23

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 GENERAL

In this chapter, an elaborate discussion is carried out to throw more

light on the works done so far in this area as literature review. The first
section covers a fibre reinforced concrete with different fibres and their
behaviour studies are discussed at the initial subheadings. The second section
deals with mechanical properties of FRP reinforcements along with durability
aspects. Then the interaction between the FRP reinforcements and concrete,
flexural behaviour of FRP reinforced structural components are focused.
Based on the literature review, the objective and scope of the present work are
derived and presented at the end of this Chapter.

2.2 REVIEWS ON FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE

2.2.1 History and Development

The concept of using fibres in a brittle matrix was first inspired by

techniques by mixing animal hair and straw as reinforcement for mud bricks
and walls in housing. It was followed by ancient Egyptians, dated back to 1500
B.C. (Balaguru et al 1992).

Ronald Zollo (1997) presented an overview regarding the history

and development of Fibre Reinforced Concrete 30 years ago. According to
this report, in the early 1960s, the works on fibre reinforced concrete had been
 24

started. A lot of research work has been conducted by many researchers on

different aspects. But these projects have been done on steel fibres alone. So
far, there were only a few works which have focused on the other fibres like
nylon, plastic, rubber and natural fibres. But those researches are completely
different from the current study, since they have concentrated on the material
strength properties excluding their structural behaviour.

According to the terminology adopted by American Concrete

Institute (ACI) Committee 544, there are four categories of Fibre Reinforced
Concrete namely 1) SFRC (Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete), 2) GFRC (Glass
Fibre Reinforced concrete), 3) SNFRC (Synthetic Fibre Reinforced Concrete)
and 4) NFRC (Natural Fibre Reinforced Concrete). It also provides the
information about various mechanical properties and design applications.
Cement and Concrete Institute also published the classification of FRC in their
website. Based on their classification, Fibres are classified into Glass, Steel,
Synthetic (includes Acrylic, Aramid, Carbon, Nylon, Polyster, Polyethylene,
Polypropylene) and Natural Fibres.

2.2.2 Mechanical Properties

Kukreja et al (1980) conducted some experiments and reported that,

based on the results of three methods such as split tensile test, direct tensile test
and flexural test, split tensile strength test was recommended for fibrous
concrete. Besides the increase in tensile strength and post cracking strength,
toughness was also reported.

Researchers like Goash et al (1989) studied tensile strength of SFRC

and reported the inclusion of suitable short steel fibres that increased the
tensile strength of concrete even in low volume fractions. Optimum aspect
ratio was found as 80 and the maximum increase in tensile strength was
obtained around 33.14% as a fibre content of 0.7% by volume. Also it was
 25

reported that cylinder split tensile strength gave more uniform and consistent
results than that of other modulus of rupture test and direct tension test.

Sabapathi and Achyutha measured (1989) stress-strain

characteristics of steel fibre reinforced concrete under compression. Cube
compressive strength and Initial Tangent Modulus of Elasticity were obtained
and an equation for stress-strain relation was also derived.

Distribution and orientation of fibres in FRC significantly affects

the properties of FRC. Based on this concept, Paviz Soroushian and Cha-Don
Lee (1990) have carried out some investigation, by counting the number of
fibres per unit cross sectional area of SFRC specimen incorporationg various
volume fractions of different fibres. Theoretical expressions were derived for
the number of fibres per cross sectional area in fibre reinforced concrete as a
function of volume fraction and length, assuming the cross sectional
boundaries as the only factors distributing the 3-D random orientation of
fibres. They made comparisons between the number of fibres per cross
sectional area and the reorientation fibres in concrete due to vibration.

To ascertain the tensile strength of fibre reinforced concrete, a

simple test set up was introduced to replace the costly direct tensile strength
test apparatus by Youjiang Wang et al (1990). Methodology and testing
procedure were also given. But it required a servo controlled testing machine.

Ganesan and Ramana Murthy (1990) ascertained the stress strain

behaviour of short, confined, reinforced concrete column with and without
steel fibres. The volume fraction of 1.5% with aspect ratio of 70 of steel fibres
was used. The variable of the study was percentage reinforcement of lateral
reinforcement. The strain at peak loads was increased to a certain extent.
 26

Ziad Bayasi and Paviz Soroushian (1992) reported that the

rhelogical properties of SFRC are significant. The large surface area and
interlocking property of fibres lead to the formation of balls among the
concrete during mixing which can create damage to the hardened material
properties. An experimental investigation was conducted by them to study the
fresh concrete properties of concrete with different types of steel fibres. It was
concluded that the fresh concrete workability properties of FRC were
significantly affected by fibre reinforcing index. At a specific fibre
reinforcing index, crimpled fibres seem to give slightly higher value than
plain fibres.

Balaguru and Shah (1992) reported that the fibres that are long and
at higher volume fractions were found to ball up during the mixing process.
The process called balling occurs and causes the concrete to become stiff
and a reduction in workability with an increase in volume dosage of fibres.
This has a tendency to influence the quality of concrete and strength.

Mechanical properties of high strength fibre reinforced concrete

were also studied by Faisal Wafa and Samir Ashour (1992). They tested 504
test specimens for different mechanical properties such as compressive
strength, split tensile strength, flexural toughness and modulus of rupture. The
mix was designed to achieve compressive strength of 94 N/mm2. Three
volume fractions of steel fibres such as 0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5% were selected.
It was concluded that no real workability problem was encountered upto the
addition of 1.5% volume fraction of fibres in concrete. Steel fibres enhanced
the ductility and post cracking load carrying capacity of high strength
concrete. Some empirical relations were proposed in terms of volume fraction
of fibres and compressive strength of conventional concrete.

Similar to the studies on steel fibre reinforced concrete, some

researches have also been carried out by the researchers on synthetic fibre
 27

reinforced concrete. Fibrillated polypropylene fibres of length inch and

inch at three volume fractions, 0.1, 0.3 and 0.5% were used in concrete and
workability properties such as slump, inverted slum cone, air content and
mechanical strength properties such as compressive, impact and flexural
behaviour were studied. In addition rapid chloride permeability was also
conducted. The impact test was conducted according to ACI Committee 544
method. A number of blows required to fail the cylindrical specimen were
placed below a height of 457 mm. The hammer weight was about 45.5 kg.
From this extensive research work, it was concluded that polypropylene fibres
have no detectable effect on workability upto 0.3%. Permeability of concrete
was increased due to the addition of polypropylene fibres. Similarly post
peak flexural strength and impact resistance also increased due to the fibre
addition.

