Metrology Uniit II

UNIT II Linear, Angular and Taper measurements
UNIT II - LINEAR, ANGULAR AND TAPER MEASUREMENTS
2. LINEAR MEASUREMET
Linear measurement applies to measurement of lengths,
diameters, heights, and thickness including external and internal
measurements. The linear measuring instruments have series of
accurately spaced lines marked on them, eg., scale. The dimension
to be measured is aligned with the graduations of the scale. Linear
measuring instruments are designed either for line measurements or
end measurements.
The direct measuring instruments are of two types :

1.Graduated
2.Non-graduated
The graduated instruments include rules, vernier calipers,
vernier height gauges, vernier depth gauges, micrometers, dial
indicators etc. The non- graduated instruments include calipers,
trammels, telescopic gauges, surface gauges, straight edges, wire
gauges, screw pitch gauges, radius gauges, thickness gauges, slip
gauges, etc. They can also be classified as,
Non-precision instruments such as steel rule, caliper etc.
Precision measuring instruments such as vernier
instruments, micrometers, dial gauges etc.
Precision measuring instruments

Precision instruments are used to measure the dimension
with greater accuracy. They are used for internal and external
measurements.
The precision instruments must have the following features
or characteristics :
High sensitivity
Greater accuracy
Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing II-1

Precision ( repeatability)
Proper calibration
Minimum wear of parts and Good amplification
The measuring instruments/methods can be classified in various

manners as given below:
I. (a) Direct Measuring: In which the measured value is determined

directly, e.g., micrometer, vernier height gauge, bevel protractors etc.
These instruments are simple and most widely used in production.
(b) Indirect Measuring: In which the dimension is determined by
measuring other values functionally related to the required value e.g.
divider, caliper, sine bar etc.
2. (a) Absolute: Here, the zero division of the instrument

corresponds with the zero value of the measured dimension, e.g.
steel rules, vernier calipers etc.
(b) Comparative: Here, only the deviations of the measured
dimensions from a master gauge are determined, e.g., dial
indicators etc.
3. (a) Contact: Here, the measuring tip of the instrument actually

touches the surface to be measured, e.g., micrometers, calipers, dial
indicators etc.
(b) Contactless: Here, no contact is required for measurement,
e.g., tool makers microscope, projection comparator etc.
4. According to their functions, the measuring instruments are
classified as:
a. Linear or length measuring instruments. For example, steel
rule, caliper, divider, micrometer, vernier caliper etc.
b. Angular or angle measuring instruments. For example,
combination set, bevel protractor, sine bar, square, dividing
head etc.

5. Depending on their accuracy, the measuring instruments can
be grouped into three categories:
Most accurate group includes light interference instruments.
Second group includes: Optimeters, tool makers
microscope and dial comparators.
Third group includes : Dial indicators, Vernier Calipers,
micrometers and rules with Vernier Scales.
2.1 VERNIER CALIPER

It is a precision instrument. It works on the principle of
vernier. This principle was devised by a French man called Pierre
vernier.
Vernier Principle
The principle of vernier is that when two scales or divisions in size
are used, the difference between them can be utilized to enhance
the accuracy of measurement.
Fig 2.1
Types of vernier calipers:

According to IS:3651-1974, there are three types of vernier
calipers. They are Type A, Type B, Type C (Shown in figures 2.2)
They are available in different sizes and range upto 2000mm. The
least count may be 0.02, 0.05 or 0.10mm

BLADE
Fig 2.2 (A)
Fig 2.2 (B)
Fig 2.2 (C)

In type A, the jaws are provided on both sides for external

and internal measurements. One blade is also fitted to measure
depth of the part. In type B, jaws are provided on only one side for
both external and internal measurements. But in type C, jaws are
provided on both sides for marking and measuring dimensions. In
both types B and C, there is no provision for depth measurements.
Vernier caliper Construction: The vernier caliper consists of two
scale: one is fixed and the other is movable. The fixed scale, called
main scale is calibrated on a frame and carries a fixed jaw. The
movable scale, called vernier scale slides over the main scale and
carries a movable jaw. The movable jaw as well as the fixed jaw
carries measuring tip.
Fig 2.3
When the two jaws are closed the zero of the vernier scale coincides
with the zero of the main scale. For precise setting of the movable
jaw an adjustment screw is provided. Also, an arrangement is
provided to lock the sliding scale on the fixed main scale.
Least count of vernier :

The least count (L.C) is defined as the difference between
the values of a main scale division and vernier scale division.
L.C = 1 MSD 1VSD
L.C = least count

MSD = main scale division (=1mm)
VSD = Vernier scale division.
Advantages
No need to have separate precision instruments for taking
external, internal and depth measurements.
Disadvantages
1. Accuracy of reading depends on the skill of the operator.
2. Loses its accuracy by constant usage as slackness in the
sliding unit develops.
3. Cannot be used to measure components having deviations
less than 0.02 mm.
4. Possibility of parallax error during noting down the
coinciding line may cause the reading of the measurement
to be wrong.
Uses:
Vernier calipers are employed for both internal and external
measurements.
Example : If 50 divisions on the vernier scale corresponds to 49mm.
49
then 1VSD mm
50
49
Therefore L.C 1 mm - mm
50
49
1-
50
50 - 49 1
0.02mm
50 50
Least count can also be calculated as
Value of 1 MSD
L.C
No.of divisions on vernier scale
1 mm 1
0.02 mm
50 and 50
Metrology, Machine tool maintenance testing II-6
The measured dimension = (main scale reading) +

(no.of vernier coincidence x L.C)
ie) dimension = (MSR) + (N x L.C)
2.2 VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE:

