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ENVIRONMENTAL
POLLUTION
(MEDICAL GEOLOGY)
HAZARDS, RISK, POLLUTION
 (Human) Environment

Environment is the whole context of human life

the physical, chemical, and biological settings of
where and how people live. Thus, the home, air,
water, food, neighborhood, workplace, and even
climate constitute aspects of the human
environment.
 Hazard vs. Risk
HAZARD = Any substance or action that can cause injury,
disease, death, economic loss, or environmental damage.

(1) Natural Events - Relatively rapid; Not preventable

(2) Regional Changes - Very slow ; Largely preventable
(3) Pollution - Relatively slow; Largely preventable

RISK = The probability of suffering loss or damage from a

hazard

RISK ASSESSMENT = The evaluation of risk for a

particular hazard under specific stipulated conditions,
before the actual occurrence of the hazard

RISK MANAGEMENT = The response of the

lawmakers/administrators to risk assessment
EPAs Risk-Assessment Process (a very simplified version)
Figure 18.11

Source: After D.E. Pattor, The ABCs of Risk Assessment, EPA Journal 19, Vol. 1, 1993, U.S. Environmental Protection
18-13 Agency.
 Some common hazards
Hazardous Action Annual Risk of death

Cigarette smokers 10 per 1,000

All cancers 2.0 per 1,000
Fire fighters 4.0 per 10,000
Hang gliding 2.6 per 10,000
Air pollution 2.5 per 10,000
Auto accident 1.6 per 10,000
Airline pilot 10 per 100,000
Mountain hiking 6.4 per 100,000
Alcohol consumption 6.4 per 100,000
Boating 5.0 per 100,000
Swimming 3.0 per 100,000
Chest X-ray 3.0 per 1,000,000
 Actual Risk vs.
Public Perception of Risk (1990)
EPAs Top List Public Perception
(unranked) (ranked)

Global climate change Active hazardous waste sites

Up. Atm. ozone depletion Abandoned hazardous wastes
Alteration of habitat Water pollution from wastes
Extinction of species/ Occupational exposure to
Loss of biodiversity toxic chemicals
Air pollution Oil spills
Indoor air pollution Ozone hole
Drinking water Nuclear power plant accidents
Occupational exposure Radiation from radioactive
to toxic chemicals wastes
Application of pesticides Air pollution
 Pollution
POLLUTION = An undesirable change in the
physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of
an ecosystem that poses risks to human health
(and other living organisms)

[EPA definition: Pollution is the presence of a

substance (i.e., pollutant) in the environment that
because of its chemical composition or quantity
prevents the functioning of natural processes and
produces undesirable environmental and health
effects.]
|
 Pollution problems have been increasing since
the industrial revolution because of:
(a) Exponential growth in population
(b) Rapid growth in per capita consumption of
materials and energy, with
corresponding increase in
byproduct pollutants
 RELEVANT QUESTIONS

1. What are the pollutants?

2. What are the sources of pollutants?

3. What can we do about pollution?

Prevention
Remediation
 WHAT ARE THE POLLUTANTS?

The risks to human health arise from two types of

pollutants:
(a) Chemicals containing toxic elements or
compounds above human tolerance levels
(damage of body tissues, cancer, chemical
imbalance, etc)
Inorganic
Organic

(b) Radioactive substances

Ionizing radiation emitted by radioactive
substances may damage living tissues
 Sources of Pollution

Point Sources

Non-point Sources

In general, point sources are somewhat

easier to handle than non-point sources
Point-Source
Pollution in the
U.S.
Figure 16.15A

16-18 Source: Modified from U.S. Water Resources Council, The Nations Water Resources 1975-2000, vol. 1, pp. 61-63.
Nonpoint-Source
Pollution in the
U.S.
Figure 16.15B

16-19 Source: Modified from U.S. Water Resources Council, The Nations Water Resources 1975-2000, vol. 1, pp. 61-63.
Residence Time
CHEMICALS
 Hazardous Material
EPA categorizes (chemical) hazardous material
(HAZMAT) on the basis of following properties:

(1) Ignitability (flammability) e.g., gas, alcohol

(2) Corrosivity e.g., acids
(3) Reactivity e.g., explosives
(4) Toxicity e.g., chlorine, ammonia, pesticides
(substances that are injurious to health when
ingested or inhaled)
 Toxic Substances
Inorganic
Heavy metals and their compounds
(Pb, Hg, As, Cd, Sn, Cr, Zn, Cu)
Bioaccumulation Biomagnification

Gases
(S-gases, C-gases, N-gases, ozone)

Miscellaneous
(asbestos, nitrates, sulfates)

Organic
Insecticides and pesticides

Halogenated hydrocarbons
[e.g., tetrachloroethylene (C2H6), carbon
tetrachloride (CCl4), etc.]
 Health Effects of some organic pollutants

Aldrin (pesticide) toxic, carcinogenic?

