistors, 5.1, HIGH FREQUENCY LIMITATIONS OF ORDINARY TRANSISTORS short (¥, #0) athigh frequencies andas a result signal gets shorted and appears rect] 2 collector terminal, which affect the gain a and pol gain the value of 500 @ effect of lead inductance can be minimized by making leads ofthe transistor shorter and packed in a low- inductance package. Again higher the transit time of the charge carrier through the device, lower will be the frequency of operation of the devices, the transit time can be decreased by decreasing the length of the device, but at the same time electric field is decreasing, thus the charge carrier gets less accelerated and as a result the charge carrier moves with lower velocity and which again increases the transittime, | the Thus to overcome the above problems one either a high frequency transistor or some other special type of semiconductor devices. funn diode, MESFET alon; e uency transistors will be discussed in this chapter, = 7 Out of these devices varactor, Tunnel diodes are ordinaiy p-n junction diodes. Whereas, IMPATT, TRAPATT, PIN ete. are modified p-n junction such asp" or pin type, On the other hand Gunn is abulk semiconductor device. Finally the chapter ends with amplification of microwaves by mek of the quantum mechanical effect of stimulated emission of radiation i.e, the topic covers solid state Masers and Lasers. 5.2. MICROWAVE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR All microwave bipolér transistors are planar in form and are of n-p-n type etic enon Hicowale AYora cl~ Tannd ~‘microwave Semiconductor De . | “| e Nt" silicon q Depletion layer —>f 7 Depltio ayer Cathode ly ahalf-dey only of an ordinary silicon diode. This means thatthe c | silicon SBD is about 03 V. FIGURE 4.30 Depletion region in an ordinary P-N diode under no bias ‘Acsepor od Donor ions that has taken place ac \er reverse bias, electrons and letion width. asp‘oR 20} pue “Pash 5 uodigs ‘ox #530 dn-9peus st aporp aur pomp idde Zouonbayy-40] 204 “apruasie umye8 30 BA a4 JO oRDRSHOD ammpeu sy I 5196 2016 Pu Zomot 55 wap are Ska £89 at0408 soy sop sate sumpede> Sty purser astonas pond Du © HANA sonsta;seHe tionajdap ‘mange spo avin aes J 7 _sinioanrebyy S2100q so; MpuaD}Uag onmmoeryy up edi popesd aporp s0;serea e jo 4 {au SOASuAIDeIeYDMicrowave Semiconductor Devices pr o URE 4.36 bol and (b) equivalent cre ‘The P-N diode structureis encapsul [— cathode 4.102 symbol and ‘of Varactor Diode Figure 4.35(a) shows the symbol of the varactor diode and Fig. £35(b) shows its equivalent circuit. The equivalent circuit consi Of the junction capacitance Cj, which is variable. The junction capacitance has a resistance R; parallel to it, which represents the resistance of the junction. In addition to these, there s an inductance L; and a res R, in series with the parallel combinat inction elements. These are, respectively, lead ce and lead resistance. Typically, C; = 3-25pF, Rs = 120, Rj = 158, and L,=001 valent Ci FIGURES.7 Structure of point-contact diode ordinary diode. However, the capacitance varies with applied bias according Cacele 483) eee 4.11.3 Equivalent Recovery Diode Figs. 4.36(a) varactor repli the diffusion capacitance Ca, > resistance R; is replaced by the junction resistance under forward bias Ie, 4.11 Step-Recovery Diode 4.1.4 Const ion of Step-Recovery Diode tep-Recovery Diode Figure 4.37 shows the structure ofthe point-contact diod. .nce under applied reverse bias, and high N-typesemiconductor, which acts.as the cathode, A metal 6. The V=1 characteristic ofthis diode is similar to | _spring, isalloyed onto this cathode, as shown, This spi ‘The step-recovery diode exhibits low yrmed into an S-shaped “cat's whisker”, ast‘S and Tunnel Diodes