Kumar et al (1997) made a study on statistical prediction of

compressive strength of steel fibre reinforced concrete and they reported that
the compressive strength of SFRC increased steeply with the increase of fibre
content upto 1% (by volume) and beyond which the rate of increase in
strength reduced. It was also reported that the compressive strength of SFRC
increased with the increase in the aspect ratio upto 60 and beyond this the rate
of increase in strength got reduced. It was further concluded that Fibre
Reinforcing Index (FRI) significantly influenced the compressive strength and
the strength increased upto FRI = 90 for straight fibres and FRI = 60 for
crimpled fibres. Beyond these values, the rate of increase in strength started to
decrease. They also proposed some statistical and empirical relationships
between compressive strength and FRI.

Nataraja et al (1998) conducted a study on steel fibre reinforced

concrete under compression. Here the behaviour of steel fibre reinforced
concrete under compression for cylinder compressive strength ranged from
 28

30 to 50 N/mm2. Round crimpled fibres with three volume fractions of

0.5 percent, 0.75 percent and 1.0 percent and for two aspect ratios of 55 and
82 were considered. The effect of fibre addition to concrete on compressive
strength was studied. It was concluded that the addition of fibres increased the
compressive strength and toughness. Some square fitting line analyses were
also done and some equations were proposed for compressive strength in
terms of fibre reinforcing index (length of fibre x volume fraction).

Rami Haddad and Ahmed Asteyate (2001) found an interesting way

of predicting the role of synthetic fibres such as polypropylene and nylon
fibres in delaying steel corrosion cracks and improving the bond with
concrete. Different lengths of polypropylene and nylon fibres with various
volumes were mixed with concrete. Pull out tests and corrosion study were
conducted and they concluded that both the fibres contributed more in
delaying the corrosion and improving the bond strength. Moreover it was
pointed out that polypropylene firbes played a more significant role than
nylon fibre in the improvement of bond.

Another interesting investigation was carried out by Yaghoub

Mohammadi and Kaushik (2003) about the effect of mixed aspect ratio of
fibres on mechanical strength properties of concrete. Flat steel fibres of
25 mm to 50 mm long crimped type were mixed in different proportions with
concrete and tested for split tensile, compressive and static flexural strength.
Compressive toughness and flexural toughness were obtained from the test
results. It was found that 65% of long fibres and 35% of short fibres gave the
optimum composite properties when compared with other mixes. An
important note was also given in that literature that the use of mixed aspect
ratio of fibres did not have a significant effect on the static modulus of
elasticity.
 29

Wu Yao et al (2003) examined the mechanical behaviour of hybrid

fibre reinforced concrete at low fibre volume fraction. Three hybrid
composites such as polypropylene and carbon, carbon and steel and steel and
polypropylene fibres were chosen and the mechanical strength properties such
as compressive strength, split tensile strength, modulus of rupture and flexural
toughness were ascertained. A statistical response surface method and three level
full factorial experimental designs were used to study the effects of volume
fraction and the aspect ratio of fibre on fractional energy, compressive strength,
splitting tensile strength, flexural strength and characteristic length of steel fibre
reinforced concrete.

Job Thomas and Ananth Ramasamy (2007) performed some

experimental investigations on mechanical properties of steel fibre reinforced
concrete. Three different strengths such as normal strength (35 MPa), moderately
high strength (65 Mpa) and slightly higher (85 Mpa) concrete mixes were selected
for this study. Long steel fibres of 30 mm (aspect ratio of 55) with three different
volume fractions as 0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5% were selected and uniformly distributed
throughout mix. The mechanical strength properties such as compressive strength,
split tensile strength, modulus of rupture and post cracking performance, modulus
of elasticity, poissons ratio and strain corresponding to peak compressive stress
were studied. Based on 60 test data, regression analysis was done and empirical
relations were provided.

Based on the test results of 320 specimens of mechanical strength

properties of high strength fibrous concrete, Premalatha and Sundararajan (2007)
suggested that no significant improvement in compressive strength was obtained
beyond 1.5% volume fraction of steel fibre content. The high strength concrete
mix was designed to achieve 60 N/mm2 and its strength properties like
compressive strength, modulus of rupture, split tensile strength were studied and
empirical relations were also proposed in terms of Fibre Reinforcing Index (FRI).
 30

The effects of aspect ratio and volume fractions of steel fibre on the
mechanical properties of SFRC were studied by Semsi Yazici et al (2007).
Three aspect ratios (l/d) of 45, 65, 80 and three volume fractions of 0.5%,
1.0%, 1.5% hooked end bundled fibres were taken in that study. It showed an
increase in the aspect ratio corresponding to the decreased trend in
workability compressive strength. The increment range was 4 19% in split
tensile strength; the increase range was 11 54% and in flexural strength; and
it is 3 18% increase was obtained from the experimental investigation.
A multilinear regression analysis was also studied.

2.3 REVIEWS ON FRP

2.3.1 Properties of FRP Reinforcements

FRP composite materials of different shapes are currently adopted

all over the world for structural engineering applications. This section covers
a few of the available literature on the important properties of FRP materials
used as internal reinforcements for concrete applications that are reviewed
and presented.

Larralde et al 1988; Nanni et al 1993; Dejke 2001 and Esfahani

et al (2005) have reviewed various durability test methods under a variety of
exposure conditions. Since there are no standard FRP durability test methods,
each research team designed its own test program. As for as durability tests
are concerned, the following factors are observed among various research
groups. These are:

(i) Accelerated/non accelerated tests.

(ii) Duration of exposure, temperature and composition of

solutions for immersion of specimens.
 31

(iii) Different levels of applied mechanical stress during exposure,

exposure of naked FRP specimen or FRP embedded in
concrete.

(iv) Different test methods to evaluate the effect of exposure like

stress rupture test, residual strength, physical properties and
bond characteristics.

It has been examined and found that FRP bars exhibit good
mechanical properties as well as corrosion resistance in concrete under severe
environmental conditions.

ACI 440R-96 (1996) has been compiled as a report for the use of
FRP composites as an internal reinforcement for flexural members. Based on
this report, the following points have been arrived at:

(i) The mechanical properties of FRP bars are typically quite

different from those of steel bars.

(ii) FRP bars have less weight, lower youngs modulus but higher
strength than steel.

(iii) The density of FRP bars is found to be one sixth to one fourth
less than that of steel.

The reduced weight eases the handling of FRP bars on the project
site. The tensile modulus of elasticity of GFRP bars is approximately 25% of
the modulus of elasticity of steel. FRP bars are weaker in compression than in
tension but are expected to show higher value at lower stress ratio. FRP bars
exhibit good fatigue resistance; however the fatigue strength of GFRP is
lower than that of steel at lower stress ratio. The coefficient of thermal
expansion of FRP is comparable with that of steel. The longitudinal
 32

coefficient of thermal expansion is dominated by fibre properties, while the

transverse coefficient is dominated by the resin. The tensile strength depends
on the fibre volume fraction, the rate of curing, and the manufacturing
process. The tensile properties of a particular FRP reinforcements should be
obtained from the bar manufacturer. When loaded in tension, FRP bars do not
exhibit any plastic behaviour (yielding) before rupture. The compressive
modulus of elasticity of FRP reinforcing bars appears to be smaller than its
tensile modulus of elasticity. FRP reinforcing bars subjected to a constant
load for long time can suddenly fail. This phenomenon is known as creep
rupture. In general, carbon fibres are the least susceptible to creep rupture,
whereas aramid fibres are moderately susceptible, and the glass fibres are
most susceptible.