Dieldrin (insecticide) convulsions, kidney damage
DDT (insecticide) convulsions, kidney damage
Endrin (insecticide) toxic, esp. in aquatic systems
PCBs (industrial) vomiting, abdominal pain, liver damage
Hexachlorobenzene (fungicide) anemia, bone marrow
damage, carcinogenic
Phenols death at high doses
Dioxin (byproducts of incineration and paper bleaching)
acute skin rashes, systematic damage, death
Use of DDT Still Present in Fish Tissues (Figure 16.7A)
Use of DDT for most applications was banned in USA in 1972.

16-6 Source: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1225.

 Health effects of selected toxic elements with
human tolerance levels (in mg/liter) set by
U.S. Public Health Service
Arsenic (0.05) damages nervous system, paralysis
Barium (1.0) Gastrointenstinal effects, laxative
Cadmium (0.01) kidney effects
Copper (1.0) Gastrointenstinal irritant, liver damage
Chromium (0.05) Liver/kidney damage
Fluoride (4.0) mottled tooth enamel
Lead (0.05) attacks nervous system and kidneys
(highly toxic to pregnant women and infants)
Mercury (0.002) Central nervous system disorder, kidney
disfunction
Nitrates (10.0) Blue baby syndrome (caused by bloods
inability to carry blood)
Selenium (0.01) Gastronomical effects
Silver (0.05) Skin discoloration
Sodium (20-170) Hypertension and cardiac difficulties
 Ultimate Sources of Chemical Pollutants
Natural Sources
Rocks
Soils
Water
Air
Forest fires
Volcanic eruptions

Human Activities (Anthropogenic Sources)

Mining of ore deposits
Burning of fossil fuels
Automobiles
Wastes (Agricultural, Livestock, Industrial, Municipal)
Leaky systems: storage tanks, sewage pipes, septic
landfills,
Most of the anthropogenic pollutants, actually, are byproducts
of otherwise worthy and essential activities
 Immediate sources of
chemical pollutants
Food

Water Human Body

Air
Principal Sources of
Solid Wastes
Figure 15.1

15-1 Source: J.E. Fergusson, 1982. Inorganic Chemistry and the Earth, New York: Pergamon Press.
Traverse Track Across a Tailings Pile
Figure 16.23

16-24 Source: USGS Spectroscopy Lab.

Acidity Conditions of Metals
Figure 16.24B

16-25 Source: USGS Spectroscopy Lab.

Industrial Solid-Waste
Sources
Figure 15.2

15-2 Source: Data from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Composition of
Municipal Solid
Waste (Figure 15.30

In 1989, the Knox County

residents produced
336,396 tons of municipal
garbage (enough to fill
the Neyland Stadium to
the sky boxes), an average
of 1.01 tons per person!

15-3 Source: Data from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Primary Waste of Offices is Paper
Figure 15.13

15-10 Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

 Disposal of discarded
electronic equipment
This is a special problem facing the modern, high-tech,
consumer communities.
By the time flat-pannel and digital TVs become mainstream
in 2006, more than 163,000 TVs and computers are
expected to become obsolete per day in USA. That amounts
to 3,500 tons of material containing many hazardous
substances (especially, Pb, Cd, Hg) that can contaminate
groundwater and soil if tossed into the landfills. Recycling
of cathode-ray tube (CRT) is expensive ($20-$30 per CRT)
so that the proper disposal of the discarded CRTs may cost
about $100 million a month California will tack a $6 to $10
surcharge onto new TVs and monitors to fund recycling
programs (USA TODAY, Nov 29, 2004).
Trends in Municipal Waste Disposal
Figure 15.15

15-12 Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Lowry Landfill in Colorado
Figure 15.4B

15-4 Source: Photograph courtesy USGS Photo Library, Denver, CO.