The vernier height gauge is used for measuring the
difference in height of two points or for marking out purposes. It is
practically similar to a vernier caliper with its fixed jaw set rigidly into
a base.
Construction:
The height gauge has a
solid base. A vertical beam is
mounted over the base. The
vertical beam has main scale
graduations. A slider slides up
and down along the beam. The
slider has a vernier scale. The
slider can be locked using a
clamping screw. The slider can
be adjusted accurately using a
fine adjustment screw. The
slider has the measuring jaw
integral with it. A scriber is
clamped to the measuring jaw.
Working principle:
The workpiece is placed
on the surface plate. The slider
is adjusted so that the lower Fig 2.4 VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE
face of the scriber touches the

top surface of the job. The readings are noted in the vernier and
main scales.
The main scale is graduated in 0.5 mm. The least count of
the vernier is 0.02 mm.
Therefore the reading = Main scale reading + 0.02 x vernier scale
reading.
Uses: The Vernier height gauge is designed for accurate

measurements and marking of vertical heights above a surface plate
datum. It can also be used to measure differences in heights by
taking the Vernier scale readings at each height. It can be used for a
number of applications in the tool room and inspection department.
The important features of Vernier height gauge are:
All the parts are made of good quality steel or stainless

steel.
The beam should be sufficiently rigid square with the base.
The measuring jaw should have a clear projection from the
edge of the beam
The upper and lower and lower gauging surfaces of the
measuring jaw shall be flat and parallel to the base.
The scriber should also be of the same nominal depth as the
measuring jaw so that it may be reversed.
The projection of the jaw should be at least 25 mm.
The slider should have a good sliding fit for all along the full
working length of the beam.
2.3 VERNIER DEPTH GAUGE

Vernier depth gauge is used to measure the depths of holes,
slots and recesses, to locate centre distance etc. It consists of (i) A
sliding head having flat and true base free from curves and
waviness.
A graduated beam known as main scale. The sliding head

slides over the graduated beam.
An auxiliary head with a fine adjustment and a clamping
screw.
Fig 2.5
The beam is perpendicular to the base in both directions and its

ends square and flat. The end of the sliding head can be set at any

point with fine adjustment mechanism locked and read from the
vernier provided on it.
While using the instrument, the base is held firmly on the

reference surface and lowers the beam into the hole until it contacts
the bottom surface of the hole. The final adjustment depending upon
the sense of correct feel is made by the fine adjustment screw. The
clamping screw is then tightened and the instrument is removed
from the hole and reading taken in the same way as the Vernier
caliper. While using the instrument it should be ensured that the
reference surface, on which the depth gauge base is rested, is
satisfactorily true, flat and square.
Depth =(MSR) + (N x L.C)
Where
MSR = Main scale reading
N = No. of the vernier coincidence
L.C = Least count
2.4 MICROMETER
The accuracy of the Vernier caliper is 0.02 mm. Most

engineering precision work has to be measured to a much greater
accuracy than this, especially to achieve interchangeability of
component parts. To achieve this greater precision, measuring
equipment of a greater accuracy and sensitivity must be used.
Micrometer is one of the most common and most popular forms of
measuring instrument for precise measurement with 0.01mm
accuracy. Micrometers with 0.001mm accuracy are also available.
Micrometers can be classified as:

a. Outside Micrometer
b. Inside Micrometer
c. Screw Thread Micrometer and
d. Depth Gauge Micrometer
Principle of Micrometer
Micrometers work on the principle of screw and nut. We

know that when a screw is turned through one revolution, it
advances by one pitch distance i.e., one rotation of screw
corresponds to a linear movement of a distance equal to pitch of the
thread. If the circumference of the screw is divided into number of
equal parts say n, its rotation through one division will cause the
screw to advance through
Pitch
length. Thus the minimum
n
length that can be measured by such arrangement will be Pitch
n
Least Count of micrometer

Least count is the minimum distance which can be
measured accurately by the instrument. The micrometer has a screw
of 0.5 mm pitch, with a thimble graduated in 50 divisions to provide a
direct reading of Pitch 0.50 0.01mm.
n 50
Least count of a micrometer is thus, the value of one
division on a thimble, which is connected to the screw.
Pitch of the spindle screw p
L.C
Number of divisions on the thimble n
Fig 2.6
1. Outside Micrometer :
Figure illustrates an external micrometer. It is used to measure the
outside diameter and length of small parts to an accuracy of 0.01
mm. The main parts of outside micrometer are :
Fig 2.7
U-shaped steel frame : The outside micrometer has U shaped or

C shaped frame. It holds all the micrometer parts together. The
frame is generally made of steel, cast steel, Malleable C.I or light
alloy.
Anvil and spindle : The micrometer has a fixed anvil protruding 3

mm from the left hand side of the frame. The diameter of the anvil is
the same as that of the spindle. Another movable anvil is provided
on the front of the spindle. The anvils are accurately ground and
lapped with its measuring faces flat and parallel to the spindle.The

spindle is the movable measuring face with the anvil on the front
side. The spindle engages with the nut.
Lock nut : A lock nut is provided on the micrometer spindle to lock it
when the micrometer is at its correct reading.
Sleeve or barrel : The sleeve is accurately divided and clearly

marked in 0.5 mm division along its length which serves as a main
scale. It is chrome plated and adjustable for zero setting .
Thimble: The thimble can be moved over the parallel. It has 50

equal divisions around its circumference. Each division having a
value of 0.01 mm.
Ratchet: The ratchet is provided at the end of the thimble. It is used

to assure accurate measurement, and to prevent too much pressure
being applied to the micrometer.
2. Reading the Micrometer

The procedure for measuring the dimension with the help of
micrometer is as described below:
1. Select a micrometer with a desired range depending
upon the size of the work piece to be measured. The next step is to
check it for zero error. In case of 0-25 mm micrometer the zero error
is checked by contacting the faces of the fixed anvil and the spindle.
While using micrometers of 25-50 mm or 125 to 150 mm size, the
zero error is checked by placing a master of 25 mm or 125 mm
respectively, between the anvil and spindle faces. The zero on the
thimble should coincide with the zero on the reference line on the
main scale (barrel). If this does not happen, then zero error is
present in the micrometer which must be taken into account while
taking the reading. A special spanner is usually provided with the
micrometer for eliminating the zero error.

