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Spencer A McWilliams, California State University San Marcos, San Marcos, CA, USA
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
This article is a revision of the previous edition article by M.G. Ash, volume 18, pp. 1239912405, 2001, Elsevier Ltd.
Abstract
Twentieth-century academic psychology emerged formally in 1879, originally dened as the science of mental life, with the
goal of uncovering the facts of consciousness. Evolutionary theory expanded its emphasis on how mental processes and
behavior function to help organisms adapt to environments. The study of learning dominated the early half of the twentieth
century, with the goal of predicting and inuencing behavior. Various subelds and a positivist emphasis on experimental
methods led to consolidation of the discipline by midcentury. Technological developments stimulated resurgence of the
study of cognition and neuropsychology and increased disciplinary fragmentation later in the century.
412 International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2nd edition, Volume 19 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.03046-4
Psychology, History of (Twentieth Century) 413
study learning, the primary mechanism by which organisms veriability, at least in principle; therefore, logical positivism
adapt to environmental change. itself cannot be meaningful, by its own criterion). However,
Three major approaches vied for dominance during this despite strong criticism from within the eld (Bakan, 1973), its
period, erecting theories of learning following the logical adoption by psychologists, in conjunction with the positivist
positivist approach to theoretical concepts (see below). Edwin methodology of Newtonian physics and psychologys self-
Guthrie (18861959) remained close to Watsons respondent conscious focus on gaining scientic respectability, led to the
learning approach by attempting to explain purposive behavior primacy of research methodology, more than content, as the
in terms of the laws of associative learning; he depicted dening common identity of academic psychologists.
purposive learning as a response to the most recent stimuli
associated with that response. Clark Hull (18841952) applied
Subelds and Subspecialties
the model of Newtons physics to psychology, developing
a psychological theory explaining purposive behavior in Gestalt Psychology
mechanistic terms. He emphasized the importance of biolog- Although empirically based behaviorism dominated
ical drive as motivating behavior, with reduction of the drive psychology research in America for the rst half of the twen-
serving to reinforce, or increase the probability of, the behavior tieth century, the Continental rationalist tradition remained
that led to it. Edward Tolman (18861959) attempted to active in Europe, particularly in the work of the German Gestalt
explain purposive behavior in behavioral terms, but he oper- psychologists, led by Max Wertheimer (18801943). Gestalt
ationally dened concepts like purpose and cognition as psychology continued to elaborate on the rationalist view of
intervening variables in goal-directed behavior. His theory perception as an active process in which mental or brain
sustained a cognitive emphasis that supported the resurgence processes structure and transform sensory data. Along with
of cognitive psychology in the 1960s. colleagues Wolfgang Khler (18871967) and Kurt Koffka
The behaviorist perspective reached its zenith in the 1960s (18861941), Wertheimer provided persuasive support for the
with B.F. Skinners (190490) operant conditioning approach, perspective that the tendency to perceive forms, structure, and
which rejected the need for theories of learning and use of patterns dominated the perception process more than partic-
cognitive, or mentalistic, explanations of behavior. Instead, he ular sensory inputs, that the whole (perception) is greater than
analyzed the functional relationships among environmental the sum of the parts (sensations) that generate it. Many Gestalt
situations, overt behaviors, and consequences, and how these psychologists found a welcome home in America immediately
three factors inuenced the future probability of behavior. before and after World War II, increasing interest in Gestalt
Using evolutionary theory as a metaphor, he described how, principles, perception, and the active role of mental processes
during an organisms lifetime, the environment selected its in America.
