SexualReproductioninFloweringPlants

PreFertilisationEvents
Severalhormonalandstructuralchangesresultinthe
developmentofaflower.
Inflorescencesbeartheflowerbuds,andthentheflowers.
Flowersarethereproductivepartsofaplant.
Intheflowers,theandroecium(malereproductivepart)and
thegynoecium(femalereproductivepart)develop.

Androecium
Theandroeciumconsistsofwhorlsofstamen.
Thestamenconsistsofthef ilament( longandslender
stalk)anda
nther(bilobedstructure).
Filamentisattachedtothethalamusortothepetal.
Anther:
Atypicalantherisbilobedandeachlobeisdithecous
(consistsoftwotheca).
Thecaareseparatedbyalongitudinalgrooverunning
lengthwise.
 Themicrosporangiaarelocatedatthecorners,twoin
eachtheca.Theyfurtherdeveloptoformpollensacs,
whichcontainthepollengrains.

Structureofmicrosporangium
Themicrosporangiumissurroundedbyfourwalllayers
(epidermis,endothecium,middlelayers,andtapetum).
Theouterthreelayersareprotectiveandhelpin
dehiscenceofanthertoreleasethepollengrains.The
tapetumprovidesnourishmenttothedevelopingpollen
grains.
Intheyounganther,thesporogenoustissueformsthe
centreofeachmicrosporangium.


Microsporogenesis
ItistheprocessofformationofmicrosporefromPMC(Pollen
MotherCells).
Asdevelopmentoccursintheanther,thesporogenoustissue
undergoesmeiosistoformmicrosporetetrad.
Eachcellofsporogenoustissuehascapacitytogiverisetoa
tetrad.Hence,eachcellisapotentialpollenorPMC.
Astheanthermatures,themicrosporesgetdetachedfrom
eachotheranddevelopintopollengrains.
Pollengrains
Representthemalegameteandarespherical,havinga
twolayeredwall:
Exine(outer)Hardlayermadeofsporopollenin,
whichisextremelyresistantandcanwithstandhigh
temperatures,acidicandalkalineconditions,and
enzymes
Intine(inner)Thinandcontinuouslayermadeupof
celluloseandpectin
Maturepollengraincontainstwocells:
 VegetativecellLargewithirregularnucleus,contains
foodreserves
GenerativecellSmallandfloatsinthecytoplasmof
thevegetativecell

In60%oftheangiosperms,pollengrainsareshedat
2celledstagewhileinothersgenerativecellundergoes
mitosistoformtwomalegametes(3celledstage).
Theviabilityofpollengrainsaftertheyaresheddepends
upontemperatureandhumidity.Itrangesfrom30minutes
tofewmonths.
GynoeciumandFormationofFemaleGametophyte
Thegynoeciumrepresentsthefemalereproductivepartofa
flower.
Itmaybemonocarpellary(onepistil)ormulticarpellary
(manypistils).Inmulticarpellary,thepistilsmaybefused
inone(syncarpous)orfree(apocarpous).
Eachpistilconsistsof:
StigmaReceivesthepollengrains
StyleElongated,slenderpartbelowthestigma
OvaryBulgedbasalpartcontainingtheplacenta,
whichislocatedinsidetheovarianlocule(cavity)
Theplacentacontainsthemegasporangiaorovules.


Megasporangium
Theovuleisattachedtotheplacentabythef unicle.The
junctionoftheovuleandthefunicleiscalledh
ilum.
Eachovulehasoneortwoprotectivelayers,called
integuments,whichcovertherestoftheovule,exceptfor
asmallopeningcalledm
icropyle.
Thec
halazalyingontheoppositesideofthemicropyleend
representsthebasalpartoftheovule.
Nucellusispresentwithintheintegumentsandcontains
reservedfood.Thee
mbryosacorfemalegametophyteis
locatedwithinthenucellus.


Megasporogenesis
Them
egasporemothercell(MMC)getsconvertedinto
megasporesbytheprocessofmegasporogenesis.
TheMMCislargeandcontainsadensecytoplasmanda
prominentnucleus.Itundergoesmeiosistoproducefour
megaspores.
FemaleGametophyte
Inmostfloweringplants,onlyonemegasporeisfunctional
whiletheotherthreedegenerate.
Thesinglefunctionalmegasporedevelopsintothefemale
gametophyte.Thiskindofdevelopmentiscalledmonosporic
development.
Thenucleusofthefunctionalmegasporedividesmitotically
toform2nuclei,whichmovetowardstheoppositeends,
forminga2nucleateembryosac.Twomoremitoticdivisions
ensue,leadingtotheformationof4nucleateand8nucleate
embryosacs.
Afterthe8nucleatestage,thecellwallsarelaiddownand
thetypicalfemalegametophyte(embryosac)gets
 organised.
Sixofthe8nucleigetsurroundedbythecellwallandthe
remainingtwo,calledp
olarnuclei,aresituatedbelowthe
eggapparatusinthelargec
entralcell.
Threeofthesixcellsareplacedatthemicropylarendand
constitutethee
ggapparatus( 2s
ynergids+1e
ggcell).
Thesynergidshavespecialthickeningsatthemicropylar
end.Thesearetogethercalledthef iliformapparatus.It
helpsinleadingthepollentubesintothesynergids.
Threecellsareatthechalazalend,andarecalleda
ntipodal
cells.
Atypicalangiospermfemalegametophyteis7celledand
8nucleatedatmaturity.

