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Measurand
It is the physical quantity of property like length, angle
diameter, thickness etc., to be measured.
Reference
It is the physical quantity of property to which the
quantitative comparisons are made.
Comparator
It is the means of comparing measurand with some
reference.
For instance, suppose, a fitter has to measure the length of
a surface table. For this, first he lays steel rule along side the table.
Then, he carefully aligns the zero end of steel rule with one end of
the table and finally compares the length of the table (measurand)
with the graduations on rule (reference) by his eyes (comparator).
Here, the length of the table - Measurand
Steel rule - Reference
Eye - Comparator.
Accuracy
Accuracy is the degree to which the measured value of the
quality characteristic agrees with the true value.
A satisfactory component must have its important surfaces
true with respect to form, relationship and dimensions. Trueness to
form means that cylinder will be round, parallel and straight.
Trueness implies that the surfaces which should be perpendicular
will be within a close approach to 90 0. The degree to which the
perfection of accuracy is attained will be depend on the following
factors:
a) The grade of the product
b) The classification of the product
c) Function of the surface concerned
Fig 1.1
FREQUENCY
LINE STANDARDS
When the length is measured as the distance between
centres of two engraved lines, it is called line standard. Both the
standards yard and metre are line standards. The most common
example of line measurements is the rule with divisions shown as
lines marked on it.
END STANDARDS:
When length is expressed as the distance between two flat
parallel faces, it is known as end standard.
Examples: Measurement by slip gauges, end bars, ends of
micrometer anvils, Vernier calipers etc.
WAVELENGTH STANDARD
In 1829, Jacques Babinet, a French philosopher, suggested
that wavelengths of monochromatic light might be used as natural
and invariable units of length. It was nearly a century later that the
Seventh General Conference of Weights and Measures in Paris
approved the definition of a standard of length relative to the metre
in terms of the wave length of the red radiations of cadmium.
Although this was not the establishment of a new legal standard of
length, it set the seal on work which kept on going for a number of
years.
Material standards are liable to destruction and their
dimensions changes slightly with time. But with the
monochromatic light we have the advantage of constant
wavelength and since the wavelength is not a physical one, it
reproduction. This is reproducible standard of length, and the
error of reproduction can be of the order of 1 part in 100 millions.
It is because of this reason that International standard the metre
in terms of wavelength of krypton 86 (Kr 86 ).
Light wavelength standard, for sometime, had to be objected
because of the impossibility of producing pure monochromatic
light as wavelength depends upon the amount of isotope
impurity in the elements. But now with the rapid development in
atomic energy industry, pure isotopes of natural elements have
been produced. Krypton 95, Mercury 198 and Cadmium 114 are
possible sources of radiation of wavelength suitable as natural
standard of length.
and certain parts of the body, e.g., the length of the forearm show a
surprising degree of consistency.
Fig 1.2
Primary Length Standards Based on Material
620F)
(a)
Fig 1.5
UNIT I Standards of measurements & Principles of measuring instruments
SOURCES OF ERRORS
In all measurements, there will be inaccuracy to some
extent. This error could be expressed either as an absolute error or a
relative scale, most commonly as a percentage of full scale.
It is of significant importance that, where ever possible the
sources of measuring error should be determined and due
allowance made for them in the measured size of the component.
Such errors fall broadly into two categories:
1. Controllable errors.
2. Random errors.
1. Controllable errors: These errors are also known as systematic
and are controllable in both their magnitude and stress. These can
be determined and reduced, if attempts are made to analyse them.
These can be due to:
i) Calibration errors: The actual length of standards such as
slip gauges and engraved scales will vary from nominal value by
small amount. Sometimes the instrument inertia and hysteresis
effects do not let the instrument translate with complete with
complete fidelity. Often signal transmission errors such as a drop in
voltage along the wires between the transducer and the electric
meter occur. For high order accuracy these variations have positive
significance and to minimize such variations calibration curves must
be used.
ii) Ambient conditions: The variations in the ambient
conditions from internationally agreed standard value of 20C,
barometric pressure 760mm of mercury, and 10mm of mercury
vapour pressure, can give rise to errors in the measured size of the
component. Temperature is by far the most significant of these
ambient conditions and due correction is needed to obtain results
free from error.
iii) Stylus pressure: Error induced due to stylus pressure is
also appreciable. Whenever any component is measured under a
definite stylus pressure both the deformation of the work piece
surface and deflection of the workpiece shape will occur.
iv) Avoided errors: These errors include the errors due to
parallax and the effect of misalignment of the workpiece centres.