Javier Malvar (1995) studied the tensile behaviour of FRP rods

using ASTM D 3916-84 and suggested that the tensile properties depended on
the surface deformations of the FRP rods.

Saadatmanesh et al (1997) investigated the performance of FRP bars

when immersed in salt solutions. From the results, a reduction of 5% to 7% in
tensile strength had been indicated.

Chin et al (1997) reported that the reduction in mechanical

properties of FRP reinforcements when tested under pull and flexural
conditions was considerably less than what was observed in case of naked
FRP specimens when subjected to the same environment. Higher moisture
uptakes are observed for resins when immersed in salt solution than in water.

Bank et al (1998) conducted the diffusion test on E-glass/vinylester

FRP rods and indicated that the temperature affected the moisture content at
saturation. Finally, it had been suggested that the material degradation during
ageing was shown in the form of increased voids and moisture contents.
 33

Hayes et al (1998) measured a reduction in tensile strength and

youngs modulus, approximately 26% for both properties, for a glass
/vinylester system after wet/dry cycles at 450C for 30 days.

Pantuso et al (1998) investigated the effect of distilled water and

alkaline environment on the durability of glass fibre /polyester pultruded rods.
The experiments involved a process of one days immersion of GFRP
specimens in distilled water after (23 2oC), followed by drying for one day
and this treatment lasted for 60 days. The same procedure has been repeated
for specimens embedded in concrete to investigate the influence of alkaline
environment. The reduction in tensile strength has been observed at 1-7% and
6-21% for water and alkaline environment respectively.

Alwis et al (2005) probed the statistical procedures that can be used

to analyze stress rupture data for aramid yarns with a view to make reasonable
prediction for the allowable pre-stress levels in parallel lay ropes or fibre
reinforced polymer tendons for use as pre-stressing tendons in concrete
structures.

2.3.2 Bond between the FRP Reinforcements and Concrete

The bond between FRP reinforcement and concrete is the key to

develop the composite action of FRP reinforced concrete structural element.
The interaction between FRP reinforcements and concrete is different from
that of deformed steel reinforcements in many ways. For this purpose, pull out
tests and beam bond tests are used to determine the bond strength of FRP
reinforcements in concrete (Zenon et al 2004).

Nanni et al (1995) investigated the bond of FRP rod with

conventional concrete. It has been observed that the bond strength depends on
the strength and mechanical action of deformations on the rod surface rather
 34

than on adhesion and friction. The strength of concrete and failure mechanism
of FRP rods greatly influences the bond strength.

Benmokrane et al (1996) found that the application of deformation

by double wrapping of helical fibers around the FRP rod significantly
improved the bond characteristics.

Cosenza et al (1997) looked into the bond behaviour of sand blasted

FRP reinforcements and noticed better improvements in the bond
characteristics.

Larry (1998) examined the tensile strength, modulus of elasticity for

E glass fibre and Kevlar 49 glass fibre reinforcements. The modulus of
elasticity of GFRP was found to be nearly one fourth of the conventional
steel. The bond embedment length factor closer to conventional steel provided
the diameter of the FRP bar measuring more than half an inch.

Katz (2000) mulled over the bond mechanism of FRP

reinforcements with concrete under cyclic loading conditions. Five different
types of FRP reinforcements are embedded in concrete blocks and are
subjected up to 4, 50,000 cycles at service stress level. Pull out tests have
been conducted at the end of the cyclic loading. The results indicated a
reduction in the bond strength after cyclic loading. Three failure mechanisms
such as abrasion on the surface of the rod which leads to a reduction of
20-30% in bond strength, de lamination of the outer layer of the resin at the
surface of the rod that leads to 60% reduction in bond strength; abrasion of
cement particles entrapped between the rod and concrete serve as the main
source of bond for smooth rods that leads to 70% reduction in bond strength,
have been observed.
 35

Focacci (2000) developed a rigorous numerical model considering

the local bond-slip relationship based on pull out tests. The different
embedment lengths have been adopted and observed that the longest
embedment lengths gave the most consistent results.

Charles Bakis (2007) investigated the bond durability of E-glass

fibre reinforced polymer reinforcement bars by RILEM test and reported that
the ultimate bond failure of beams reinforced with FRP reinforcements was
largely influenced by concrete cracking and local bond-slip behaviour.

2.3.3 Flexural Behaviour of Concrete Members Reinforced with FRP

Reinforcements

The majority of research works undertaken in this area up to date

relate to the flexural characteristics. Some of the studies in the literature
which deal with the flexural behaviour of concrete beams and slabs reinforced
with FRP reinforcements are reviewed and discussed in the succeeding
sections.

Nawy and Neuwerth (1971) tested twenty simply supported

rectangular beams reinforced with GFRP and steel reinforcing bars. The tests
have revealed that the reinforcing ratio of FRP beams did not affect moment
capacity, because the beams failed by compression of the concrete. Thus it did
not develop the full capacity of the FRP.

Nawy et al (1977) reviewed the flexural characteristics of fourteen

simply supported concrete beams and slabs reinforced with GFRP
reinforcements. The analysis of test results have indicated that the behaviour
of the beams with respect to cracking, ultimate load and deflection, could be
predicted with the same degree of accuracy as for steel reinforced concrete
 36

beams. The ratio observed to calculate moment capacity has been close to 1
with a mean value of 1.09 and a standard deviation of 0.18.

Larralde et al (1988) examined the flexural and shear performance

of concrete beams reinforced with GFRP reinforcing bars and in combination
with steel reinforcing bar. Diagonal tension failures have occurred in beams
and therefore the theoretical flexural strength could not be compared with test
results and no conclusion has been derived regarding the accuracy of flexural
strength prediction for concrete beams reinforced with GFRP. It has been
recognized that a methodology for shear strength prediction of GFRP
reinforced concrete needs to be developed independently from steel/concrete
equations.

Saadatmanesh and Ehsani (1991) tested six concrete beams with

different combinations of GFRP and steel reinforcing bars. Based on the large
number of uniformly distributed cracks, it has been concluded that a good
mechanical bond is developed between the FRP bars and concrete. Calculated
maximum loads using FRP properties have been found to be reasonably close
to the experimentally measured values.