Chap. ° | e081 Microwave Bipolar Trans 1 both the pulsed Gunn diodes andthe TRAPATT di the other between th nergy of te band is called the bandg 4 iconductors, ne ‘when measure implied bond Gonna A snpifed bend fetive layer. Thus the LSA diode is capable of producing | ther the pulsed Gunn diodes or the TRAPATT diodes quency for these three devices. “re widely used in radar, communica- rons, and medical and biologial equipment Gesions for microwave solid-state deviees are [ted in Table PLICATIONS OF MICROWAVE SOLID-STATE DEVICES aoasae rapt so At Tsao power elie, Td Gi poner ope ah weit mara "TRAPATT pARITT yy William Shock- impact on elec- devices have replaced Peak power wats Fees £42 pa. spe Be ite The majority of ‘ie. Silicon, although GaAs devices offer prospect@ ‘ontacts ate introduced tothe p” reeion a the oxide layer and to the p region at commansnase santguration-—Fhe commen. ae enter (input circuit) and collector (oupst ci to the one ‘eaiSemmon tothe base as shown in Fig. 5-1 The inpat voltage Ver and ou put voltage Veo and input curent Va = common-emitter_ configurator rather than their base, af the terminalseb yp eos a, “095 nd yuoo 35 ait 2105 seoujvou aah “pede eves " . snByuoo due sor24foo-vousmo> 249129) -uoUO SEI “FaK2MOY 259 ue spo joins (7°4) wo9 sieve, wdig arenoayy 5 996 aT 10 Sida ewe isos aa 11324) vonoury 208 = 7 am 9002 wo dio put 4, yon wr 1s Say ly pue of asta a W601 s2p019 aun, pue soweveHt enema iad sie aig Sa ost Auousion 5 WORANBNUCS 5 A, oto = 2: and Substitution of Eq. (5-1-12) into Ea. vield| (1-44) where Vp = 26 mV at 300° K is the vollage equivalent of temperature (1-415) and the total charges stored inthe ase is anna a= 2 ee ae ae ve Tae ‘The sallsignl inp conductance ofthe emer uncton lacking a the np the bse dened (6-118) k wen ke Lok SR Ve Tiree he here fre s the linear or de common-emitter current gan fet ana fis thp mutual conductance: Example 51-1; Equivalent Blements of « Hybri-Pi Common Emitter Circa ‘A Si pin bipolar transistor has the folowing parameters Collector current: 16m Common-emiter cutest gin ctor: ye = 120 (Opens enpeate: T= 300° K (Cret-sectonl aes: We 10" en? From the diode ju equal to the = nel (0)2 1889 919 = 01 % 92 % opt = Har = 05 e sy paaoo Ws=y view Sapo ouuny pu sioiseueH, oxomassy eu wy * ow sorseve, peda anewamnN 5 205[Also ftom Fig, 5-1-9, the sum ofthe three terminal curtents shouldbe 2eo and it ktle+h=0 (5.1.25) sa (51-25) can be verifed by adding together Eqs. (51-21) through ). current flow in common-base mp-n transistor. In a common-base configuration ofan np-n transistor as shown i Fig. 5-19, the emiter mp junction ‘CTotuard based andthe collector p-n junction is reverse biased. Their total current flow can be found from the basic diffusion equation. The steady-state diffusion equa tiow for an nen transistor at lowelevel injection is given by dn tem Agdy Ft (5-1-258) Ey 6 and (51-26) consis of tron eu Mocca the deo cosn he eter an and Inc = 0, AS a result, the collector current le the reverse satura ee ectron rier dna inte p-type bate ayer -T GERINS mesred fom the bse region as shown in Fg. 5 Ne = he ~ (ae ~ he) ~ leo + Ig ‘The general sol a= tae = Coes + Cae ere Cand Cy ate constants o be determined by the boundary cond 1 =’ VeDs is the electron difsion length(errs) [ene + (1 ve) em 09 se passa st quodoad 51a <<" 30) 0 = © asin UOsI9P MUL, Aa sre 1 2p won sunf sorta poses 282401 2 sty se yo pnt Ann 2 upon sao ea 28 ve fusuap uonsaye Aout 9g) 2882504 uonzafy 291789 a oF BuIp0.9y “enw wero) st? Sine = Woy s+» away Joeze #30} was uoneUquioga# 2F6q 24, wots 00 = VaRuN rim = snore] w= ‘quan sy vorSan seq ayy ut Banyo s9N65-KyuOUNE S529%9 TON LL [er = 2)-]6904 4 094 = (Pt Ger) re mI) on