2. The barrel has graduations, in intervals of 1 mm above

the reference line. There are
also graduations below the
reference line at the middle
of two successive upper
graduations, so as to read
0.5 mm.
3. For measuring
Fig 2.8
the particular dimension,
hold the work between the faces of the anvil and spindle and then
move the spindle by rotating the thimble until the anvil and spindle
touches the work surface. Make fine adjustment with the ratchet.
Now take the reading on the main scale taking into account the
divisions below the reference line. Suppose, the main scale reading
is 11.00 mm as shown in Fig.
4. Take the thimble reading which coincides with the
reference with the reference line on the sleeve.
In our example it is 34.
Then total reading = main scale reading + L.C x reading on
the thimble =11.00 + 0.01x34 = 11.34.
3. Inside Micrometer
Inside micrometer is used for measuring larger internal
dimensions.

It consists of the following main parts:
i) Measuring head (micrometer unit)

ii) Extension rods
iii) Spacing collars
iv) Handle
Fig 2.9
The range is 50 mm to 210 mm and for any one extension rod its
range is 20 mm. The micrometer unit or measuring head consists of
a barrel and a thimble similar to the outside micrometer. It has no
frame and spindle. The measuring points are at extreme ends and
adjustment is effected by advancing or withdrawing the thimble
along the barrel. A series of extension rods are provided in order to
obtain a wide measuring range. For measuring bores of

comparatively small diameters, a handle is provided which can be

screwed into a radial hole in the barrel.
1. The diameter of the bore is measured approximately by a
scale.
2. Extension rod is selected to the nearest dimension (by one
cm)
3. The micrometer head is held firmly inside the bore and the
contact surface is adjusted.
4. This is done by moving the thimble until the correct feel is
sensed.
5. The micrometers are then removed and the reading is noted.
6. The lengths of extension and collar are added to the
micrometer reading.
4. Depth micrometer:
Fig 2.10
Depth micrometer is used to measure the depth of blind

holes, slots and grooves. The accuracy of the micrometer is 0.01
mm. The micrometers can be used only in places where proper
seating is available for the head of the micrometer. The bottom of the

head is placed over the seating of the workpiece. It has a sleeve.

The main scale is graduated on the sleeve. It is graduated in 0.5 mm
divisions. The bore of the sleeve is threaded with 0.5 mm pitch. A
screw passes through the bore.
The spindle is attached to the bottom end of the screw. The
thimble is attached to the top of the screw. The thimble has a
bevelled edge. The vernier scale is graduated on the bevelled edge.
The vernier scale has 50 equal divisions. One vernier scale division
= 0.5/50 = 0.01 mm. The thimble has ratchet.
The main scale divisions are graduated in decreasing order
from the bottom of the sleeve. Depth micrometers are available with
various measuring ranges.
2.5 BORE GAUGES

This is a precision measuring
instrument used for measuring the
internal dimensions. The dial bore
gauge is normally available as a two-
point, self-centering type.

Fig 2.11
Stem
This holds all the
components together
and contains the
mechanism for
transmitting the
plunger motion to the
dial.
Fig 2.12
Fixed anvil/inserts
These anvils are interchangeable. The selection of the anvil is made
depending on the diameter of the bore to be measured. For certain
types of bore dial gauges, extension rings/washers are provided for
extending the range of measurement.
Sliding plunger
This actuates the movement of the dial for reading the
measurement.
Centering shoes/spherical
supports
Certain types of bore dial

gauges are provided with a pair
of ground discs.

Fig 2.13
This maintains the alignment of the measuring faces in the centre of

the bore. For some types, two spherical supports which are spring-
loaded are provided.
Dial indicator
This has graduations marked on the dial. The graduations are

marked in clockwise and anticlockwise directions.
Dial gauges are available in various sizes with different measuring
ranges. There are interchangeable measuring rods(extension rods
or combination washers) for measuring different sizes.
The accuracy of the instrument depends on the type of graduations
on the dial. The most frequently used instruments have accuracies
of 0.001 mm and 0.01mm
Fig 2.14

While taking measurements press the spring-loaded end (plungers)

as it enters into the device or in the bore being measured. Slightly
rock and steady the
device for keeping the
measuring faces in
position.
Slip gauges fixed in a

setting fixture can
also be used for zero
setting.
Fig 2.15
2.6 SLIP GAUGES
Slip gauges are rectangular
blocks of high grade steel with
exceptionally close tolerances. These
blocks are suitably hardened through out
to ensure maximum resistance to wear.
For successful use of slip gauges
their working faces are made truly flat and Fig 2.16
parallel. A slip gauge is shown in fig.2.16.
Slip gauges are also made from tungsten carbide which is extremely
hard and wear resistance.
The cross-sections of these gauges are 9 mm x 30 mm for
sizes upto 10 mm and 9 mm x 35 mm for larger sizes. Any two slips

when perfectly clean may be wrung together. The dimensions are

permanently marked on one of the measuring faces of gauge blocks.
Fig 2.17
Slip Gauges are used for:
Direct precise measurement, where the accuracy of the

work piece demands it.
For checking accuracy of Vernier calipers, micrometers,
and such other measuring instruments.
Setting up a comparator to a specific dimension.
For measuring angle of workpiece and also for angular
setting in conjunction with a sine bar.
The distances of plugs, spigots, etc. on fixture are often
best measured with the slip gauges or end bars for large
dimension.
To check gap between parallel locations such as in gap
gauges or between two mating parts.
There are many measurements which can be made with slip gauges
either alone or in conjunction with other simple apparatus such as
straight edges, rollers, balls, sine bars etc.