Satoh et al (1991) conducted tests on four simply supported concrete

beams each with a different type of fibre reinforcement. Theoretical load-
deflection behaviour has been predicted, using an effective moment of inertia
as developed by Branson. Experimental load-deflection behaviour has been
reported to agree well with theoretical prediction.

Faza and Ganga Rao (1992) probed the flexural performance of

simply supported rectangular concrete beams with an effective length of
2700mm. The use of sand coated FRP reinforcing bars in addition to high
strength concrete has been found to increase the cracking moment of the
beams and to reduce the crack widths to eliminate the sudden propagation of
 37

cracks towards the compression zone. This behaviour is related to better force
transfer between the concrete and reinforcing bars. The ultimate load carrying
capacity of sand coated FRP reinforced beams is about 70% higher than that
of conventional beams for the same cross sectional area and concrete strength.

Benmokrane et al (1995) compared the flexural behaviours of

concrete beams reinforced with both FRP reinforcing bars and conventional
bars both experimentally and theoretically. The comparison has been made in
terms of cracking behaviour, load carrying and modes of failure, load-
deflection response, flexural rigidity and strain distribution. The results
indicate that a perfect bond exists between FRP reinforcing bars and the
surrounding concrete. At lower and higher load levels, more cracks and wider
crack width have been observed in concrete beams reinforced with FRP
reinforcing bars than conventionally reinforced bars. Long and short term
deflection models are also reviewed.

Theriault (1998) investigated the flexural behaviour of twelve

concrete beams for different parameters like reinforcement ratio and concrete
strength. Theoretical models have been proposed for the prediction of crack
width, crack spacing, load-deflection response, ultimate capacity and modes
of failure. The concept of deformability is also discussed. It has been
observed that the crack width decreases as the reinforcement ratio increases
and crack width increases as the application of cyclic loading increases.

Craig et al (1998) carried out experiments on eight one-way

concrete slabs under static loading conditions and examined cracking
behaviour, ultimate load capacities and modes of failure. Accordingly,
suitable design recommendations and guidelines have been proposed.

Luciano Ombers et al (2000) made a comparative study between

GFRP reinforced slabs and conventional steel reinforced slabs .The
 38

reinforcement ratio, rebar diameter and rebar spacing are considered as the
variables. The ultimate capacity of slabs is found to be increased with the
amount of reinforcements. A significant reduction in the stiffness also has
been noticed in the GFRP reinforced slabs after cracking resulting in larger
crack widths and deflection.

Rashid et al (2005) conducted flexural test on ten high strength

concrete beams reinforced with Aramid Fiber Reinforced Polymer (AFRP)
bars together with a steel reinforced beams that served as reference. Based on
test results, a modification has been suggested to Gergely and Lutzs equation
to predict the maximum width of surface cracks for AFRP reinforced beams
at service load. The test concluded that the ultimate moment capacity of
AFRP reinforced beams has been predicted with reasonable accuracy by the
ACI- 4401R code specifications.

Houssam et al (2000) predicted the deflections and crack widths in

beams reinforced with GFRP reinforcements theoretically and compared them
with experimental results. The theoretical correlation for predicting crack
width also has been proposed.

Lkhrdaji et al (2001) proposed a new shear design approach for

concrete members reinforced with fibre reinforced polymer reinforcement
which accounts for the stiffness of FRP reinforcements. Test results have
indicated that the contribution of concrete to the internal shear resistance is
influenced by the amount of the longitudinal reinforcement.

Kae-Hwan Kwak et al (2001) studied the damage mechanism due

to shear fatigue behaviour of high strength reinforced concrete beams under
repeated loading. The relationships between the number of cycles and
deflection, crack growth and modes of failure with the increase of the
 39

number of cycles, fatigue strength of beams have been observed. Also S-N
curve has been drawn through fatigue test.

Yost (2001) explored the shear strength of simply supported

concrete beams subjected to four point monotonic loading. The beams have
been reinforced with deformed glass fibre reinforced polymer reinforcements.
Diagonal tension shear failure has also been observed in all the samples. The
amount of longitudinal reinforcement has no significant influence on the shear
capacity of beams reinforced with GFRP reinforcements. The shear failure
characteristics of GFRP beams have been observed to be similar to
conventional beams.

Ferriera et al (2001) developed a finite element analysis of

reinforced concrete beams with fibre-reinforced plastic rebars. The proposed
model had the capability of predicting deflections and stresses in concrete
considering the geometrical and material non linear behaviour based on
smeared crack concepts. A perfect plastic and a strain hardening plastic
approaches have been used to model the compressive behaviour of concrete.
The experimental results obtained for FRP reinforcements have shown the
importance of the rebar geometry on the structural behaviour. It has been
observed that Dog-bone sections yielded higher failure loads and delayed
cracking when compared with circular sections. A good agreement between
the experimental and numerical results has been obtained.

Abdalla (2002) developed simple approaches in estimating the

deflection of FRP reinforced concrete members subjected to flexural stresses
and compared them with the experimental results of seven beams reinforced
with GFRP and CFRP reinforcements. A good agreement has been shown
between the theoretical predictions and experimental results. Based on the
results of this investigation, it has been observed that deflections and strains
of concrete members reinforced with FRP rods are generally larger than those
 40

reinforced with steel rods due to the low modulus of elasticity and the
different bond characteristics of the FRP reinforcements.

Newhook et al (2002) scrutinized the flexural behaviour of FRP

reinforced rectangular and T sections. It has been observed that FRP reinforced
sections show larger deformations before failure. The concept of deformability
given in the Canadian highway bridge design code has been discussed and
modifications have been suggested. It is also shown that in addition to the crack
control requirement, an upper limit has been imposed on the cross sectional
area of the FRP reinforcements.

Thiagarajan (2003) discussed the experimental and analytical flexural

behaviour of concrete beams reinforced with sand blasted carbon fibre rods.
Analytical comparisons are included with the experimental generation of the
theoretical strength and moment curvature relations. These concrete beams have
exhibited a fairly ductile behaviour before failure. Compression of concrete has
been observed as predominant failure mode. It has also been observed that the
carbon fibre rods undergo high strains to develop high stresses and consequently
the depth of neutral axis is reduced. Hence, higher strength concrete is
achieved to construct these beams.

Bischoff et al (2004) studied the tension stiffening effect and cracking

of axially loaded concrete members with steel and GFRP reinforcements.
Tension stiffening factor has been related to the reinforcement ratio and
concrete strength. The results are compared with CEB-FIP model code
approach and ACI method. This comparison has shown that both methods are
valid only for a limited range of reinforcement ratios.

Ehab EI-salakawy et al (2005) made a field investigation on the bridge

deck reinforced with GFRP bars. Optical sensors are instrumented at critical
 41

locations for internal temperature and strain data measurements. The entire
bridge deck has been tested under truck load based on Canadian Bridge
Standards. Field tests have shown that the GFRP reinforcements possess
competitive performance in comparison with steel reinforcements under service
load conditions.

