Estética en La Cerámica

Human-Animal Imagery, Shamanic Visions, and Ancient American Aesthetics
Author(s): Rebecca Stone-Miller

Source: RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics, No. 45 (Spring, 2004), pp. 47-68
Published by: {ucpress)
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20167621
Accessed: 01-02-2017 00:01 UTC
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted
digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about
JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
http://about.jstor.org/terms
is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics
This content downloaded from 201.144.58.243 on Wed, 01 Feb 2017 00:01:37 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
Human-animal imagery, shamanic visions, and
ancient American aesthetics
REBECCA STONE-MILLER
Introduction these first humans merely crumbled, to be replaced by

wooden ones who had no hearts and ultimately became
Whereas separation from and dominance over the
the monkeys (ibid:73). Here a reversible relationship
natural world is basic to Western thought, Native
between humans and animals is posited. The divine
American cultures emphasized an animal-human
creative force actually allowed animals (and animated
continuum, from creation times onward.1 The
objects) to destroy the wooden people. Turkeys and
foundational myths of Mesoamerica, for example, are
dogs, both domesticated, edible animals, turned on the
filled with people and divinities that have integral,
wooden beings and accused them, "You caused us pain,
viable, and legitimate animal aspects, stages, and/or
you ate us, but now it is you whom we shall eat"
forms. The Popol Vuh, the famous Maya book of
(ibid.:72). People finally attain their full-fledged
creation, begins by naming the creator as: "The Maker,
humanity from a mixture of animal blood and maize
The Modeler, named Bearer, Begetter, Hunahpu
(Miller and Taube 1993:70). Thus, this formative Maya
Possum, Hunahpu Coyote, Great White Peccary, Coati,
narrative placed animals as the earliest stages of
Sovereign Plumed Serpent, Heart of the Lake, Heart of
humanity, featured them as main characters throughout,
the Sea, plate shaper, bowl shaper, ... the midwife,
and at times even let animals gain the upper hand.
matchmaker..." (Tedlock 1996:63, author's italics). In
Plants, too, were absolutely integral to the final human
this account, divine, animal, and human elements are
form, embedding humankind firmly among the fauna
presented as interchangeable aspects of the prime
and flora of the natural world. Similarly, Aztec (Mexica)
supernatural creative force. This power first created
creation myths posited eras of victorious jaguars, people
animals as "an experiment with the human work, the
who became monkeys, butterflies, dogs, turkeys, and
human design" (ibid.:66-68), but since the animals did
fish, as well as successful humans coming from blood
not speak, they were relegated to lives of service and
mixed with bones, ground like maize for tortillas (ibid.).
consumption. In the sequence of creation, animals did,
Many other Amerindian peoples saw the early races of
however, precede the earliest people. Made of clay,
humans as the result of mating with animals, especially
dogs (Schwartz 1997:19-28), so that the resulting
A version of this paper was presented at the 2000 College Art viable human beings were fundamentally two animals
Association meeting as part of a session organized by Carolyn T?te conflated.
entitled "Gods? Cults? Deities? The Problematic of the Spiritual in
In many cultures of ancient Mesoamerica nearly
Non-Western Art/' It represents an initial foray into a study to be
entitled Flowers in the Dark: Visions and the Artistic Enterprise in the
every ritual day, and thus every person born (Miller
Ancient Americas, referring to the fact that such vision-inducing plants
2001:39), had as one of their names that of an animal
as peyote (Lophophora williamsi) and the "San Pedro" cactus (caiman, monkey, deer, jaguar, etc.), plant (flower, grass,
{Trichocereus pachanoi) flower at night, aptly encapsulating the etc.), or a natural phenomenon (rain, wind, etc.).
inverted world of shamanic ritual and thought. Personal names were also rife with animal referents,
1. For instance, the creation account in Genesis emphatically
emphasized that God created humans in absolute distinction from, as
such as the famous Mixtee woman warrior 6 Monkey's
well as superiority and dominion over, all animals: "And God said, Let nickname of "Serpent Quechquemitl" (Snake Cape) or
us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have the great king "8 Deer Tiger [Jaguar] Claw" (Marcus
dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and 1992:380, 385-387). A Maya king may be a "Great
over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing
Blue-Green Quetzal Macaw" (Yax Kuk Moh, the lineage
that creepeth upon the earth. . . . And God blessed them [the man and
woman he had just created], and God said unto them, Be fruitful and
founder at Copan [Fash 1991:79]) and an Aztec ruler a
multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion "Hummingbird Feather" (Huitzilihuitl, the second
over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every Mexica ruler [Townsend 2000:12]). Likewise, in Andean
living thing that moveth over the earth" (Genesis 1:26-28, author's art, even when no record of a person's name remains,
italics). A rare Medieval depiction of Adam naming the animals clearly
consistent attributes in artistic imagery may still allow us
illustrates human superiority by locating the figure of Adam well above
to call him "The Owl Priest" (Stone-Miller 2002b:85).
those of the animals (Clark 1956:52). In Greek traditions, to be turned
into an animal or plant was usually a punishment or an act of pity, as Moche ceramic sculptures, Paracas embroideries, and
it was for Narcissus, Aktaion, Daphne, Syrinx, Philomela, and Prokne Wari stone reliefs, to name a few, show people who are
(Martin 2003:85, 12,46, 111). simultaneously deer, birds, butterflies, beans, potatoes,
48 RES 45 SPRING 2004
maize, or even peanuts (fig. 1). Even though analysis of

