Protection

Accountability and Reliability:

Accountability and Reliability of Power Generated, Transmitted and Distributed play an important role
in the field of power system while supplying power to all corner consumers.
Accountability:
Measuring of Power at all levels to know the quantum of Generation, Energy transmitted and
consumed.
Magnitude of energy at Generation and Transmission level is high and cannot be measured
directly.
Hence instrument Transformers like CTs and PTs are used.
The secondary of these will be either 1 Amps or 5 Amps and 110V.
Current and Voltage Transformers:
Different cores
Different ratios.
Reliability:
Sometimes the EHT Lines, HT Lines, Transformers are disturbed due to faults.
This will cause disturbance in power system and there is a chance of system collapse if the
fault is not cleared.
Hence proper protection system is a must.
Protection system:
Protective relaying system detects such abnormal conditions in the system and gives trip
command to the respective breakers to isolate faulty lines.
The main inputs to the relays are Current, Current and Voltage, Breaker and Isolator status,
input of all transformer mounted protection devices.
These inputs are to be given as per the requirements.
Non-Directional Relay:
In the relay there are two magnets called upper magnet and lower magnet.
Two windings called primary winding and secondary winding are wound on these two
magnets.
Primary winding is connected to the secondary of the CT and is wound on upper magnet.
Some portion of the secondary winding is wound on upper magnet and the remaining winding
on the lower magnet.
A disc in provided between the two magnets.
 Due to current in the coils, flux will be induced in both the coils and are displaced by an angle.
Due to these two fluxes Torque (T) will be produced and is proportional to these two fluxes and
sin of the angle
This torque is called the operating torque and the restraining torque is provided by means of a
spiral spring.
When the operating torque is more than the restraining torque, disc will rotate and sends the
trip command.
Backup relay setting range
OCR - 50 to 200% in steps of 25%
EFR - 10 to 40% in steps of 5% or 20 to 80% in steps of 10%
Wide setting range is available in numerical relays.
Directional Relay:
In the relay there will be one Voltage coil and one current coil and a disc in between the two
coil cores.
Due to current in the coils, flux will be induced, and the flux induced in the voltage coil will lag
the voltage by 90deg and the flux induced in current coil will be in phase with current
Due to these two fluxes Torque (T) will be produced and is proportional to these two fluxes and
sin of the angle between them
Both these fluxes are proportional to voltage and current respectively. Hence the Torque (T)
produced is proportional to VI and cos of angle between them.
So the Directional relays are proportional to the power in the circuit.
For more reliability of power system Directional relays are to be used for ring main ystem.
Protection of ring main system and relay co-ordination.
Discrimination of protection:
The protection scheme to be adopted is to be such that, it has to isolate only the faulty
section.
Fault at F is far from the source and there are number of supply points in between, due to this fault
relays provided at all the points will sense the fault causing tripping of healthy lines.
Such tripping can be avoided by discriminating fault locations.
By Time
By Current
By Time and Direction
In major cities to have more reliability of power supply Ring main system is in used. Here instead of
non-directional relays, directional relays are used.
Type of protections adopted:
400kV Lines Main-1 and Main-II, both are distance relays with different characteristics.
220kV/110/66kV Lines Main-1 is distance and Main-II DOCR & DEFR.
33kV Lines- DOCR and DEFR
11kV Lines OCR and EFR
Power Transformers Differential, REF, OCR, EFR, BZ,OSR,PRV, WTHT, OTHT.
400kV stations- Both side Bus Bar and LBB protections
220kV stations Bus bar protection on 220kV side and LBB on 66kV side.
Different protection Relays:
50 Non directional Instantaneous Over Current Relay
50N - Non directional Instantaneous Earth Fault Relay
51 Non directional Time element Over Current Relay
51N - Non directional Time element Earth Fault Relay
67R/Y/B Directional Time element Over Current Relay
67N - Directional Time element EFR
50Z - Local Breaker Backup
87 - Differential
64 - Restricted Earth fault
Other Trip and Auxiliary relays:
Tripping relay - 86 ,96,186, 196,etc.
TCSR - 195 , 295, 395,etc.
DC supervision relays 80A, 80B
Protections:
Over current protection
Earth fault protection
Over voltage/Under voltage protection
Differential protection
Buchholtz relay
Pressure relief device
Distance protection
Line differential protection
 Differential protection:

REF Protection stability:

For this protection both the main CTs and neutral CT are to be of same ratio and accuracy class. This
test is also to be conducted to confirm the correctness of the current inputs to the relay The Test set
up is as in figure

Relay Co-ordination:
Following points are to be considered.
CT ratio used
Fault MVA at each voltage level
Current setting adopted
Plug setting multiplier - PSM.
Time delay to be adopted - TMS.
Curve selected Normally 3 seconds
Relay operating time
Relay co-ordination for 11kV Bus fault:
11kV fault MVA = 157
11kV fault current = 8.24 KA
If referred to 66kV fault = 1.37 KA
 Bay CTR PS TMS PM RO AROT
S T

SEL 400/1 100 0.2 3.4 5.5 1100m

% 3 s

I Line 400/1 100 0.15 3.4 5.5 825ms

% 3

Tfr. 200/1 100 0.12 6.8 3.6 450ms

% 5 7

Bank 1200/ 100 0.1 6.8 3.6 360ms

For Incoming line 1 % 7 and 20MVA
transformer 75% of the setting is
sufficient. Feede 400/1 100 0.05 20. 2.2 110ms
r % 6
Bay CTR PS TMS PMS ROT AROT

SEL 400/1 100 0.1 3.43 5.5 550m

% s

I Line 400/1 75% 0.1 4.60 4.3 430m

s

Tfr. 200/1 75% 0.1 9.16 3.0 300m

s

Bank 1200/ 100 0.07 6.87 3.6 270m

1 % 5 s

Feede 400/1 100 0.05 20.6 2.2 110m

r % 0 s

For 66kV fault If = 6400 Amps

SEL 400/1 100% 0.1 16 2.4 240ms

I Line 400/1 75% 0.1 21.3 2.2 220ms

Tfr 200/1 75% 0.1 42.7 <2.0 <200ms

Parallel operation of Transformers.

Conditions to be satisfied for paralleling of 2 or more transformers:
Same steps of voltages
 Same impedance
Same vector group
Parallel operation of 2 transformers of different capacity:
T-1 150MVA with 10% impedance and T-2 100MVA with 8% impedance
Taking 100MVA as base MVA, % impedance of T1 = 10*100/150 = 6.7%
Total MVA = 250 MVA
Load sharing by T-1 = 250*8/14.7 = 136 MVA
Load sharing by T-2 = 250*6.7/14.7=114 MVA
The load on T-2 is to be limited to 100MVA only.
To avoid overloading of T-2, the load that can be taken on T-1 has to be limited to 119MVA
only.
Thus with different impedances, the total load will be restricted to 88% only.
As per the loading factor, the relay settings are to be made for over current relays.
On Load Tap Changer:
Tap changer winding will be provided on HV side of the transformer.
There will be Main winding and the regulatory winding.
Normally there are 17 taps in the OLTC with tap 5 as normal and 9 as mid tap.
At minimum tap Main winding and the total regulatory winding will be in circuit with additive
polarity.
As the system voltage reduces, tap position is to be raised.
At maximum tap(17), polarity of entire regulatory winding will be opposite to the main
winding.
Vp/Vs = Np/Ns
Vs = Vp*Ns/Np. Since Ns is constant, Vs is proportional to ratio of primary voltage to primary
turns.
Vs Vp/Np
Hence when primary voltage Vp decreases or increases, Np is to be decreased or increased
proportionately.
Breakers:
Interlocks used in breakers
Pole discrepancy trip
Antipumping
CTD
Pole discrepancy scheme:

Anti-pumping scheme:

Capacitance trip device:

Battery charger and Battery set:
Battery charger general checks:
Checking of Healthiness of Battery Set:
Select some of the cells as pilot cells.
Record SG and voltage of pilot cells and the DC load voltage.
Switch off AC supply to Battery charger.
Record the pilot cells readings and DC load voltage at 30 minutes interval.
If there is no change in the readings for 8 to 10 hours, the Battery set is in good condition.
This test is to be carried out once in 3 or 6 months.
Earthing:
Means an electrical connection to the general mass of earth. Earthing is done to ensure safety
to personnel and equipments and for protection scheme.
Earthing is done to provide safe passage to fault current so as to enable the protective devices
to operate under abnormal condition to isolate the faulty section and provide safety to
personnel and equipments.
Purpose of Earthing:
Safety of personnel
Safety of all equipments in stations.
Protection of Installations.
Improve reliability of power supply.
Protection of communication exchanges in the vicinity.
Objectives of earthing :-
To ensure that no part of equipments, other than live parts, should assume a potential that is
dangerously different from that of surroundings.
To allow sufficient current to flow safely for proper operation of protective devices.
To suppress dangerous potential gradients on the earth surface which may cause incorrect
operation of protective devices and also may cause shock or injury to personnel.
It plays a very important role in increasing the reliability of the supply and to provide stability
of voltage conditions; preventing excessive voltage peaks during disturbances and also
provides protection against lightning surges.
Types of Earthing:
Neutral Earthing (system earthing)
Equipment Earthing (Safety Earthing)
 Neutral Earthing: Deals with the Earthing of system neutral to ensure system security and
protection.
Equipment Earthing: Deals with earthing of non-current carrying parts of equipments to
ensure safety of personnel and protection against lightning.
For safe operation of the system the earth resistance shall be as low as possible and shall not
exceed the limit listed below in the table.

1 Generating stations <0.5 ohms

2 400/220/110kV stations <1 ohms

3 66kV stations 2.0 ohms & below

4 33kV stations 5.0 ohms & below

5 Tower foot resistance 10.0 ohms

While considering design of Earthing system of the station, care to be taken to keep the Step
potential and Touch potential below the specified values.
Step potential: Means the voltage between the two feet of a person standing on the floor of the sub-
station with 0.5metres spacing between the two feet during the flow of fault current through the
earthing system.
Touch potential: Means the voltage between the raised hand fingers touching a faulted structure
and the feet of a person standing on the floor of the sub station.
Similarly Mesh potential is the maximum touch potential within a mesh of the grid and Transferred
potential, which is a special case of touch potential, is a potential where the potential is transferred
into or out of the sub-station.
Equipments connection to earth mat:
Direct connection to Earth mat:
Current transformer earth points.
Isolator earth points.
Transformer Body earth points.
Breaker structures and mechanism box
Control and relay panels
Connection to Earth mat through Earth Electrodes:
Transformer Neutral.
Voltage Transformers
 All Lightning Arrestors.
Current limits:
Threshold current is 1mA
Current in the range of 1-6mA are know as let go current. They do not impair theability of a
person holding an object to release it.
Current in the range of 9-25mA may be painful and impair the ability to release energized
object.
If the current is less than 60mA, the effects are not permanent and disappear when current is
interrupted.
Currents higher than 60mA nay lead to ventricular fibrillation, injury and death.
Cable schedule and wiring schedule.
Cable schedule deals with the size of cable required between different equipments.
Whereas wiring schedule deals with in detail where each core of a cable is to be connected at
both ends of the equipments.
Reading of Drawings:
A- Current circuit for primary protection
B- Current circuit for Bus bar protection
C- Current circuit for Backup protection
D- Current circuit for metering circuit.
E- Voltage circuit.
J- Main DC
K- Control DC
L- DC supply for indication and annunciation circuit.
P- DC supply for Bus bar and LBB protection.
U- Spare contact wiring.
H- Main Ac supply and control AC supply for lighting and heating.
M- AC control supply for motor circuit.
Cable schedule of Transformer bay.
 Cable schedule for Transformer bay

From To Cable size No. of runs

CTMB C&R Panel 4Cx6sqmm 3

PTMB C&R Panel 4Cx6sqmm 3

ACDB C&R Panel 2Cx4sqmm 1

DCDB C&R Panel 2Cx6sqmm 1

Circuit Breaker C&R Panel 19Cx2.5sqmm 1

Transformer MB C&R Panel 14Cx2.5sqmm 1

11kV Bank C&R Panel 4Cx6sqmm 1

11kV Bank C&R Panel 2Cx2.5sqmm 1

ACDB Circuit Breaker 2Cx4sqmm 1

ACDB Transformer MB Required size 1

DCDB Circuit Breaker 2Cx6sqmm 1

Importance of drawings and knowledge about drawings schemes to understand.