Instrument location errors such as placing a thermometer in sunlight
when attempting to measure air temperature also to this category of
errors.
2. Random errors: The random errors occur randomly and specific
causes of such errors cannot be determined. The likely sources of
this type of error are:
Small variations in the position of setting standards
and workpiece.
Slight displacement of level joints in the measuring
instrument.
Transition fluctuation in the friction in measuring
instrument.
Operator errors in the reading scale and pointer type
displays or in reading engraved scale positions.
1. Direct Method
Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing I-20
UNIT I Standards of measurements & Principles of measuring instruments
It is a simple method of measurement, in which the value of
the quantity to be measured is obtained directly without any
calculations. This method is not very accurate because it depends
on human insensitiveness in making judgment.
Example: Measurement by using scales, vernier calipers,
micrometers, bevel protractor etc;
2. Indirect Method
It is a method of measurement, in which the value of the
quantity to be measured is obtained by measuring other quantities
which are functionally required to the required value.
Example: Angle measurement by sine bar, measurement of screw
pitch diameter by three wire method etc.
3. Absolute Method
It is based on the measurement of the base quantities by
which the quantity to be used is defined.
Example: Measuring a quantity directly in accordance with the
definition of that quantity (or) Measuring a quantity indirectly by
direct measurement of the quantities linked with the definition o the
quantity to be measured.
4. Comparative Method
In this method, the value of the quantity to be measured is
compared with known value of the same quantity or other quantity or
other quantity practically related to it. So, only the deviations from a
master gauge are determined.
Example: Measurement by dial indicators, or other comparators.
5. Transposition Method
It is a method of measurement by direct comparison in
which the value of the quantity measured is first balanced by an
initial known value A of the same quantity, then the value of the
quantity measured is put in place of this known value. Then, it is
balanced again by another known value B. If the position of the
element indicating equilibrium is the same in both cases, the value
of the quantity to be measured is . AB
6. Coincidence Method
It is a differential method of measurement, in which a very
small difference between the value of the quantity to be measured
and the reference is determined by the observation of the
coincidence of certain lines or signals.
Example: Measurement by Vernier caliper and Micrometer.
7. Deflection Method
In this method, the value of the quantity to be measured is
directly indicated by a deflection of a pointer on a calibrated scale.
8. Complementary Method
In this method, the value of the quantity to be measured is
combined with a known value of the same quantity. The combination
is adjusted, such that the sum of these two values is equal to
predetermined comparison value.
Example: Determination of the volume of a solid by liquid
displacement.
Lever Method
The principle of a simple magnifying lever
(consisting of a multiplying lever and a scale) is shown in the
figure1.6. The lever is supported on a knife edge support.
When a distance l is measured by the indicator, the
magnification ratio is given by:
Fig 1.6
UNIT I Standards of measurements & Principles of measuring instruments
Vernier Method
In vernier method, a vernier is used. It is an
additional scale which is used in place of a pointer or indication
line on the movable member and it enables the main fixed scale
to be read to a smaller value.
Refer fig.1.7 if the graduations of the main scale
are in cm and each is divided into 10 mm, the readings taken by
such a scale will be accurate within one mm. If a sliding vernier
is provided, whose scale length equals 9 mm but is divided into
10 equal divisions, the difference between the scale division of
the vernier and that of the main scale will be (1.0-9/10)= 0.1 mm.
If the vernier scale is set so that its zero coincides with the zero
line of the main scale, the first line on the vernier scale will be
0.1 mm shorter than the corresponding line on the main scale.
Therefore, a scale value of 0.1 mm can be achieved by using a
vernier.
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UNIT I Standards of measurements & Principles of measuring instruments
Fig 1.7
When the scale is to be read, the reading of the main scale
is first taken upto the zero mark of the vernier then the
reading of the vernier scale graduation that coincides with
the division on the main scale is noted, which gives the
fraction of the main scale graduation according to the scale
value of the vernier.