behaviors through the process of conditioning. Reinforcing
environmental consequences strengthened (increased the Social Psychology
probability of) behaviors, while other consequences decreased Gestalt psychology also had an impact on the emerging
behavioral probability through punishment or extinction. subeld of social psychology. Several of the Gestalt psycholo-
Skinners radical behaviorism became widely embraced in gists who immigrated to the USA focused their work on
experimental psychology and also led to application in many applying the perspective to the inuence of social factors,
elds of human services. dened as the real or imagined presence of other people, on
psychological processes. Kurt Lewins (18901947) eld theory
pioneered the Gestalt approach to the study of personality and
Inuence of Logical Positivism
social behaviors and its application to motivation, conict, and
Throughout the behaviorist heyday, many psychologists in the group dynamics. Lewins and Koffkas student Tamara Dembo
USA, Europe, and elsewhere continued to pursue research on (190293) contributed to the study of frustration and aspira-
psychologys original topics such as sensation, perception, tion, and Lewins student Leon Festinger (191989) became
memory, problem-solving, and other cognitive topics. well known for his work on social comparison and cognitive
Although many investigators on these topics did not self- dissonance. Solomon Asch (190796) studied Gestalt
identify as behaviorists, most came to accept observable psychology and taught at Swarthmore College with Khler. He
behaviors as the proper valid evidence for psychological gained recognition for his work on how humans form
processes, even if these behaviors consisted of responses to self- impressions of others and for his research in conformity that
report questionnaires or scales. Based on the success of New- demonstrated that groups can inuence even obvious percep-
tonian physics, the methods of the natural sciences, grounded tions. Social psychology evolved into an active eld that
in the positivist belief in an absolute independent external employed creative methodologies to study a variety of
reality accessible to human knowing through empirical contemporary social topics that interested the psychologists of
research, emerged as psychologys dominant methodological the time (Gergen, 1973).
approach. Twentieth-century psychologists reafrmed natural
sciences methodology and embraced the logical positivist Developmental Psychology
argument of the Vienna Circle in the 1920s that legitimated the Darwins theory also inuenced the emerging eld of devel-
use of theoretical concepts as long as they were operationally opmental psychology by suggesting that functional psycho-
dened. Eventually, logical positivism failed as a philosophy of logical processes evolve in individuals across the life span,
science due to its self-referential incoherence (logical posi- particularly during infancy, childhood, and adolescence.
tivism states that meaningful statements require empirical G. Stanley Hall (18441924), founder of the American
Psychology, History of (Twentieth Century) 415
Psychological Association (APA), proposed that human various perspectives described above establishing the elds
development proceeds in a manner that mirrors the increasing topics and dening its content. Methodologically, the emphasis
complexity of organisms on the phylogenic scale, that on experimentation, quantication, and laboratory-based
ontology recapitulates phylogeny. He built a strong develop- research unied the prominence of experimental method-
mental psychology program at Clark University that included ology as the disciplines standard. By reafrming the logical
Heinz Werners (18901964) pivotal role in bringing the positivist perspective, the methodology supported operational
European, Kantian, intellectual traditions to America. Werner denitions of theoretical concepts, the quest for causal rela-
elaborated the orderly directionality of developmental changes tionships, and the discovery of universal laws and principles
in terms of a succession of structures that succeed each other of human and animal cognition and behavior.
(Glick, 1992). The Continental rationalist tradition also guided Graduate students in psychology during this period typi-
the work of the Swiss genetic epistemologist, Jean Piaget cally received broad exposure to psychological theory, research,
(18961980), whose constructivist cognitive approach greatly and content that led to their identication with the discipline as
inuenced developmental psychology and also sustained a whole. In sum, psychology during the 190060 period dis-
interest in cognitive processes during the behaviorist era. Piaget played a general pattern of centripetality in research and theory,
showed how a childs experience of the environment becomes philosophy of science, graduate education, and organizational
more complex and adapted as the child articulates a cognitive infrastructure. This centripetal pattern resulted in consolidation
schema in the process of biological maturation. These pio- and unication of the discipline (Altman, 1987: p. 1061). This
neering developmental themes of Werner and Piaget appear in sense of unication existed even though psychology had not
a variety of subsequent developmental psychology models and generated an agreed-upon core lexicon, or shared paradigm
approaches (Kegan, 1982). (Kuhn, 1962), as was the case in other established scientic
disciplines.