Pollination
Itistheprocessoftransferofpollengrainsfromtheanther
tothestigma.
Dependingonthesourceofpollen,pollinationcanbedivided
asfollows:
Autogamy
Itisthetransferofpollengrainsfromthe
anthertothestigmaofthesameflower.Autogamy
 requirestheantherandthestigmatolieclose.Italso
requiressynchronyinthepollenreleaseandstigma
receptivity.
PlantslikeV
iola,O
xalis,etc.,producetwokindsof
flowerschasmogamousflowers(withexposed
antherandstigma)andc
leistogamousflowers
(whichdonotopenatallandonlyautogamyoccurs).
GeitonogamyItisthetransferofpollensfromthe
antherofoneflowertothestigmaofanotherflowerin
thesameplant.Genetically,itissimilartoautogamy,
butitrequirespollinatingagents.
XenogamyItisthetransferofpollengrainsfrom
theanthertothestigmaofadifferentplant.Pollination
causesgeneticallydifferenttypesofpollenstobe
broughttoaplant.
AgentsofPollination
Plantsuseair,water(abioticagents)andanimals(biotic
agents)forpollination.
Pollinationbywind
Itisthemostcommonformofabioticpollination.
Plantspossesswellexposedstamensandlarge,
featherystigma.
Pollensshouldbelightandnonstickytobecarried
easilybywinds.
Windpollinatedflowersoftenhavesingleovuleinthe
ovaryandnumerousflowerspackedinan
inflorescence.
 Itiscommoningrass.
Pollinationbywater
Itisrareinfloweringplants,exceptforsomeaquatic
plantslikeV
allisneriaandH
ydrilla.
Inmostwaterpollinatedplants,thepollengrainsare
longandribbonlike,andareprotectedfromwettingby
mucilaginouscovering.
Inamajorityofwaterplantslikewaterhyacinthand
waterlily,flowersemergeabovethewaterleveland
arepollinatedbyinsects.
Pollinationbyanimals
Majorityoffloweringplantsusebutterflies,bees,wasps
etc.,forpollination.
Mostoftheinsectpollinatedflowersarelarge,
colourful,fragrant,andcontainnectartoattractthe
animalpollinators.Thesearecalledfloralrewards.
Floralrewardcanbeintheformofprovidingsafe
placestolayeggs(example:thetallestflower,
Amorphophallus)
Asymbioticrelationshipexistsbetweentheplant,
Yuccaanditspollinatormoth.Themothisdependent
ontheplantsincethemothdepositsitseggsinthe
loculeoftheovaryoftheplant,andinreturn,theplant
ispollinatedbythemoth.
Thepollengrainsarestickyandgetstucktothebody
ofthepollinator.
OutBreedingDevices
 Repeatedselfpollinationleadstoinbreedingdepression.
Plantshavedevelopedmethodstopreventselfpollination.
Autogamyispreventedbyfollowingways:
Pollenreleaseandstigmareceptivitynotcoordinated
Differentpositioningoftheantherandthestigma
Productionofunisexualflowers
Waystopreventbothautogamyandgeitonogamy:
Presenceofmaleandfemaleflowersondifferent
plants,suchthateachplantiseithermaleorfemale
(dioecy).
Thismechanismispresentinseveralspeciesofpapaya.
PollenPistilInteractions
Pollinationdoesnotalwaysensurethetransferofcompatible
pollens.
Hence,thepistilhastheabilitytorecognisetherighttypeof
pollentopromotepostpollinationevents.
Ifthepollenisofthewrongtype,thepistilpreventspollen
germination.
Thisinteractionismediatedbychemicalcomponentsofthe
pollenandthepistil.
Pollenpistilinteractionisadynamicprocessinvolvingpollen
recognition,followedbypromotionorinhibitionofthepollen.
Thepollentubereachestheovaryandenterstheovule
throughthemicropyle.Then,throughthefiliformapparatus,
itreachessynergids.Inthisway,thepollentubegrows.
ArtificialHybridisation&DoubleFertilisation