The vernier principle can also be applied for increasing the
accuracy of angular measurements.
Fig 1.8
UNIT I Standards of measurements & Principles of measuring instruments
The scale should read zero when the anvils (fixed and
movable) are in contact. The readings of the scale give the distance
between the end faces of the anvils.
If p is the pitch of the screw thread and N is the total number
of equal divisions on the barrel nut then the corresponding axial shift
per movement of one division on the barrel nut is given as the
scale value of the instrument by :
p
N
Fig 1.9
Now, let the reflection surface be tilted through an angle
as in fig.1.10, it will be seen that the normal turns through this angle
while the incident ray remains stationary. The angle of incidence
therefore, changes by the same amount relative to the normal, and
so does the angle of reflection. The resultant angle between the
incident and reflected rays therefore changes by 2 .
The use of a tilting mirror to magnify small angular
movements is therefore greatly favoured in a number of applications,
both in metallurgy and other branches of technology.
Fig 1.10
The effect of reflection from a black-silvered mirror is shown
in figure1.11. Here there are two reflections, one from the silvered
back and a another one from the front surface. It is because of this
secondary reflection that front surface-aluminised mirrors are often
used on projectors and similar instruments.
Fig 1.11
UNIT I Standards of measurements & Principles of measuring instruments
Fig 1.12
These two colours lie at the extremes of the visible spectrum. This
phenomenon indicates that the refractive index is not the same for
each wave length of light.
Lens
A lens may be regarded as an infinite number of prismatic
units of constantly changing angles which decrease from the
edges the centre.
A convex lens is thicker at the centre converges a parallel
beam of light passing through as the principle focus. A real image is
formed.
Fig 1.14
Fig 1.15
Depending upon the optical set up, these interference bands (as
they are called) can appear as parallel bands or as concentric
circles. These interference phenomena can be used to make
measurements of high precision by utilising the fact that the path
difference between two dark bands or two light bands is one wave
length. For such work it is essential to have light of single wave
length, and, for this purpose, the light emitted by certain elements,
Optical Prism
Optical prisms consist of solid of highly transparent
homogeneous glass with three or more polished plane faces.
The optical prisms are widely used in:
i Construction of optical measuring instrument for
rectifying images which would otherwise be inverted.
ii Bending rays of light into new directions.
Optical Projectors
Optical methods of measurement can be divided into
following two general classes:
1. Those in which the object being measured is viewed or
magnified by a projector or microscope.
All instruments in this class consist of projector or
microscopes.
2. Those in which the application of optics is indirect.
This class includes instruments such as optical dividing
heads and comparators, where lens systems are used
to give the necessary magnification for reading of a
scale, or to provide magnification of a mechanical
movement by means of optical levers.
4. Screen
Fig 1.17
Advantages :
a. The projected image may be measured or compared with a
prepared diagram.
Transformation of Energy
It is possible to transform any form of energy into electrical
energy which can be measured by electrical measuring instruments.
Transducers (Transducer is a device which converts the
energy from one form to another) can be classified as follows :
d
i.e., -
dt
The change of flux, with a constant magnetic field, can be
achieved by two ways:
i By a relative movement between the coil and the constant
magnetic field.
ii By changing the magnetic resistance. To achieve mechanical
work has to be supplied.
Fig 1.18
2. Photo-voltaic cells
Variating of Electrical Parameters
Several physical parameters are related to the electric
parameters. While using such relationship for measurements it
should be ensured that they are simple, constant and not influenced
by external phenomenon, especially when the effect of the
phenomena is accidental and cannot be predetermined.
The following relationship should be mentioned:
1. Direct relationship between the capacitance
parameters being measured and one of the electrical
parameters.
Example : Dimensions and the capacitance of the condenser.
2. The mechanical parameter being measured
is applied to change of physical parameter, which in turn varies
an electrical parameter.
Fig 1.19
Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing I-41
UNIT I Standards of measurements & Principles of measuring instruments
3 MARK QUESTIONS
10 MARK QUESTIONS