Neuropsychology
Early-twentieth-century advances in studying the relationship
between psychological and neurological processes continued Late-Twentieth-Century Developments
to contribute to the evolution of psychological research. Karl
Lashley (18901958) sought to identify the neurological bases In the latter half of the twentieth century, two interrelated
of conditioned reexes as studied by the Russian physiologists themes inuenced research into the questions and topics that
and championed by Watsons behaviorism. He reasoned that characterized this unied discipline of psychology. The waning
innate, instinctive reexive responses to certain stimuli require popularity of behaviorism and its emphasis on learned
an innate neurological structure, and thus conditioned associ- behavior inuenced a resurgence of interest in cognition and
ated responses to these stimuli might also come to have invigorated the importance of nativist, biological explanations
a specic neurological location. The term engram referred to of psychological phenomena. Additionally, rapid technological
this hypothetical location of learning and memory, and Lashley improvements, which routinely stimulate advances in many
devoted his career to attempting to nd it. Ultimately, he failed scientic elds (Pickering, 1984, 1995), had an increasing
to nd a single location in the brain for specic learning and impact on academic research on psychologys core questions
proposed that the brain operates as a unied whole rather than and topics.
with specic physical links, a principle he called mass action.
Donald Hebb (190485) saw the newborns brain as
Resurgence of Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Science
unstructured and undifferentiated, with organized connections
among neurons occurring through experience. He surmised A symposium at MIT on information theory in 1956 sparked
that sensory organs respond to environmental objects by ring a revival of research in cognition within the context of the
a complex of neurons, which he called cell assemblies, as development of sophisticated computer technology, cyber-
a result of reverberating neural activity that enabled separate netics, and information processing models. George A. Miller
neurons to establish connections while stimulated. He further (19202012) demonstrated that humans can discriminate
suggested that the assemblies of neurons representing an seven aspects of events and retain seven units of experience,
environmental object become connected in a series of activities and published his landmark text Psychology: The Science of
that he called phase sequences. These sequences come to Mental Life in 1962, reclaiming James original denition of
represent complex trains of memories and thoughts. Hebb the discipline. Jerome Bruner (b. 1915) studied abstract
articulated the neurological level of connection by positing thinking, concept learning, and the use of active cognitive
what came to be known as Hebbs rule that neurons that re strategies. Ulric Neisser (19282012) dened cognition as
together become wired together. These principles of mass any processes that transform, reduce, elaborate, store, recover,
action and cell assemblies inuenced developments in cogni- and use sensory input, further clarifying this renewed
tive science and neuroscience in the latter part of the twentieth approach to the topics that occupied early experimental
century. psychology.
Subsequent developments in cognitive psychology focused
on computer programs as a metaphor for the processes of the
Psychology in Midcentury human mind, leading to the eld of articial intelligence,
a branch of computer science. Englishman Alan Turing
Altman (1987) described the period of 190060 as a major era (191254) founded this eld by asking whether a machine can
of consolidation of the discipline of psychology, within the actually think, creating his famous Turing test in which
416 Psychology, History of (Twentieth Century)
participants attempt to consistently differentiate a human a complex system of specialized pathways that evolved through
responder from that of a computer. The question of whether natural selection to assist in solving problems that the humans
computers actually think like a human or only follow rules encountered over the course of evolutionary history. Both
of program received further discussion by John Searle sociobiology and evolutionary psychology base their work on
(b. 1932), who argued against the likelihood of valid the assumption that we can understand psychological
articial intelligence. By the mid-1970s, Neisser criticized the processes as selected for by their benet in perpetuation of
computer and information models of cognition as too sterile copies of genes into subsequent generations.
and argued that cognitive psychologists should study
cognition as it naturally occurs in peoples ordinary lives and
how it functions in their purposeful activities. However, Psychology at the End of the Twentieth Century
computer modeling remained the major methodology.