ArtificialHybridisation
Itisamethodtoimprovecropyield.
Inthismethod,itisessentialtoensurethattherightkinds
ofpollengrainsareused,andthestigmaisprotectedfrom
unwantedpollengrains.Itisachievedby:
EmasculationTheantherisremovedfromthebudif
thefemaleparentbearsbisexualflowers.
BaggingTheemasculatedfloweriscoveredbyabag
soasnottoallowcontaminationofthestigmaby
unwantedpollengrains.
Whenthestigmaofthebaggedflowerbecomesreceptive,
thecollectedpollengrainsaredustedontothestigma,and
thentheflowerisrebagged.
Ifthefemaleparentisunisexual,emasculationisnot
necessary.Inthiscase,thefemalebudisdirectlybagged,
andwhenthestigmaturnsreceptive,suitablepollengrains
aredustedontoitsoastoallowgermination.
DoubleFertilisation
Whenthepollengrainsfallonthestigma,thepollentube
entersoneofthesynergidsandreleasestwomalegametes.
Oneofthemalegametesmovestowardstheeggcelland
fuseswithittocompletethes
yngamytoformthez
ygote.
Theothermalegametefuseswiththetwopolarnucleiand
formstriploidp
rimaryendospermnucleus(PEN).Thisis
termedast riplefusion.
Sincetwokindsoffusionsyngamyandtriplefusiontake
place,theprocessisknownasdoublefertilisation,andis
 characteristicoffloweringplants.
Aftertriplefusion,thecentralcellbecomestheprimary
endospermcell(PEC).
Theprimaryendospermnucleusgivesrisetothe
endosperm,whilethezygotedevelopsintotheembryo.

PostFertilisationEvents
Itincludesdevelopmentofendospermandembryo,and
maturationofovulesintoseedsandovariesintofruits.
FormationofEndosperm
Theendospermdevelopsbeforetheembryobecausethe
cellsoftheendospermprovidenutritiontothedeveloping
embryo.
Theprimaryendospermnucleusrepeatedlydividestogive
risetofreenuclei.Thisstageofdevelopmentiscalledfree
nuclearendosperm.
Cellwallformationoccursnext,resultinginacellular
endosperm.
Theendospermmaybeeitherfullyconsumedbythe
 growingembryo(asinpeaandbeans)orretainedinthe
matureseed(asincoconutandcastor).
DevelopmentofEmbryo
Theembryodevelopsatthemicropylarendoftheembryo
sacwherethezygoteissituated.
Thezygotegivesrisefirsttotheproembryo,andthento
theglobular,heartshaped,matureembryo.
Atypicald
icotembryoconsistsofanembryonalaxisand
twocotyledons.
Theportionoftheembryonalaxisabovethelevelof
cotyledonsiscalledepicotyl.Itcontainstheplumule(shoot
tip).Theportionbelowtheaxisiscalledhypocotyl.It
containstheradicle(roottip).Theroottipiscoveredbythe
rootcap.

Inam
onocotembryo,thereisonlyonecotyledon.In
grass,itisknownasthescutellum,andissituatedatone
sideoftheembryonalaxis.Atitslowerend,theembryonal
axishastheradicleandtherootcapenclosedinthe
coleorrhiza.
Theepicotylliesabovethelevelofthescutellum,andhas
 theshootapexandleafprimordiaenclosedinhollow
structurescalledcoleoptiles.

SeedsandFruits
DevelopmentofSeeds
Itisthelaststageofsexualreproductioninangiosperms.
Seedsarethefertilisedovulesthataredevelopedinsidea
fruit.
Aseedconsistsof:
Seedcoat
Cotyledons
Embryonalaxis
Seedsmaybea
lbuminous(endospermpresentasin
wheatandmaize)orn
onalbuminous(endospermabsent
sinceitisconsumedbythegrowingembryoasinpeaand
beans).
 Someseedssuchasblackpepperandwheathaveremnants
ofnucellusknownasp
erisperm.
Theintegumentsofovuleshardentoformtheseedcoat,
andthemicropylefacilitatestheentryofoxygenandwater
intotheseed.
Asitlosesmoisture,theseedmayenterdormancy,orif
favourableconditionsexist,itgerminates.
DevelopmentofFruits
Theovaryofaflowerdevelopsintoafruit.
Thewallsoftheovarytransformintothewallsofthefruit
(pericarp).
Fruitsmaybefleshy,asinmangoandorange,orcanbedry,
asingroundnutandmustard.
Insomeplants,floralpartsotherthantheovarytakepartin
fruitformation,asinappleandstrawberry.Inthese,the
thalamuscontributestofruitformation.Suchfruitsare
calledf alsefruits.Fruitsthatdevelopfromtheovaryare
calledt ruefruits.
Somefruitsdevelopwithoutfertilisation,andareknownas
parthenocarpicfruits(example:banana).
ApomixisandPolyembryony
Someplantsproduceseedswithoutfertilisation.Thisprocess
ofseedformationisknownasapomixis.
Apomixisisaformofasexualreproductionmimickingsexual
reproduction.
Insomespecies,apomixisoccursasthediploideggcellis
formedwithoutmeiosis,anddevelopsintoembryowithout
 fertilisation.
Insomevarietiesofcitrusandmango,thenucelluscells
divideandprotrudeintotheembryosactodevelopinto
embryos.Insuchcases,eachovulemaycontainseveral
embryosandthisconditioniscalledpolyembryony.
Apomixisisimportantforproducinghybridvarietiesoffruits
andvegetables,andalsoforincreasingcropyieldmultifold.