Kodur et al (2005) evaluated the performance of FRP reinforced

concrete slabs under elevated temperatures and compared them with the slabs
incorporating traditional reinforcing steel. The numerical model based on the
explicit finite difference approach to calculate temperatures in the slab used one
dimensional heat transfer method under different temperature conditions from
bottom. The results indicated that the thickness of the concrete slabs and
thickness of the cover concrete had significant effect on the fire resistance of the
slabs. The type of aggregate has a moderate influence on the fire resistance of
FRP reinforced concrete slabs.

Amr et al (2007) inquired into the fatigue behaviour of concrete bridge

deck slabs reinforced with GFRP reinforcements. The results are presented in
terms of deflections in concrete and GFRP reinforcements and crack widths at
different levels of cyclic loading. The results have shown that the superior fatigue
performance and longer fatigue life of concrete bridge deck slabs reinforced with
GFRP reinforcements are nearly about 2.5 times greater than steel reinforced
slabs.

Although extensive reliability studies have been carried out on RC

structural components reinforced with conventional reinforcements, only a few
studies have been reported in the literature on FRP reinforced structural
components.
 42

MacGregor et al (1983) studied the statistical analysis of resistance of

reinforced and pre-stressed concrete members. The variability of member
strengths is based on interpretation of the results using Monte Carlo simulations.

Kumaran et al (2002 a, 2003 a) applied reliability analysis and

design of prestressed concrete sleepers using first order reliability methods
(FORM). The limit state functions under consideration are: permissible
compressive and tensile stress at both initial and final stages, flexural cracking
and ultimate strength. The system reliability method is used to assess the
reliability levels associated. The design charts have been formulated to meet
the different target reliability levels.

2.3.4 Review on GFRP Concrete Slab

Tang et al (2008) in a paper expressed concerns on the bond

performance of GFRP bars in Polystyrene Aggregate Concrete (PAC) by the
proposed concentric pullout test. Two different concrete splitting crack
patterns were observed: (1) splitting failure with side longitudinal crack and
(2) splitting failure only. The failure pattern changed from (1) to (2) as the
density and strength of concrete decreased. Sand-coated GFRP specimens,
however, achieved the highest bond strength. The bond strength increased
with the increase in compressive strength and concrete density.

In their paper, Zhang and Zhu (2010) focused on a simple shear-

flexible rectangular layered FRP-reinforced concrete slab element developed
on the basis of MindlinReissner plate theory and Timoshenkos composite
beam functions for nonlinear finite element analysis of FRP-reinforced
concrete slabs. Transverse shear deformation effects, coupled membrane-
bending effects, geometric nonlinearity and material nonlinearity of the
materials are included in the new element. The element is shear flexible due
to the employment of Timoshenkos composite beam functions to represent
 43

the bending effects, and numerical examples demonstrate the accuracy and
efficiency of the element for nonlinear finite element analysis of FRP-
reinforced RC slabs.

Thomas Keller et al (2007) carried out a study over an existing

hybrid-GFRP steel joint for load transfer and thermal insulation in concrete
slab structures and the result was developed to an all-GFRP joint by replacing
the remaining steel bars with a pultruded GFRP tensile shear element
anchored in both sides of the joint in the concrete. The transfer of bending
moments occurs through compression forces in the lower flange of the
compression shear element and tensile forces in the upper flange of the tensile
shear element, similar to the hybrid joints that transfer tensile forces in the
steel bars.

Almir Barros da et al (2010) presented in their work a new slab

system composed of a fiber-reinforced concrete top laid On Glass Fiber
Reinforced Polymeric (GFRP) wideflange section pultruded profiles, filled in
with foam blocks. The material properties of the GFRP profiles were obtained
both theoretically and experimentally. The result showed that Timoshenko
Beam Theory (TBT) and a linear-elastic Finite Element Analysis (FEM) were
conducted to make comparison with the structural behavior obtained
experimentally. The theoretical, numerical and experimental curves basically
coincided at an early load stage, but beyond that stage the experimental curve
starts deviated from the others, due to the nonlinear behaviour of the concrete
cover. However, by using the cracked section properties, the TBT yielded a
good estimate of the slab cracked stiffness. It was also observed that the
Serviceability Limit State governed the slab design for the selected span.

Yu Zheng et al (2012) aimed at extending the existing research on

compressive membrane action in laterally restrained slabs with GFRP bars as
reinforcement. The result indicated that the GFRP reinforcement percentages
 44

could not influence the serviceability and ultimate strengths significantly. The
provision of lateral restraint reduced the mid span deflection and the
restrained GFRP reinforced slabs with low reinforcement percentages showed
better service behaviour compared to the equivalent laterally restrained steel
reinforced Slabs. Also GFRP reinforcement in laterally restrained slabs could
produce economically viable concrete design with good durability.

Tenga et al (2001) performed an experimental study on Reinforced

Concrete (RC) cantilever slabs bonded with GFRP strips. Ten tests in three
series were conducted on such slabs with different amounts of internal steel
reinforcement and external FRP reinforcement. From the result, all the GFRP
strengthened slabs experienced debonding of FRP strips and some of them
eventually failed by FRP rupture. The theoretical prediction could become
significantly unconservative when thicker FRP strips were used which initiate
debonding at comparatively low load. Also from the point of ductility,
debonding leads to more ductile behaviour of the slab.

The objective of a research project by Ashraf Biddah (2006) was to

investigate design options for a composite concrete slab without the use of
ferrous materials but with relatively high stiffness. This helped to avoid the
current problem of deterioration of concrete due to expansion because of
rusting reinforcement members. Nine specimens were constructed. Three
variables were considered in the research study: deck slab depth, reinforcing
type and the presence or absence of concrete. Closely spaced fine cracks
indicated good composite action between the grating and concrete. The GFRP
grating improved the structure stiffness also by preventing the section from
local buckling failure.

Thomas Keller et al (2009) in a study investigated the quasi-static

behaviour of the joint at the fixed support of cantilever beams. Two
parameters were studied, 1. shear-or moment-dominated loading mode and 2.
 45

concrete strength. The results showed that the all-FRP joint did not play a
critical role at the ultimate limit state. Ductile failure occured through
concrete crushing. The GFRP bars lead to a significant improvement in joint
performance compared with similar joints comprising steel bars and an
improvement in the ultimate load occurred. GFRP bars can prevent joint
rotation due to the absence of yielding and therefore can lead to a significant
improvement in joint performance. Although the materials in the all-FRP joint
are not ductile, concrete crushing leads to a similar ductility as that observed
for the hybrid FRP/steel joint beams.