Per/ter + 29) dx9 (1 = ayna)0ed + 8 = (2)24 se suotou 2019109 pu 39 -unsp Anoun ayy sppus (Lz-1-5) “Ba OW! (EE-1-6) Pue (2-5) "ba Bun ers) re sr ery) spoystsue ers) ere iygyetew sd 8 “fjannsodsos ‘passaudya 39 ue 40} Suonypuod Krepunog ayy Ho4 (fan = (4 Jar = co oF pay ‘ts 99 WED (OE-I-¢) “ba Jo uonngentp sates AysouRU 2x9 *7 " T> A 105 (lel 5 4a, tou ewido ar ot muse Anion Tes se Suoros uonaeop sorsapoo pus somo ay u s3f04 4 ‘2 Ajsods suo}ip4oo zepunog Wo ‘nnsor © sy “ojqyfou 5 aeeq agi uw uoneuiquioass soe 1 05 (-7 > 4) moureu Cian spews uapim aseq a “siomeueH, Cra) ws |), T/A) wus aye m (04 ero (GRRE os Ta] 2)" = &) Fe uantum 29 09 (9¢-1-5) “ba Jo uonyos yezus8 any § "iy Ut umogs are suorypuon Azepunog om SUL o= wy sunvsoduon Jo woqeatnbo o8e08 3 $1 4006 A «-O1 x 92 = 4A ‘onenf soto oi ssoioea8tyon poseiq-prens0y = 74 asaya 27010 eww, pur sorssuey anemic. za @as Microwave Transistors and Tunel Diodes ote 8) 2m) (Ve) ® Vis assumed and he = 9Depeo Te here De and De are the hole difsion con respectively Le diffusion length of generation current can be computed from the fo = Aare Where as = depletion-layer width 7 = elective minority-carrier lifetime inthe depletion layer Figure 5-1-12 shows currentvoltage tor for a common-base “There ae tee ions are forward-biased. the collector junction tothe Microwave Bipolar Transistors B Dison length i eter: ‘Collector juntion volage: npr ent ei, end Tm neo r, base, and collector: for junctions are both reverse-bised Consequently, the efiter currents et off to 2659, as shown [IF THE Tower viet side of Fig. 5. 12. Zeo c= 10 ea Le=5x 10cm pe= 0.15 A-em be = 0.006 Chem bem 16 -em Ve=0s¥ Yer 06v An 2x 10am? base, and colletorsepons1 Jo songes otounu year roddo oat put 2 2041S nfsornafo0 = 627 a SEO FR GO wong 01 % $620 ~ 4-01 X WEE 1X BYE X G01 X 40 o> a Supe HOI 01 X 91691 ~ OLX POPE = *. me siossue, mpg oneMonIN 15 295 woumo wanes 40129 “(92-1-) “ba won, vuseo-= 1 8927 % 01 X UST = at xeeo x at 2) araiy 2 ums 04 9) (eps) “be Oag vu grezo~ = oo “NOL 1 = -¥ ig way pees ae Samsun og “= wopmies ‘oooun ura yh 2 soa open pu 250g soa oxo saneuap gb aL “p ‘de sop juny pu sits) exaMoN oo188 Merowave Transistors a in efficiency) is defined as im 1, , Dewy “eet Te Tala” |" * Dimes) ‘where Jue = injected electron diffsion current at emitter junction Je de = injected hole diffusion current at emiter jnction Je The transport factor is defined as injected cartier current reaching Je * =~" pected carter current at Je he we w eet 1 here lic & injected electron ditfsion current at Je [le * ingeted electron diffusion current at Je TL = VisDyis the electron difsion length “The current Jc is the cutent crossing the pn junction, and (5-1-24), Then the complete expression of fe for any Ve and Tei fe = ~ale + Ieolt =e?) Ico is replaced, [3 Silicon Bipolar Transistor following parameters Diodes (1-48) is expressed in Eq (1-52) bipolr transistor operates in common-base made at 300 K and asthe see. 51 Coss section Bate with Emir lena Determine: a. The mobilities and 1 The isin coetcientsD. and Dy €. The emitter effceney 10" 8 The casper ctor B fe The ctent gain @ Solution . are rea fom Fig, A2 in Appendix A as forNe = 3% 10" a= pry = 0.904 x 0.997 = 0.90 mon-emitter niprn transistor. tn the active region, 8f & common, oon ote nis forward-biased and the b= -lle+ 1) aus ‘Combining this equation with Eq, (5-191), we have Hleo , ale keya*ine@ 4) nthe cutoff region, ifs = 0, then fe = —~ Ic and the eolecior eurtent is piven ty Hleo 2 1 lem we EE lex OyMicrowave Semiconductor Devices RA (@® 123 4.3. “The Gunn Diode 4.3.1 Introduction Gunn diode was invented by J. B. Gunn of the IBM Corporation, USA, in 1963. It belongs to the class of microwave semiconductor devices known as “transferred-electron devices (TEDs)") It has been found that working of the Gunn diode follows the Ridley-Watkins— Hilsum (RWH) theory put forth (much ahead of its invention by Gunn) by scientists ‘Ridley, Watkins, and Hilsum on negative differential mobility in semiconductor devices) Gunn-effect has been observed in direct bandgap semiconductor materials having satellite (conduction-band) valleys, in addition to the main conduction-band valley. 