Wringing of slip gauges

The success of precision measurement by slip gauge
depends on the phenomenon of wringing. The slip gauges are wrung
together by hand through a combined sliding and twisting motion.
The gap between the two wrung slips is very less. When the two
gauges are wrung, the total dimension obtained is exactly the sum of
the individual dimensions of slips.
ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS
2.7 BEVEL PROTRACTOR

It is one of the angle measuring instruments. There are
different types of Bevel protractor available.
Vernier (Mechanical) Bevel Protractor
Universal Bevel Protractor
Optical Bevel Protractor
The protractors are used to test flatness, squareness,
parallelism, straightness etc.
It is a device used for measuring and testing angles. By this
instrument, angles can be measured with an accuracy of 5 minutes.
The instrument has a stock beam. The stock is integral with
a circular disc. The circular disc is pivoted at its centre on a circular
dial. Main scale is graduated in this circular dial. It is graduated in
degrees along an arc of 1800 (0 to 90 from each end).
A vernier scale is fitted to the disc. There is a movable
blade. It can slide length wise in a groove on the dial. The movable
blade can be locked to the dial using a clamp. A locking screw is
available for locking the circular disc on the dial. The stock can be
VERNIER
adjusted to any angular position with reference to the movable
blade.
Fig 2.18
Reading
The main scale is graduated in degrees. The length of 23
division in the main scale is divided into 12 divisions in the vernier
scale.

23 11
One Vernier scale division 1
12 12
Let us make the zero
marking of the vernier scale
coincide with the zero marking of
the main scale. Now the
difference between the first
graduation line of the vernier and
the nearest graduation of the main
scale is 1/120 or 5 minutes. So the Fig 2.19
least count is 5 minutes.
OPTICAL BEVEL PROTRACTOR
This is advanced level of Vernier Bevel protractor with an
accuracy of 2 minutes. The Readings are taken against a fixed index
line or Vernier by means of optical magnifying system which is
integral with the instrument.
The scale is graduated as full circle marked 0-90-0-90.The
zero position coincides when the blade is parallel to the stock.
Figure2.20 shows an optical bevel protractor. The scale and
Vernier are so arranged that they are always in focus in the optical
system.
Fig 2.20
UNIVERSAL BEVEL PROTRACTOR

The universal bevel protractor is used for measuring and
lying out of angles accurately and precisely within 5 minutes. The
protractor dial is slotted to hold a blade which can be rotated with the
dial to the required angle. It can be locked in any position.
2.8 SINE BAR

The angle to be measured is determined by the indirect
method as a function of sine, the device is called as sine bar
Sine bar is a simple device used for accurately measuring or
checking angles of tapered surfaces. The angle can be measured
with an accuracy of 2 seconds.
The most commonly used sine bar is shown in figure. It is
made of steel of rectangular cross section. It is accurately finished in
all surfaces by lapping. It has steps at the ends. Rollers are fitted to
these ends. The rollers are of equal diameter and finely finished. The
distance between the centres of rollers is the size of the sine bar.
The size varies from 100 mm to 300 mm. The centre line of roller
centres is parallel with the top surface and bottom surface of the
sine bar.
Fig 2.21
Types of sine bar

There are many sine bars available for different applications.
Figure 2.22 (A) shows a sine bar in which the roller are so arranged
that their outer surfaces on one side are level with the plane top
surface of sine bar.
Figure (B) shows a sine bar with hollow roller in which
outside diameter is equal to the width of sine bar. It is used where
the width of bar enters into calculation of work height.
Figure (C) shows a sine bar with pins on both sides. It is
used where the ordinary sine bar cannot used on the top surface
due to interruption.
Fig 2.22

Figure (D) shows a sine bar which is generally preferred as
the distance between rollers can be adjusted exactly. The holes are
drilled in the body of sine bar which is for lighter weight and easy
handing.
Principal of sine bar

It is based on the laws of trigonometry. To set or find angle,
one roller of the sine bar is placed on the surface plate. The
combination of slip gauges is inserted under the second roller as
shown in figure.
If h is the height of the combination of slip gauge and L the
distance between the rollers, then,
Opposite side h
Sin
Hypotenuse L
h
There fore, sin -1
L
Fig 2.23
If we want to measure the readings with accuracy, the

following conditions are very important.
The roller must be of identical diameter and round within a
close tolerance.
The top surface of the bar must have a high degree of

flatness. It must be parallel to a plane connecting the axes
of the rollers.
The axes of the rollers must be parallel to each other and
the centre distance L must be known one.
Uses/Applications of sine bar
Locating any work to a given angle:

To set given angle, one
roller of the sine bar is placed on
the surface plate and a
combination of slip gauges is
inserted under the second roller
as shown in figure. Let h be the
height of slip gauge combination
and the sine is to be set at an Fig 2.24
angle.
h
Then sin , where l is the distance between the
l
centre of the rollers. Thus knowing , h can be found
out and any work could be set at this angle, as the top face of the
sine bar is inclined at angle to the surface plate.
Checking or measuring unknown angles
When components is of small size

For measuring unknown angle it is necessary to first find the
angle approximately with the help of a bevel protractor.
The sine bar is then setup at approximate angle on a
surface plate by suitable combination of slip gauges.
The component to be checked is placed over the surface of
the sine bar as shown in the figure.