Smith and Kim (2009) in a paper reported the results of tests on

FRP strengthened by one-way spanning RC slabs with central cut outs. Four
wide slabs with cut outs were tested in addition to two narrow slabs without
cut outs. The slab in which the line load was located adjacent to the cut out
exhibited transverse bending action and as a result it was able to withstand
more extensive debonding prior to the loss of load-carrying enhancement
from the FRP.

Irene Liu et al (2006) described an analysis approach to quantify the

amount of moment redistribution and introduced the concepts of positive and
negative moment redistribution. The study looked at the effect of using
carbon FRP plates and glass FRP plates, as well as steel plates that have been
designed to either debond prior to yielding or yield prior to IC debonding. A
parametric study of this form of plating showed that the percentage moment
redistribution could vary from 0% to 45% FRP plated beams also showed that
the percentage moment redistribution could vary from 0% to 20%.

Hyo Seon Ji et al (2010) set forth the design procedures and the
construction process of a Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP)
corrugated-core sandwich bridge superstructure apart from connection details
and the dynamic effects on the FRP sandwich superstructure due to truck live
 46

load. The result showed that FRP met the requirements for stiffness and
strength and all connection details were also proposed and found to work
well.

Yousef et al (2013) proffered the test results of an experimental

study carried out to investigate the residual tensile properties of a new
generation of GFRP bars after being subjected to several harsh environmental
conditions for different periods. The bars were exposed to ten different
environmental conditions for 6, 12, and 18 months. In addition to a control
laboratory condition, the environments included exposure to ordinary tap
water and sea water at two temperatures (room and 500 C), sea water dry/wet,
alkaline solution, and hot-dry condition at 500 C. After 18 months of
exposure, the test results revealed that at 500 C the tap water and alkaline
solution had the maximum harmful effect on the tensile strength of the tested
GFRP bars. The two field conditions considered in the study did not show any
significant effect on the tensile properties of the bars. Also the test result
showed better resistance against alkalinity.

Joao Correia et al (2011) conducted experiments to ascertain the

technical feasibility of incorporating the fine waste generated during the
production of GFRP composites into concrete mixtures. The following
conclusions were drawn from this study. A 5% substitution of sand by
GFRPW led to a lower w/c ratio and lower water absorption by immersion;
for this replacement rate the tensile splitting strength and the modulus of
elasticity were only marginally affected, but the compressive strength suffered
a noticeable loss (19.4%). Higher substitution rates (>5%) caused a significant
increase in the amount of water needed and the performance in terms of both
mechanical and durability-related properties was significantly poor.

Hugo Biscaia et al (2012) conducted an experimental program in

order to characterize the interface GFRP concrete using the MohrCoulomb
 47

failure criterion. The shear tests permitted to define parameters like cohesion
and friction angle of the GFRP concrete interface and a methodology for the
determination of cohesion and friction angle. The results indicated the support
for the definition of a failure envelope law that could be applied to FE of an
interface based on the MohrCoulomb failure criterion. Some preliminary
results already showed a good accuracy and more efforts are now being done
in order to improve the understanding of the influence of the surface treatment
and the environmental ageing in those failure laws. Moreover, the results will
serve as a base of analysis for the bond behavior in reinforced concrete beams
externally bonded with GFRP.

Biswarup Saikia et al (2007) in an investigation examined GFRP

reinforced beams designed and based on limit state principles to understand
their strength and serviceability performance. It was found the failure of the
GFRP reinforced concrete beams was mainly due to its reduced post cracking
stiffness and the slip between rebar and the concrete matrix. The addition of
polypropylene fibers had marginal effect on the post cracking behavior of the
GFRP reinforced beams. Also the crack width and deflection were predicted
by using experimental data of the model.

Sivagamasundari and Kumaran (2008) recounted the flexural

behaviour of one-way slabs reinforced with Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer
(GFRP) reinforcements under monotonic loading and two different schemes
of repeated loading. A total number of twenty one GFRP reinforced concrete
one-way slabs were constructed of which seven were tested under monotonic
loading, seven were tested under constant amplitude repeated loading and the
remaining seven slabs were tested under variable amplitude repeated loading
conditions. The behaviour of GFRP reinforced slabs was compared with that
of steel reinforced slabs. The result implied that the ultimate load carrying
 48

capacities and fatigue performance of GFRP slabs were greater than that of
steel slabs.

Khaled Ragab and Zaki (2008) dealt with the bond performance of
Glass-fiber reinforced polymer GFRP bars embedded in normal and high
strength concretes by the proposed concentric pullout test where identical
specimens with High Grade Steel (HGS) bars were used for comparison. The
bond performance including the mode of failure and bond strength was
studied with varying surface treatment of the GFRP bars. The effect of short
polypropylene fibers on the bond of GFRP bars was studied. Also, the effect
of copolymer based bonding agent was studied. The results showed that the
bond strength of GFRP bars could be improved if ribbed bars were used in
high strength concrete. The results indicated also that the bond strength could
be improved if short polypropylene fibers were added to concrete mix.

2.4 REVIEW ON NATURAL FIBRE

2.4.1 Review on Natural Fibre

Natural fibres are prospective reinforcing materials and their use

until now has been more traditional than technical. They have long served
many useful purposes but the application of materials technology for the
utilization of natural fibres as the reinforcement in concrete has only taken
place in comparatively recent years. The distinctive properties of natural fibre
reinforced concretes are improved tensile and bending strength, greater
ductiltiy, greater resistance to cracking and hence improved impact strength
and toughness. Besides its ability to sustain loads, natural fibre reinforced
concrete is also required to be durable. Durability relates to its resistance to
deterioration resulting from external as well as internal causes (Aziz et al
1984).
 49

Mechanical characterization and impact behaviour of concrete

reinforced with natural fibres were studied by Al-Oraimi and Seibi (1995). In
this regard an experimental study was conducted using glass and palm tree
fibres on high strength concrete. Mechanical strength properties such as
compressive, split tensile, flexural strengths and post cracking toughness were
studied. It was concluded that natural fibres are comparable with glass fibres.
A finite element analysis was also done using ANSYS software. Both the
analytical and experimental results were compared and found acceptable.

Ramakrishna and Sundararajan (2002) compared the theoretical and

experimental investigations on the compressive strength and elastic modulus
of coir and sisal fibre reinforced concretes for various volume fractions. It
was observed that both the experimental and analytical values of elastic
modulus had shown 15% discrepancy, which could be regarded as
comparitively small.

Rheological properties of coir fibre reinforced cement mortar were

carried out by Ramakrishna and Sundararajan (2002). Flow value, cohesion
and angle of internal friction were determined for three different mix ratios
and four different aspect ratios and fibre contents. Based on the rheological
properties of fresh mortar, it was recommended to use shorter fibres with low
fibre-content for achieving workability and higher fibre content for better
cohesiveness in wet state.