Generators Mode of changeover.
11kV arrangement in HT installations.
Interlocks between grid and generator incomers.
Attending troubles- tracing of drawings.
Cass Studies:
Failure of 11kV PT at Adugodi.
 Damage to control cables during 11kV feeder faults.
Tripping of 20MVA Transformer on Differential at HAL factory.
Non-tripping of Breaker for line fault
Tripping of Transformers on BZ during winter.
Tripping of Healthy 11kV lines on HS when test charged.
Differential trip relay operated indication and annunciation frequently
at HSR.
Tripping of Transformers on Differential/REF for external faults.
Tripping of 220kV breaker at HSR without any relay indication.

******************

Broken conductor detection:

During jump cut, if the jump touches the tower or the other phase, the relay will sense it as a
fault.
if the jump is hanging in air, the relay will not sense it as a fault.
Under this condition, the system will become an unbalanced system and negative sequence
components will be predominant and using these negative sequence currents, the relay will
detect such conditions as open conductor detection and such detection can be programmed
as trip/non-trip signal.
VT Fuse failure scheme:
Missing of any phase voltage will be sensed as FF and relay will block trip with an
annunciation.
During FF, if there is any fault, relay acts as current relay and if the current (phase/neutral),
the relay will extend the trip command.

SOTF:

Power swing Blocking:

Short circuit, load fluctuation, auto-reclose or switching operation can cause power swings
which may cause unwarranted tripping, if such disturbances are not blocked.
PSB detection is based on impedance variation and when such power swings enters zone-3
and zone-2, the relay will give non trip alarm.
The relay will allow trip command only when impedance during such power swings enters
zone-1.
Auto-Reclose scheme:
Auto-Reclose scheme can be adopted for EHV breakers having independent operating
mechanism for each phase. In power system, majority of the faults are single phase to ground
faults and transient in nature and majority of them will be cleared after one fault tripping.
In receiving stations such tripping will cause interruptions and in majority of cases the time
taken to ascertain the fault and to normalize the supply will be more. Hence Auto-Reclose scheme
is adopted. In this scheme the relay will send single phase trip signal only to the faulty phase
limb of the breaker using single phase trip logic and again extends close command after the set
time delay. During such single phase tripping the particular phase of the other lines will take the
load. If the Auto-Reclose is unsuccessful due to persisting fault, the relay will block AR scheme by
giving 3 phase trip command to the breaker. The relay is having option to program either single
phase or 3 phase AR close and also required number of such AR close shots. Normally single
phase and single shot AR scheme is used. For adopting any auto-reclose scheme following points
are to be considered:
Operating time of the protection relay: Time from the inception of the fault to the
energization of trip contacts.
Operating time of the breaker : Opening time of the breaker
Auto reclose time: The time required from tripping of the breaker to the close AR
command extended to the breaker.
Dead Time : Time from tripping of breaker to the breaker closing period.
Reclose Time: Time from operation of relay during fault to closing of breaker.
Period of system disturbance: Time from the inception of the fault to the successful
reclosure of the breaker or from the inception of the fault to the unsuccessful reclose of
breaker, means AR lockout condition of the breaker if auto reclose is unsuccessful.

Figure 4.23 Auto-reclose scheme for single shot.

A Inception of fault point. CE Dead time

AB Relay operating time BE Reclose time
B Relay extends trip E Breaker close
command
BC Breaker tripping time EF Relay operating time, if fault persists
C Breaker open position. F Relay extends trip command
BD Auto reclose time FG Breaker trip time
D Close command extension G Breaker all limbs trips and goes to
lockout
DE Breaker close time. AG Period of system disturbance