The dial gauges is then set at one end of the work and
moved along the upper surface of the component.
If there is a variation in parallelism of the upper surface of
the component and the surface plate, it is indicated by the
dial gauge.
The combination of the slip gauges is so adjusted that the
upper surface of the component is truly parallel with the
surface plate.
Fig 2.25
The angle of component is then calculated by the relation

h
sin -1
l
When the component is of large size/heavy

The component is placed over a surface plate and the sine
bar is setup at approximate angle on the component so that its
surface is nearly parallel to the surface of the sine bar to note the
variation in parallelism. If h is height of the combination of the slip
gauge and dh the variation in parallelism over distance L then
= sin-1 (h dh) as shown in parallelism over distance L then
h dh as shown in figure.
sin -1
L
Fig 2.26
Limitations of Sine Bars

Sine bar is reliable for angles less than 150. It is not
convenient to use sine bars for angle above 450.
The size of parts inspected by sine bar is limited.
It is difficult to hold in position.
Slight errors of the sine bar may cause larger angular errors.
2.9 SINE TABLE AND SINE CENTRE

Due to difficulty of mounting conical work easily on a
conventional sine bar, sine centres are used. Two blocks as shown
in fig.2.27 are mounted on the top of sine bar. These blocks
accommodate centres and can be clamped at any position on the
sine bar. The centres can also be adjusted depending on the length
of the conical work-piece, to be held between centres. Sine centres
are extremely useful for the testing of conical work, since the centres
ensure correct alignment of the work-piece. The procedure for its
setting is the same as that for sine bar.
Fig 2.27
Sine Table
The sine table is the most convenient and accurate design
for heavy work-piece. The equipment consists of a self contained
sine bar, hinged at one roller and mounted on its datum surface. The
table is quite rigid one and the weight of unit and work-piece is given
fuller and safer support. The table may be safely swing to any angle
from 0 to 90 by pivoting it about its hinged end. Due to the work
being held axially between centres, the angle of inclination will be
half the included angle of the work. The use of sine centres and sine
table provides a convenient method of measuring the angle of a
taper plug gauge.
Fig 2.28
2.10 ANGLE GAUGES

Angle gauges enable any angle to be set to the nearest 3.
These are pieces of hardened and stabilized steel. The measuring
faces are lapped and polished to a high degree of accuracy and
flatness. They are 75 mm long and 16 mm wide and are available in
two sets. One set consists of 12 pieces and a square block, in three
series of values of angle viz.
1, 3, 9, 27 and 41
1, 3, 9and 27 and
6, 18 and 30
Another set contains 13 pieces and a square block

1,3,9,27, and 41
1, 3, 9, 27and
3, 6, 18 and 30
Each angle gauge is accurate to within one second and is

marked with engraved v which indicates the direction of the inclined
angle. These gauges, together with a square block can be so wrung
that any angle between 0 to 360can be set. Each angle gauge is a
wedge, thus two gauges with their narrow ends together provide an
angle which is the sum of the angles of the individual gauges.
Subtraction of angles is obtained when the narrow ends are
opposed as shown in Fig.
Fig 2.29
Each angle gauge is marked with engraved V which

indicates the direction of included angle. When the angles of
individual angle gauges are to be added up then the V of all would
be in line and when any angle is to be subtracted, its engraved V
should be in other direction.
Practical uses of angle gauges

Angle gauges are widely used in industries for the quick
measurement of angles between two surfaces. A frequent use of
these gauges is to check whether the component is within its
tolerance angle or otherwise. Where the angle to be measured
exceeds 90, the use of precision square becomes essential.
Limitations

By combining (wringing) angle gauges any angle could be
made but the block formed by the combination of number of these
gauges is rather bulky and cannot always be conveniently applied to
work, so they are used as reference along with other angle
measuring devices.
Secondly errors are easily compounded when angle block
are wrung in combination.
Figure shows the measurement of angle
Fig 2.30
2.11 MICROPTIC AUTO- COLLIMATOR:

Fig 2.31
Microptic Auto Collimator works on the optical principle. Figure

2.32 shows the optical system of the instrument. In this instrument a
pair of target wires in the collimating lens is illuminated by a lamp
and condenser at the site and their image is projected.
The projected image strikes a plane reflector and the

reflection of the image is brought to a focus in the plane of target
wires. The target wires and their image are viewed simultaneously
through a microscope eye-piece
Fig 2.32
The microscope also incorporates a pair of adjustable

setting wires. The setting wires are adjusted by a micrometer until
they straddle the reflected image. The eye-piece incorporates a
scale graduated in 0.5 minute. The micrometer drum moves the
setting wires at 0.5 minute per revolution and is divided into 60 equal
parts. Thus with the help of micrometer it is possible to read the tilt of
reflector in two planes at right angles. Two wires help to indicate the
tilt of reflector in two planes at right angles.
The microptic auto-collimator is used for machine tool

adjustment testing or for any large scale measurement involving
small angular deviations.
Applications of auto-collimator
Auto-collimators are used for:
The measurement of straightness and flatness of surfaces
Precise angular indexing in conjunction with polygons
Comparative measurement using master angles
Assessment of squareness and parallelism of components
The measurement of small linear dimension, and
For machine tool adjustment setting etc.