Sugarcane bagasse fibre reinforced cement composites were studied

by Bilba et al (2003). Various bagasse fibre-cement composites were prepared
and the influence of various parameters on the setting of the composite
materials was studied. Botanical components, thermal and chemical treatment
of bagasse fibres were also considered.
 50

The natural fibre composites may undergo a reduction in strength

and toughness as a result of weakening of fibres by the combination of alkali
attack and mineralisation through the migration of hydrogen products to
lumens and spaces. Romildo Toledo Filho et al (2003) reported their study on
development of vegetable fibre-mortar composites of improved durability. So,
several approaches were proposed by the authors to improve the durability of
vegetable fibre-cement composites. These include carbonation of the matrix
in a CO2-rich environment; the immersion of fibres in slurried silica fume
prior to incorporation in Ordinary Portland Cement matrix; partial
replacement of Ordinary Portland Cement by undensified silicafume or blast
furnace slag. The performance of modified vegetable fibre-mortar composites
was analysed in terms of effects of aging in water, exposure to cycles of
wetting and drying and open air weathering on the microstructures and
flexural behaviour. It was suggested that immersion of natural fibres in a
silica fume slurry before the addition to the cement based composites was
found to be an effective means of reducing embrittlement of the composite in
the environment. Also early cure composites in a CO2 - rich environment and
the partial replacement of OPC by undensified silicafume were found to be
efficient approaches in obtaining natural fibres with improved durability.

Robert Coutts (2005) reviewed critically the Australian research into

natural fibre cement composites. It was mentioned that over the last three
decades considerable research had been committed to find an alternative fibre
to replace asbestos and glass fibres.

Agopyan et al (2005) reported the developments on vegetable fibre-

cement based materials in Brazil. Taking into account the mechanical
properties, with an adequate mix design, it because possible for this team to
develop a material with suitable properties for building purposes. To
overcome the drawback, it was suggested that the durability of natural fibres
 51

could be improved by making alternative binders with controlled free lime

using ground granulated blast furnace slag.

Romildo Toledo Filho et al (2005) made some experiments on free,

restrained and drying shrinkage of cement mortar composites reinforced with
vegetable fibres. The free and restrained shrinkage were studied by subjecting
the specimens to wind speed of 0.4-0.5 m/s at 40o C temperature for 280 min.
The drying shrinkage tests were carried out at room temperature with about
41% relative humidity for 320 days. It was concluded that free plastic
shrinkage was significantly reduced by the inclusion of 0.2% volume fraction
of 25 mm short sisal fibres in cement mortar. Also, it was stated that the
presence of sisal and coconut fibres promote an effective self-healing of
plastic cracking after 40 days at 100% RH.

The capability to absorb energy, called toughness is important in

actual service conditions. For that purpose, an experimental investigation was
carried out by Ramakrishna and Sundararajan (2005) on the impact strength
of a few natural fibre reinforced cement mortar slabs. Four types of natural
fibres such as coir, sisal, jute and hibiscus cannebinus with four different fibre
contents such as 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5% and 2.0% by weight of cement were used.
The tests were carried out using repeated projectile test apparatus and the
performance of specimens was ascertained based on the parameters, namely
impact resistance, residual impact ratio, crack resistance ratio and the
condition of fibre at ultimate. From this elaborative test results, it was
concluded that coir fibres absorbed more energy i.e. 253.5 J at 2% fibre
content and fibre length of 40 mm.

Some studies have also been conducted by Ramakrishna and

Sundararajan (2005) on the durability of natural fibres and the effect of
corroded fibres on the strength of mortar. Coir fibres were found to retain
 52

higher percentages of their initial strength than all the other fibres after the
specified exposure in the various mediums.

Mechanical properties of date palm fibres and concrete reinforced

with date palm fibres were tested and reported by Kriker et al (2005) in two
different climates. In addition to the above properties, continuity index,
microstructure and toughness were also studied. The volume fraction and
length of fibres chosen were 2 - 3% and 15 60 mm respectively. It was
concluded that male date palm fibre got more tensile strength. Also it was
stated that micro-structure of the fibre-matrix interface on observation cured
in hot dry and water environments. Based on the results and observations
of that work, it was suggested that future research should be developed on the
treatment of male date palm surface fibre concrete in order to improve its
mechanical properties using local industrial waste, especially in a hot-dry
climate.

Microstructure and mechanical properties of waste fibre-cement

composites were studied by Savastano et al (2005). Both secondary and back-
scattered electron imaging and energy dispersive X-ray spectrography were
used for compositional analysis. It was concluded that sisal waste fibres
presented satisfactory results in bonding in matrices. BSE images and EDS
analyses confirmed that fibre-matrix transition zone could be improved by
using a production process based on vacuum dewatering and pressure.

Murali Mohan Rao and Mohana Rao (2005) introduced and

examined the extraction and tensile properties of new natural fibres used as
fillers in a polymeric matrix enabling the production of economical and light
weight composites for load carrying structures. The cross sectional shape, the
density and tensile properties of these fibres along with established natural
fibres like sisal, banana, coconut and palm were determined experimentally
 53

under similar conditions and then compared. The density of newly introduced
fibres such as vakka, date and bamboo was less than the existing fibres.

2.4.2 Reviews on Coir Fibre Reinforced Slab

Rodriguez et al (2011) studied the Assessment of Coconut fibre

insulation characteristics and used it to modulate temperature in concrete
slabs with the aid of a finite element methodology. A FEM methodology was
proposed and validated to evaluate the coconut fibre thermal characteristics
without the need for complex and expensive experimental work. The heat
wave intensity through the concrete was significantly reduced as a result of
using coconut fibre as a thermal barrier. Failing mechanisms such as creep
damage in concrete could be prevented.

Majid Ali et al (2013) conducted the pullout test to find the rope-
CFRC bond strength. Normally three types of rope were used for the test.
Thin (18 mm diameter) ropes had higher tensile strength than that obtained
with medium (27 mm diameter) and thick (36 mm diameter) ropes. Higher
tensile load was required for thick ropes when compared to thin and medium
ropes. The bond strength decreased by 11% and the pullout energy increased
by 44% with an increase in embedment length from 100 to 200 mm.

Xiaoyang Li et al (2013) scrutinized in a paper the effect of

embedment length, diameter, pre-treatment condition and mix design ratio on
bond strength between coconut fibre and concrete. Single fibre pullout tests
were performed to determine the bond strength and the energy required for
fibre pullout. Thick (0.300.35 mm diameter) and boiled fibres have higher
tensile strength compared to the thin (0.150.20 mm diameter), medium
(0.200.30 mm diameter), soaked and chemically treated fibres. The bond
strength increased with embedment length and had the highest value at 30 mm
embedment. The pullout energy increased with an increase in embedment
 54

length. The fibre tensile strength, fibre toughness and fibreconcrete bond
strength could be increased by 34%, 55% and 84%, respectively, when fibres
were boiled and washed. In this test chemical pre-treatment caused a decrease
of bond strength and tensile strength by 25% and 23%, respectively.