Risks Posed by Waste-Disposal Sites
Figure 15.16A

15-13 Source: Photograph by S.C. Delaney, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, courtesy of USGS Photo Library, Denver, CO.
Unburied Waste Drums
Figure 15.16B

15-14 Source: Photograph by S.C. Delaney, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, courtesy of USGS Photo Library, Denver, CO.
Shortages in U.S. Landfill Capacity
Figure 15.7

15-5 Source: Data from Directory and Atlas of Solid Waste Disposal Facilities, map from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Figure 15.21 First Toxic-Waste Dump Sites

Total =951

Sites placed or
The Defense Dept proposed for
is responsible for placement, on th
>10% of these sites and EPA National
it is not cooperating with Priority List (NPL
EPA for clean-up for Superfund
clean-up
15-16 Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (July, 1987)
Completed Removals of Superfund Sites during the first decade of
Superfund (1980-1990)

Figure 15.22

Source: Data from Superfund Emergency Response Action, Sixth Annual ReportFiscal Year 1991, U.S. Environmental
15-17 Protection Agency.
Progress of Superfund NPL Sites
Figure 15.23

15-18 Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Location of
Wastes Awaiting
Disposal
Figure 15.25

15-19 Source: From U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management.
Nitrate Concentrations Higher in Ag Areas
Figure 16.18

16-21 Source: U.S. Geological Survey National Water Quality Assessment Program.
 HOW DO WE DETERMINE
THE TOLERANCE LEVELS?

(1) Epidemiological approach (statistical)

(2) Toxicologic approach (experimental)

DoseResponse Curve for each toxic element
Type A Curve (e.g., Pb, Ag)
Type B Curve (e.g., Ca)
Type C curve (e.g., I, F, Zn, Se)
Limitations for application to human beings
 Nitrogen: Too much of a good thing?
[Driscoll, Charles, et al., 2003, Nitrogen pollution: sources and consequences
in the U.S. northeast. Environment, v.45. P.8-22
Smil, Vaclav, 2003, Global population and the nitrogen cycle. Scientific
American, v. 277, Issue 1 (July), p. 76-82]

Sources of nitrogen : Primary and Secondary

Harmful effects of excessive nitrogen in the
environment
Measures to remove excess nitrogen
Nitrogen pollution problem in the northeast USA
 Mercury: A problem that can be eliminated
[Lutter, R. and Irvin, E., 2002, Mercury in the environment, a volatile problem.
Environment, v. 44, p. 24-40.
Pinsker, Lisa M., 2003, In search of the mercury solution. Geotimes, August
Issue, p.16-25. ]

Harmful health effects of mercury

Sources of mercury in the environment
The geochemical cycle of mercury
How to control the concentration of mercury in
the environment?
How to avoid Hg ingestion?
 Asbestos: Did we overreact?
[Some Facts about asbestoshttp://water.usgs.gov/wid/index.resources.html
Alleman, J.E. and Mossman, B.T, 1997, Asbestos revisited. Scientific
American, v. 277, Issue 1, 9p
Gunter, M.E., 1994, Asbestos as a metamphor for teaching risk perception. J.
Geol. Education, v. 42, p. 17-24.
<www.osha-slc.gov/SLTC/asbestos/]

Useful properties of asbestos: softness and flexibility of the

fibers, thermal insulation and resistance to fire

Important uses of asbestos: gaskets and packing (mixed

with paper), brake shoes and clutches, vinyl-asbestos
tiles, fire-proofing.

Inhaling asbestos fibers carries the risk of three pulmonary

diseases:
(1) asbestosis (hardening of lung tissues)
(2) mesothelioma (a tumor in the chest or gut)
(3) lung cancer
 Asbestos: Did we overreact? (contd.)
However, all of the asbestos mined and used in USA at present is
chrysotile (composed of softer and more flexible fibers compared
to amphibole-type asbestos), which is not that harmful.

Asbestos is the most expensive pollutant in terms of regulation

and removal. The removal of asbestos from schools and public
buildings continue at an expense of billions of dollars per year,
not because of a real threat to human health, but because of a
combination of public perception of risk, financial gains of the
abatement industry, and the legal system.

Although very few asbestos products have been banned in U.S.,

there are almost no asbestos-containing products manufactured
specifically for use by the general public.