4.3.2 Negative Differential Mobility 5 Figure 4.9 shows the energy-level diagram of gallium arsenide, which is a direct bandgap material. In this diagram, the existence of an additional (satellite) conduction battd near the main conduction band is shown. The satelite conduction band exists ‘at a slightly higher bandgap energy level than the main conduction band) le know that GaAs has a bandgap energy of 1.43 eV. This means that we must apply an energy of 1.43eV to an electron in the valence band to lift it to the conduction band) From the experiments conducted on GaAs, it is observed that, if we apply more energy than _1.43eV to a valence-band electron, then its mobility gets reduced from its normal value (in the conduction band) to a very low value, For example, if we apply an energy of RoW Tan Sev sce or Man PISeV) fo avalence band electron, its mobility gets reduced from a huge 8000 cm?/volt-second to a very low 180 cm?/jvolt-second. Since mobility is directly associated with the flow of currents, we infer that the reduction in the mobility of electrons with an increase in energy gives rise to the condition of ne ERTE Contactance” This HegATITETOTATUCTANCE propOTy canbe wUMTaed wo prodeice oséillations in the microwave region. : Energy Main conduction band—>| Satellite conduction band (valley). Free electrons 036 eV. Valence band —>} FIGURE 4.9 Model of a direct bandgap material showing main and satellite conduction-band valleys tetasit : @ ‘Microwave Engineering ‘Grom experiments, as stated above, the main conduction band is above the valence band by about 1.43eV, and the satellite valley is above the main conduction band by about 0.36 eVYGilso, we have seen that the mobility of an electron in the lower main valley is about 8000 cm?/volt-second, and that in the upper satellite valley is about 180cm?/volt- second) in adaition to these, we find that the effective mass of electrons in the satellite valley {s about 17.6 times that of its effective mass in the main valley. This only means that the mass of the electrons in the upper valley is about 17.6 times their mass in the lower valley, which indicates that the electrons appear to be heavier in the upper valley compared to the lower valley(Hence their motion in the upper valley will be much slower than that in the lower valley) (The conclusion we get from the discussions given above is that if a fast-moving electron is slowed down by some energy, then the energy in the electron will be transferred to the energy that slows it down)Thvus, the transferred energy makes the stopping energy to grow inits amplitude. By proper design, this operation can be used to produce oscillations. According to the RWH theory (discussed in the next section), when the applied electric field exceeds a threshold value, the electron mobility gets reduced. Figure 4.10 explains this phenomenon, which hows the relation between the applied electric field E and the corresponding drift velocity vg of the electron. Itcan be seen from the diagram that va starts decreasing from the maximum vg max, When thé value of E exceeds a threshold value Er. Itis quite common to have Er in the range of 3-4 kV/cm. A decrease in vg with increasing. E represents a negative mobility. It is also noticed that the negative velocity cannot be sustained below the sustaining drift velocity vgs, which corresponds to the sustaining electric field E,. 