Toward the end of the twentieth century, an interdisci- Irwin Altman (1987) in the USA, Theo Herrmann (2009) in
plinary eld of cognitive science emerged, combining the work Germany, and Tommy MacKay (2001) in the United Kingdom,
of psychologists with anthropologists, linguists, computer each in their own way, characterized the latter half of psy-
scientists, neuroscientists, and philosophers. An approach chologys twentieth century, in contrast to the rst half, as
called connectionism surfaced as an active model in this eld, a time of centrifugal trends and discontinuity. They portray the
attempting to provide a computer-based virtual model of how eld as a proliferation of specialty areas, loss of a shared
the cognitive and neurological system learns by studying the common history (Fuchs and Viney, 2002; Samelson, 1999) and
relationship between input and output in terms of Hebbs core of mutual beliefs, and a weaker identication of its
rule and Lashleys principle of mass action. members with the eld as a whole. Graduate programs came to
focus more on specialized areas, with each eld developing its
own curriculum and cohort of students, organizational struc-
Neuropsychology, Neuroscience, and Evolutionary Psychology
tures, and separated physical quarters. Applied and profes-
Late-twentieth-century development of sophisticated neuro- sional psychology programs became distanced from the basic
imaging measurement techniques such as functional magnetic science of the eld, and professional schools and psycho-
resonance imaging and computed axial tomography scanning, therapy training programs proliferated independently of
along with advances in human genetics and electrophysiology, academic research psychology.
enhanced the progression of mapping human emotions and Much of what had become the traditional content of
cognitions to specic neural areas, rapidly extending the earlier psychology has been absorbed into the newly emerging inter-
work of Lashley and Hebb. These developments led to emer- disciplinary specialties of cognitive science and neuroscience
gence of the interdisciplinary eld of neuroscience, including (Gardner, 2009; Gentner, 2010), decreasing psychologys
disciplines such as biology, linguistics, mathematics, computer absolute claim to this territory (MacKay, 2001). The authors
science, and philosophy, as well as psychology, which studies own graduate education exemplies this trend. I completed my
neural circuitry and its relationship to psychological functions. PhD in the Department of Psychology at the University of
As we have seen, Darwins theory of evolution inuenced Rochester in 1971, with a major in clinical psychology and
many, if not most, areas of psychology. Toward the latter part a minor in perception. In 1995, the Department of Psychology
of the twentieth century, however, we see the development of ceased to exist, as it split into two departments: the Department
a specic approach to psychology called evolutionary of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology (locus of my
psychology. This perspective evolved from sociobiology, major eld) and the Department of Brain and Cognitive
founded by Edward O. Wilson (b. 1929), which proposed that Sciences (locus of my minor eld).
evolution has selected for humans with innate tendencies We can also see this fragmentation reected in the organi-
toward social behavior, language, creating cultures, social zation structure of the discipline in the United States. The APA
conventions, phobias, etc. The question of the relative strength originally primarily represented those involved in academic
of these innate tendencies versus the inuence of culture and and basic research and only slowly admitted professional
learning experiences generated a lively debate, with Wilson psychologists over its early developing years. By the 1980s,
suggesting that nature gives us a long leash, enabling exible however, professional psychologists came to outnumber
modes of adapting to changing environments, rather than academics in APA, and it currently functions as an organization
a short leash that strictly determined specic behaviors. serving the interests of professional practitioners. This trend led
Evolutionary psychology regards human psychological to the establishment of an alternative organization in 1988,
processes as a collection of functionally specialized regulatory The Association for Psychological Science (APS), which focuses
structures or circuits that organize how humans interpret on research and the scientic aspects of the eld. APS has
experiences and create concepts and frameworks of meaning. embraced an international perspective and the inclusion of the
This evolutionary perspective recognizes the universality of interdisciplinary elds described above, sponsoring an inter-
normal human behavior through the study of natural national convention of psychological science in the Nether-
competencies that all humans share. Leda Cosmides and John lands in 2015.
Tooby (1997) thus dene psychology as a branch of biology Although we might feel compelled to do so, we need not
that studies how brains develop programs to process infor- regard fragmentation, discontinuity, and centrifugal trends as
mation, emphasizing the brain as a physical system that func- harmful to the discipline. Rather, we can view them as reect-
tions as a computer and generates behavior appropriate to the ing an energetic period of change and reformulation that can
environment. They regard the brains neural circuitry as imbue the discipline with new directions in methods and
Psychology, History of (Twentieth Century) 417