About 15,000 metric tons of asbestos, all chrysotile and the bulk
of it imported from Canada, was used in USA in 1999 (compared to
a high of 719,000 metric tons in 1973): Asphaltic roofing
compounds used on commercial buildings (61%); gaskets (19%);
and friction products such as brake shoes and clutches (13%) .
 Lead: A success story of
government intervention
[Flippelli, G.M. et al., 2005, Urban lead poisoning and medical geology.
GSA Today, v. 15, No. 1, p.4-11]

The number of children (1 to 5 years old) in USA affected by lead

poisoning (neurotoxicity) has been reduced by 80% since the late
1970s to the current level of 2.2%.
The reason for this success is a drastic reduction in the sources
of Pb through bans on the use of Pb-containing products:
Leaded gasoline (addition of ~2% PbO)
Paints (addition about 15% Pb)
[Paints containing Pb are extremely durable and
flexible]
Water pipes [which,presumably led to the downfall of the
Roman Empire]
Lead in storage batteries are recycled
However, ~ 15% of urbane children, mostly belonging to the low-
economic-status minority groups, still exhibit blood Pb levels
above what is considered the safe limit (10 g per deciliter).
This is due to the persistence of Pb in the surface soils because of
extremely low solubility of Pb-compounds.
Declines in Gasoline Lead
Reflected in Blood
Figure 17.13A

17-13 Source: After L. Whiteman, Trends to Remember: The Lead Phase Down, EPA Journal, May/June 1992, p. 38.
Lead Emissions are Negligible
Figure 17.13B

17-14 Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Emissions Trends 1990-1998.
RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
 Radioactivity

Radioactivity is the spontaneous decay of heavy

elements by emission of:
Alpha () particles
Beta () particles
Gamma () rays

The - rays are the most penetrating and, therfore,

the most damaging to body tissues.
 Possible Adverse Effects of Ionizing
Radiation on Human Health
The effects of radiation increases with the dosage (the
amount of radiation received). Some rough estimates of the
damage expected at various dosages of radiation are:

1000-5000 rems Diarrhea, fever, blood chemical

imbalance, Death in 1-14 days.

600-1000 rems White blood cells destroyed. Bowel

malfunction in 4-6 weeks. 80-100% chance of death.

200-600 rems Low white blood cell count. Blotchy skin in

4-6 weeks. 50% chance of death.

100-200 rems Not immediately fatal. Long term risk of

cancer increases

0-100 rems Nausea, vomiting. Not fatal

 Sources of Ionizing Radiation
Natural deposits of uranium
Our environment
Rocks and minerals, food, cosmic ray, etc.
Nuclear power generation
Fuel for nuclear reactors
Nuclear reactors
Wastes from nuclear reactors
Nuclear weapons production
Weapons
Wastes
Testing
 Radiation Dose Limits

DOE Limits ORNL Limits

Whole body 5 rem/year 1.5 rem/year

Extremeties 50 rem/year 10 rem/year
Skin 50 rem/year 10 rem/year
Eye Lens 15 rem/year 3 rem/year
Pregnant 0.5 rem/year 0.05 rem/year
Visitors/Public 0.1 rem/year 0.1 rem/year
 DESIRABLE MEASURES TO
COMBAT POLLUTION
1. Reduce/Eliminate pollutants at source
(the best solution)
2. Prevent pollutants from entering the
environment
(not always practicable; often ignored by
polluters because of economic reasons)
3. Implement scientifically sound remedial
actions
(the problems are lack of political will,
administrative management, and adequate
funding, not science)
 ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS
Voluntary implementation of recommended measures
usually does not work.

Some important Environmental Legislation:

National Environmental Policy Act (1969)
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) (1970)
The Toxic Substances Control Act (1976)
Clean Water Act (1977)
Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act (1980)
(CERCLA) Superfund
Clean Air Act and amendments (1965, 1970, 1990)
 The Economics of Pollution Control

Our goal should be to

optimal pollution, not
zero pollution
 Can Pollution Rights Trading Effectively
control Environmental Pollution Problems?
THE END
Disposal
Methods in
Selected
Countries
Figure 15.8

Source: Data from Geology and the Environment in Western Europe, ed. by G.I. Lumsden. Copyright 1992 Calrendon Press,
15-6 Oxford, England.
Point and Nonpoint
Pollution Sources
Figure 16.2

16-2 Source: After USDA Soil Conservation Service.

Acid Mine Drainage
Figure 16.3

16-3 Source: Photograph courtesy USGS Photo Library, Denver, CO.

Detection of Pesticides in Urban & Ag Areas
Figure 16.6A

16-5 Source: USGS Pesticides National Synthesis Project, 2000.

Feedlots a Major Source of Organic Wastes
Figure 16.8

16-7 Source: Photograph courtesy of USGS Photo Library, Denver, CO.

Potential
Nonpoint-Source
Pollution
Figure 16.12B

16-11 Source: After L.J. Puckett, U.S. Geological Survey National Water-Quality Assessment Program.
Groundwater
Pollution Problems
Figure 16.17

16-20 Source: Modified from U.S. Water Resources Council, The Nations Water Resources 1975-2000, vol. 1, p. 65.