4.3.3 The Ridley-Watkins-Hilsum (RWH) Theory The Ridley-Watkins-Hilsum (RWH) theory, put forth by Ridley and Watkins in 1961 and independently by Hilsum in 1962, was found by Kromer in 1964 to be suitable for explaining the Gunn-diode oscillations. vayemis Negative-velocity region FIGURE 4.10 ‘Charnctoristic of GaAs, showing the negative-velocity region a Micro~ Thel bands np. As that in into the conduc To fin drift-cu where n of the se where th valley. Let us1 Dividing « Instability the conduc negative, i. Using this i or which mean:Gold plated wires FIGURE 4 Structure of G leads (called device, The name diode has been ev ‘he Gunn diode is made up It can be seen that the contacts are made up of gold or gold-plated wires for better conductivity. 4.3.6 Principles of Opération of the Gunn Diode — ~ 5a biasing volage Vag being applied across the Gunn diode Sidlagelosuch that he acc id proccess than Vr, he devi shold value of KV fem. supply of about 30 volts 1s required. Upon th doping concentration inthe device become predominant. Ti Nghe domains sown ini. 418 then; is seen to produce a meee Me = ‘Tenants biornnnuncehataittere tse FIGURE 4.13, Formation of Gunn domain ns at a specific region in the drift Giigh-fetd domain means the accumulation of e the high-field domain is also Knoven space)Due to this accumulation of ne; ion lay fering it. This is because of the higher lectrons, which results from the applied el y be compared to the fo ‘We know that when along queue is formed, it becomes served by queue is less than that ent to theanode under Vaa- The drift velocity of the domain as a whole is much idual electron forming the domain. ie domain can be simulated to the motion of a bubble on a water'urface. The bubble, after its fo ae du utilized by the noise volage of appropy ney ex et itself amplified. This amplification ofthe noise ions being produced by the Gunn diode’5 lomain formed in Gunn diode has the fallowing properties: ) *+ Whenever the applied electric ld is rete than the threshold vue ya high: field domain s formed. + This domain willbe sustained as ong asthe il emains peat han E + The domain will not collapse, but remain as sich, and drift slowly toward the anode. Itis only atthe andde that it collapses, ‘+ The domain can be used to prodiice microwave oscilations(2) += 2pou1 20 eel @ ro si songs hoe ‘apo u umopsyeaiq-2sianat sayy ur payerado diam Kayp spor (umopyeaiq) ayoueene uy paren aq we> aoueyssas 2 apora pron aul FF Gora 019 wou SunSuer supe aBerp0n wat “2HDSL 01 THO wos speuBte dpedure 04 PD ‘axe -snonunuo? 902 8 MOQ Punare 0) paonpa: snjeai8 J0 semod pasind aonposd 0} punos aze apo ~ sapoic wun Jo suoneoyddy pue asuewiopad ge» -20y011950 aporp-uuny ayy Jo wonezado jo wi0} sopduns ayy st € “LF Bey 295) apo1p wun 24 jo woneIado jo sopout ny wontiado jo sopouryesenas.auy 0240 u poyesado aq ue> aporp apoig wuns ay) jo uonesado so sopow Ze"P ol{forthe two valleys inthe n-type GaAs and Teble 7-2-2 shows semiconductor ). And when the ap TABLE 7.22 DATA FOR TWOVALLEY seMicoNoUCTORS the data for ill begin to vst d 2194 1 Kuan st sa 9 woe paueysUEAL ‘cous (anne) wnsn-sumen AOLDevices (TED) Sec. 7.2 Ridly-Watkins-ttigum (AWH) Theory @ 29 bass of the Ridley-Watkiqs-Hitsum theory os ey theory a desrie age respect tel ts _ do ae Ge. ‘The condition (or negative differential conductance may then be writen Sore — (7-214) pendence of and direct evidence forthe existence of the ne by Ruch and Kino 15]. Experiment analysis by Butcher and Fawcet [13], area field were made I results of gto Figure 7.2 Thera nd espeinentl ve