Fig. 2.33 Checking a slide
Fig. 2.34 Checking using optical square
2.12 ANGLE DEKKER

Fig 2.35 Standard Angle Dekkers
This is also a type of an auto collimator. It contains a small

illuminated scale in the focal plane of the objective lens (collimating
lens). This scale in the normal position is outside the field of view of
the microscope eyepiece as shown in Fig.2.36. The illuminated scale
is projected as a parallel beam by the collimating lens, which after
striking a reflector (work-piece) below the instrument is refocused on
the lens in the field of view of the microscope. There is another
datum scale fixed across the centre of the screen and the reflected
image is illuminated and is received at right angles to this fixed scale
as shown in Fig. In this position the two scales intersect each other.
Thus the reading on the fixed datum scale measures the deviation
about an axis mutually perpendicular to the other. In other words,
changes in the angular position of the reflector in two planes are
indicated by changes in the point of intersection of the two scales,
Fig 2.36
which can be directly compared. Readings from the scales are read
to within 1 without the use of a micrometer. The whole optical
system, is enclosed in a tube, which is mounted on an adjustable
bracket. This instrument is mostly used as a comparator.
Applications of an angle Dekker

To measure any angle of a given component:
The angle Dekker is capable of measuring small variations in

angular setting, i.e., determining the angular tilt. In the operation the
measuring principle is by comparison. The Dekker is initially set to a
fixed reading, from a known angle using an angle gauge, to the
nearest angle of the component using a special attachment, such
that the zero reading is obtained on the illuminated scale. The angle
gauge build up is then removed and replaced by the component
under test, a straight edge being used to ensure that there is no
change in lateral positions. The new position of the reflected scale
with respect to the fixed scale gives the angular tilt of the component
from the set angle.

Fig 2.37
Checking the slope of a V-block:
A typical auto collimator consists of a tubular body
containing the collimating lens at one end and a viewing eyepiece at
the other end. At the focal plane of the collimating lens, there is a
scale, instead of cross wires, which is illuminated by means of an
electric lamp mounted by the side. The eye piece is provided with a
fixed scale similar to and at right angles to the illuminated one. Both
scales are divided from 0 to 40 and each division represents 1 of an
arc. If the reflector is exactly normal to the optical axis of the dekker,
the image of the illuminated scale will intersect the fixed scale such
that the central reading of both scales (20 reading ) will coincide
with the point of
Fig 2.38
intersection of the cross wires. If the reflector is tilted at an angle a

this angle can be read directly from the position of the reflected
scale with respect to the fixed scale. Fig 2.38 shows the method,
which can be used to measure the angle of inclination of one face of
a V-block and the variations of the theoretical and actual can be
measured by the angle Dekker.
To measure the angle of cone or taper gauge:

A simple set-up for this purpose is to first set the instrument
for the nominal angle of a cone or a combination of an angle gauge
and sine bar is used to set the nominal angle. The cone is then
placed in position with its base resting on the surface plate. A slip
gauge or the parallel reflector is held against the set angle will be
noted by the angle dekker in its eye piece and indicated by the
shifting of the image of the illuminated scale, whose reading while
setting the angle gauge is noted down before hand.
Fig 2.39 Angle measurement using an angle dekker

2.13 CLINOMETERS :
A clinometer is an instrument
used to measure angles, which uses
the principle of the spirit level or the
pendulum. A spirit level clinometer is
provided with a sensitive level
mounted on a rotating turret whose
angle of rotation relative to the
horizontal reference plane can be
measured directly or indirectly from its
trigonometric functions. Clinometers
employing the pendulum principle
have the vertical plane as a reference.
A clinometer using the

principle of the spirit level has a spirit Fig 2.40
level mounted on a rotary member
carried in housing. One face of the housing forms the base of the
instrument. On the housing, there is a circular level relative to its
base. The adjacent faces of a work piece can be measured by this
circular scale. For this purpose, the instrument base is placed on
one face and the rotary body adjusted until zero is noted on the
circular scale against an index. A second reading is then taken in a
similar manner on the second face of the work piece. The included
angle between the faces is the difference between the two readings.
Clinometers are also used for checking angular faces and

relief angles on large cutting tools and milling cutter inserts. They
can also be used for setting an inclined table on jig boring machines
and angular work on grinding machines etc.

Vernier Clinometer
This consists of a spirit level and protractor. The body of the
protractor is in the form of a right-angle on which a sensitive level is
hinged at one of its ends. The other end of the spirit level is provided
with a Vernier scale that moves along the main scale, located on the
protractor body. The clinometer is placed on the surface whose
angle of inclination relative to the horizontal is to be measured and
the spirit level is brought to its horizontal position. The Vernier on the
spirit level indicates the required angle. By means of the vernier an
accuracy of 10 can be achieved .The measuring range is 50
degrees from the horizontal.
Vernier clinometers can sometimes be used to measure the
angle included between two surfaces. This can be done by
measuring the angle of inclination of each surface relative to the
horizontal and the required angle can be calculated.
Fig 2.41
Optical clinometer

The optical Clinometer consists of a rotatable turret mounted

on a base, which is provided with a prismatic groove so that the
instrument can be placed on flat and cylindrical surfaces. The turret
carries longitudinal and cross-sensitive spirit levels and is provided,
at its periphery, with a degree scale, which, together with the fixed
scale marked on the frame, enables a coarse setting to be made. A
fixed circular glass disc is mounted with scale divisions from 0 to
120 in both directions. The turret is also provided with a measuring
microscope in which two veriner scales is divided into 60 divisions
corresponding to one degree on the main scale. The scale value of
the instrument is, therefore, equal to 1.
The turret can be locked with a clamping screw and its

adjustment is carried out using a setting screw. The measuring
microscope is illuminated through a small window at the back of the
frame, so that the main scale and the Vernier scales can be easily
observed. The field of view of the microscope is also shown in
Figure.
Fig 2.42
The clinometer is placed on the surface whose angle of

inclination to the horizontal is to be measured. By rotating the turret,
the two spirit levels must be exactly centered and the required angle
can then be observed through the microscope.
2.14 TAPER MEASUREMENT