Ramakrishna et al (2005) performed the impact load test on the slab

specimen for various mix proportion by means of simple projectile test. Coir
fibre reinforced mortar slab specimens absorbed the highest impact energy of
253.5 J at 2% fibre content and fibre length of 40mm. In addition coir fibre
reinforced slabs have the highest residual impact strength ratio (Irs) among
the various types of natural fibres.

Paramasivam et al (1984) discussed a systematic and simple method

of casting corrugated fibre reinforced slab that was adoptable for precast
industries. A volume fraction of 3% and a fibre length of 25mm were used for
finding the flexural strength of 22 N/mm2. Compared with asbestos boards,
coir board sheets are supposed to have better performance values and they
proved to be so.

Alida Abdullah et al (2011) in the project concentrated on making

the cement panel with coconut fibres to replace fine aggregate. Various tests
were conducted with the samples such as compression test, density, moisture
and water absorption test for treated and untreated coconut fibre. The study,
pointed out that the organic and inorganic impurities have significant role in
controlling the density, moisture content, water absorption and compressive
strength of the cement panels.

Alavez-Ramirez et al (2012) in a study evaluated the potential use

of coconut fibre as thermal isolating filler for ferrocement panel walls in
sandwich configuration of school and house roofing. It resulted in the coconut
fibre filled ferrocement panels that could be used as insulating material for
 55

houses with lower thermal conductivity than that of typical building materials
used in southern Mexico. Some of the tests conducted on panel were moisture
content, water absorption test and thermal conductivity test.

Vinod et al (2009) explored the effectiveness of horizontally placed

braided coir rope reinforcement on the strength improvement and settlement
reduction of loose sand for modelling footings using plate load tests in the
laboratory. The influencing parameters such as depth of reinforcement
embedment, length, number of layers and number of plies of braided coir rope
were examined. It was found that the provision of braided coir rope
reinforcement layer improved the load carrying capacity of the model footing.
And the provision of single and multiple layers of reinforcement could result
in strength improvement ratio as high as about 3.4 and 6.6 from the
conventional.

Aggarwal et al (1992) conducted an investigation on the

optimization parameters such as fibre content, fibre length, casting pressure
and demoulding time for the production of coir fibre cement board and its
procedure to make it. The bond between coir fibre and the cement was also
determined. From the result, the optimum parameters required to make the
board were; fibre content of 15% by its weight, fibre length of 30mm and
casting pressure at 3 N/mm2.

Ramaswamy et al (1983) carried out as study on the concrete with

the addition of various natural fibres like jute, bamboo and coir. The basic
tests were carried out on the specimen made. High ductility took place during
the stress-strain behavior. Creep strain was induced more than 25% for coir
when compared with PCC. Also the impact strength was improved because of
improved ductility.
 56

Tara Sen et al (2011) performed on the concrete made by various

natural fibre used as infill material and how the strength could be improved in
the structural upgradation work. The natural fibres were sisal, bamboo, jute
and coir fibre. The coir fibre was used as reinforcement in a composite
structure and the ductility behavior was improved a little more.

Ramakrishna et al (2010) tested the durability of natural fibre

cement composites that could be evaluated by means of flexural toughness
using four points loading. The residual impact strength value decreased with
the increase in fibre content in the alkaline medium but in the case of NaOH
medium it was reversible. Also the flexural toughness deviation was increased
due to a reduction in fibre content. The deviation in I T had the maximum
value of +168.21 at fibre content 0.50% also the deviation in I rs had the
maximum value of 27.81 at fibre content of 0.25%.

Majid Ali et al (2012) concentrated on various composites of

concrete and mortar made by various natural fibres and tested tensile strength,
shear strength, toughness and/or combinations of these. The results confirmed
that composites reinforced with three layers of coir mesh having fibre content
of 1.8% achieved a 40% improvement in the maximum flexural stress. These
were 20 times higher in flexural ductility and 25 times stronger in flexural
toughness and toughness index.

Majid Ali et al (2010) made an analysis to spread awareness about

coconut fibres reinforced composites, used as cheap and durable non-structural
elements in construction industry. Coconut fibres are reported as the most
ductile and energy absorbent material. Further investigation should be carried
out to study the behaviour of coconut fibre reinforced concrete to be used in
the main structural components like beams and columns.
 57

Sivaraja et al (2010) focused on the determination of mechanical

strength properties of natural fibre reinforced concrete specimens once in 3
months for a period of 2 years under alternate wetting and drying conditions.
The second part covered the microstructure properties of fresh natural fibres
in both natural condition and natural fibres reacted with concrete under
accelerated curing conditions for two years. Later on SEM and EDAC test
results were discussed.

Verma et al (2013) in a review discussed the use of coir fibre and its
current status of research. Composite fabrication was done using compression
moulding technique. The results demonstrated that hybridization played an
important role in improving the mechanical properties of composites. The tensile
and flexural properties of hybrid composites improved markedly as compared to
unhybrid composites. Adhesion between the fibres and polymer is one of the
factors affecting the strength of manufactured composites. In order to increase
the adhesion, the coir fibre was chemically treated separately in single stage
(with Cr2(SO4)312(H2O)) and double stages (with CrSO4 and NaHCO3) and
the result showed that the mechanical properties of characterized fibre in this
analysis was found to be better than that of the raw fibre.

Ali et al (2013) investigated the feasibility of Coconut Fibre and Rope

Reinforced Concrete (CFFRC) and the effect of the bond between ropes and
concrete that was to be considered. The behaviour of 5 CFFRC column
specimens were investigated under cyclic loading with various debonding length
of fibre. The results averred that the load carrying capacity of all the CFFRC
column had been reduced significantly at cracking and the fiber length of 5cm
were long enough to hold the crack.

John et al (2005) sifted the coir fibre reinforced low alkaline cement
taken from the internal and external walls of a 12 year old house. The panel of
the house was produced using 1:1.5:0.504 (binder: sand: water, by mass of
 58

binder) mortar reinforced with 2% of coir fibres by volume. Fibres removed

from the old samples were reported to be undamaged.

2.5 SUMMARY

From this detailed literature survey, it is observed that different

fibres are used as composite materials in concrete members. Out of these, coir
fibre is a locally available natural fibre which has reasonable strength and
durability properties. Coir fibre was randomly distributed in concrete
members and coir rope was also used in the beams. But none of the studies
have been carried out on using coir ropes in the slab specimens. So the
research study focuses on using coir ropes as mat reinforcement on concrete
slabs and on the imperative need for examining its properties.