GAUGES FOR TAPERS
A taper is tested by using taper plug and ring gauges. The
important thing in testing a tapered job is to check the diameter
at bigger end and the change of diameter per unit length. For
testing the correctness along taper, three light lines are drawn
with persian blue about equidistant along the length on the (male
portion) plug gauge or spindle to be tested and it is fitted in the
gauge (female) and rotated once or twice. If persian blue marks
do not run off evenly, the taper is incorrect and setting must be
adjusted until persian blue marks are rubbed equally all along its
length.
Fig 2.43
Taper holes can be checked by a Go and Not go taper plug

limit gauge as shown in figure. At the large end of the gauge
where the large diameter of the taper hole should theoretically

lie, a flat surface is machined on the gauge on which two lines

are engraved, the distance between them is equal to the
tolerance on the base distance. The line nearer to the small end
represents the Go limit and the other near the large end
represents the Not go limit of the taper hole. The dimensional
accuracy of the taper hole will be accepted when the taper
gauge fits in the hole such that the Not go limit remain outside
the hole. This does not provide a positive check of the type of
contact between the mating parts along the whole length of the
fits. These geometrical inaccuracies can be checked by marking
light lines with Persian blue as explained earlier.
Fig 2.44
Taper shafts can be checked by reversible procedure using

taper hole gauges as shown in figure. The solid taper sleeve gauge
has cut a way portion a, on which the Go and Not go limits are
engraved. By inserting the taper shaft in the hole gauge, the small
end of the taper shaft should lie between these two limits. The
geometrical accuracy of the shaft can be checked by the Persian
blue procedure.
The taper ring gauge consists of a taper ring that can be placed
on the taper shaft under test. A cylindrical casing is mounted on
the taper ring and the position of the taper ring relative to the
small end of the shaft can be checked by a gauge pin on which
Go and Not Go limits are marked. To check the geometrical
TAPER RING
accuracy of the taper shaft, more than one taper ring should be
used.
A positive check of the dimensional and geometrical accuracies of

taper shafts can be achieved by using May taper gauge. It consists
of two similar side members separated by a standard central taper
gauge. The taper gauge is provided it a taper work support on which
the taper shaft has to rest. The height of the work support is made
such that the two side members make contact with the taper shaft at
two enveloping lines diametrically opposite. The two side members
and the taper gauge are made separate for the universal use of the
gauge and they can be screwed together. On the top surfaces of one
of the side members the two Go and Not go limits are provided
within which the large diameter of taper shaft should lie. Geometrical
errors can be observed against an illuminated background. Error as
small as 0.01 mm. or even less can be detected by this gauge.
2.14.2 MEASUREMENT OF TAPER SHAFTS
A. Taper shafts having a taper length not exceeding

100 mm.
Fig 2.45
The angle of a taper shaft not exceeding 100 mm length can be

measured by means of:
(i) Standard rollers,
(ii) Slip gauges, and
(iii) Micrometer
The taper plug is to be placed with its small end on a surface plate
as shown in figure. Two Precise rollers of equal diameters are then
placed on the surface plate to contact the surface of the taper plug
of two points diametrically opposite. The distance L 1 across the
rollers can be measured by the micrometer. The same rollers are
placed on two equal columns of slip gauges of height h and the
dimension L2 across them is also measured.
Fig 2.46
Then L2-L1=2h. tan ,
or
L2 L1
tan
2h
where, = taper angle or half the included cone angle.
B. Taper shafts with centre holes and having a taper length

more than 100 mm.
Taper shafts with centre holes and having a taper length more
than 100 mm can be measured by using:
(i) Sine Table
(ii) Taper comparator or
(iii) Eccentricity tester.
Sine table: The sine table shown in figure, is provided with locating
angular grooves in which two rollers of equal diameter are placed.
The taper is mounted between the two centres on the table. The sine
table is placed on a surface plate and adjusted by means of slip
gauges until the top surface of the taper shaft is made parallel to the
surface plate. This can be checked by a dial gauge mounted on the
surface plate. The difference between the height of the slip gauges
column under each roller divided by the given distance between the
rollers, L, gives the sine of the taper angle as

h1 h2
sin
L
Fig 2.47
Taper comparator:
The taper comparator is shown in fig.2.48. It is provided with

one concentric and one eccentric centres so that they can be
exactly aligned. By mounting the centres in the mandrel, they
can be adjusted until their alignment is achieved and the two
dial gauges 1 and 2 of the comparator show the same
reading. The taper shaft under test is then mounted between
the two centres and the readings of the two dial gauge are
observed. The taper angle is the calculated as:
Fig 2.48
G1 G2
tan
Where, L
G1,G2 = reading of dial gauge
L = distance between the measuring plungers of the dial gauges.
2.14.3 MEASUREMENT OF TAPER HOLES

For long and small taper holes below 25 mm:
In order to
measure internal tapers, a
suitable accurate ball of
radius r1 is placed inside
the taper hole, as shown
in figure, and the height h 1
above the ball is
measured by a depth
micrometer. A large ball of
radius r2 is then placed on
the hole and the height h 2
above the ball is also
measured. The taper Fig 2.49
angle of the hole under
test can be calculated as:
r2 r1
sin
(h1 h2 ) (and
Metrology, Machine tool maintenance r2 testing
r1 ) II-49
Every care should be taken to avoid wedging the balls,

either by dropping them inside the hole or by applying high
pressures during the measurement.
For medium and large size taper holes:

For medium and large size taper holes, a more precise
method can be applied using balls and slip gauge, as shown in
figure. The large end of the component is placed downwards on a
surface plate. Two balls of the same diameter are placed on the face
plate and make contact with the internal surface of the taper hole at
points diametrically opposite. The distance L 2 between the two balls
can be measured by means of slip gauges which should be inserted
without force to avoid errors. The two balls are then placed on equal
columns of slip gauges of height h and the distance L 1 separating
the balls is also measured with slip gauges. The taper angle then be
calculated as follows:
Fig 2.50
L2 L1
tan
2h
Measuring a taper hole on the sine table using internal adaptor:

Figure shows the set up for measuring a taper hole on the

sine table using internal adaptor. The internal adapter used consists
of a hollow cylinder with suitable external diameter and a lever,
hinged in the cylinder, whose magnification ratio is1. The taper ring
as placed on one of the centres and adapter is made to contact the
bottom surface of the taper hole. The sine table is adjusted by slip
gauges until the lower surface of the taper hole is set parallel to the
surface plate. This can be ensured when the reading of the dial
gauge, in contact with the adaptor, remains constant during the axial
movement of the adaptor inside the taper hole. In this position, the
angle made by the sine table is equal to the taper angle, angle of the
component being tested.
Fig 2.51

1.15 REVIEW QUESTIONS
ONE MARK QUESTIONS
1. Define Least Count of vernier Caliper.

2. What precautions should be taken while using slip gauges?
3. What is the Least Count of Vernier Caliper and Micrometer?
4. Define linear measurement
5. Define angular measurement.
6. What do you mean by taper measurement.
7. Explain sine bar.
8. Micrometers are designed on the principle of _______ and ______
[Ans :screw and nut]
9. A sine table is the development of the _________ [Ans: sine bar]
10. A __________ is an instrument used for measuring angle relative
to the horizontal plane [Ans: Clinometer]
11. An ______________ is an instrument desired to measure small
angular deflections. [Ans: Auto-collimator]
12. List the instruments used for angular measurement.
13. What is a sine bar.
14. What is the difference between the sine bar and sine table.
15. What is the use of a sine bar
3 MARK QUESTIONS
1. What is the principle of vernier?

2. State the principle of a micrometer.
3. Explain the uses of slip gauges.
4. What are the advantages of a vernier caliper
5. What are the disadvantages of a vernier.

6. What are the uses of vernier height gauge?

7. What are the important features of vernier height gauge?
8. What is the principle of a sine bar?
9. What are the applications of a sine bar?
10. Give one application of a angle dekkor.
10 MARK QUESTIONS
1. State the principle of vernier caliper. Explain briefly the construction

and use of vernier caliper with a neat sketch.
2. Explain the construction and working of a vernier height gauge with
the help of a neat sketch.
3. Draw a neat sketch of a vernier depth gauge and explain its
construction and working.
4. Give the brief description of the outside micrometer.
5. Explain construction and uses of Vernier bevel protractor and
optical bevel protractor.
6 a) Explain a sine bar used for angular measurements
b) Explain measurement of Taper Shaft.
7. Explain with the help of a diagram the principle of a sine bar.
8. What is a sine centre? Explain
9. Give the description of the auto-collimator stating clearly its
principle of working.
10. Explain with neat sketch the construction and working of an angle
dekkor.
11. Explain micro-optic autocollimator
12. Explain briefly the gauges used for measuring tapers.
13. Write in brief about the measurement of taper shafts.
14. Explain briefly about the measurement of taper holes.

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UNIT II Linear, Angular and Taper measurements

UNIT II - LINEAR, ANGULAR AND TAPER MEASUREMENTS

The direct measuring instruments are of two types :

Precision measuring instruments

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing II-1

The measuring instruments/methods can be classified in various

I. (a) Direct Measuring: In which the measured value is determined

2. (a) Absolute: Here, the zero division of the instrument

3. (a) Contact: Here, the measuring tip of the instrument actually

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing II-2

2.1 VERNIER CALIPER

Types of vernier calipers:

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing II-3

Fig 2.2 (A)

Fig 2.2 (B)

Fig 2.2 (C)

In type A, the jaws are provided on both sides for external

Least count of vernier :

L.C = least count

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing II-5

Least count can also be calculated as

The measured dimension = (main scale reading) +

ie) dimension = (MSR) + (N x L.C)

2.2 VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE:

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing II-7

Uses: The Vernier height gauge is designed for accurate

The important features of Vernier height gauge are:

All the parts are made of good quality steel or stainless

2.3 VERNIER DEPTH GAUGE

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing II-8

A graduated beam known as main scale. The sliding head

The beam is perpendicular to the base in both directions and its

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing II-9

While using the instrument, the base is held firmly on the

Depth =(MSR) + (N x L.C)

The accuracy of the Vernier caliper is 0.02 mm. Most

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing II-10

Micrometers work on the principle of screw and nut. We

Least Count of micrometer

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing II-11

U-shaped steel frame : The outside micrometer has U shaped or

Anvil and spindle : The micrometer has a fixed anvil protruding 3

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing II-12

Sleeve or barrel : The sleeve is accurately divided and clearly

Thimble: The thimble can be moved over the parallel. It has 50

Ratchet: The ratchet is provided at the end of the thimble. It is used

2. Reading the Micrometer

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing II-13

2. The barrel has graduations, in intervals of 1 mm above

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing II-14

It consists of the following main parts:

i) Measuring head (micrometer unit)

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing II-15

comparatively small diameters, a handle is provided which can be

Depth micrometer is used to measure the depth of blind

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing II-16

head is placed over the seating of the workpiece. It has a sleeve.

2.5 BORE GAUGES

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing II-17

Certain types of bore dial

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing II-18

This maintains the alignment of the measuring faces in the centre of

This has graduations marked on the dial. The graduations are

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing II-19