the art of Central America lags behind that of other
areas, there are recurrent crocodile-, insect-, jaguar-,
and bird-people throughout the Panamanian and Costa
Rican corpus (figs. 2, 8, 9 [left],11, 12).2 There is no
denying the visual evidence that the cultural categories
of "human," "animal," and "plant" were seen, and
depicted, as overlapping, even to some extent
interchangeable, all across the ancient Americas.
Shamanic visions
However clear the importance of animals to Native

American cultures and however well-worn the truism
that Amerindians sought "harmony with nature," the
spiritual basis for this shared human-animal trajectory
still requires our attention, as do the artistic implications
of such a fundamental spiritual connection. I argue here
that the unified animal-human continuum presented
throughout the art of the indigenous Americas flows
from the high value placed on visionary experiences of
animal transformation. A primary aspect of altered
consciousness is often the direct kinesthetic experience
of becoming an animal, or several animals, and/or
watching animals change into other animals and beings.
This is both a visceral and a visual experience, but not
one that partakes of "normal" seeing and corporeal
Figure 1. Left: Stirrup Spout Vessel with Peanut-Human Playing
sensation.
a Qena. South America, Central Andes, North Coast, Moche.
Examples abound in the American tradition of animal Early Intermediate Period, A.D. 1-650. Ceramic. 83/4x 8 in.
transformation, from ancient and colonial texts to (22.2 x 20.3 cm). 1988.12.3. Gift of William C. and Carol W.
modern shamans' and scientific subjects' narrations of Thibadeau, Michael C. Carlos Museum. Right: Maize Being
their visions. Again in the Popol Vuh the human leader Vessel. South America, Central Andes, North Coast, Moche.
of the Quiche (K'iche') peoples spends time in the sky Early Intermediate Period, a.D. 1-650. Ceramic. 10V4x 213/4in.
and in the Underworld as a snake, an eagle, and a circum. (26 x 55.2 cm circum.). 1989.8.73. Gift of William C.
and Carol W. Thibadeau, Michael C. Carlos Museum
"tigre" ([jaguar], see Musgrave-Portilla 1982:14). In 1530
(Photograph by Michael McKelvey).
Herrera reported on the Indian account of the founding
of Cerriquin, Honduras, on the spot where a 200-year
old woman named Coamizagual became a bird, flew
away, and never more was seen as a woman (op. cit.).
During a healing session, a contemporary Peruvian ... I wasn't a fish anymore, but a big cat, a tiger. I walked,
shaman heard an owl screeching and in her visions the though, feeling the same freedom I had experienced as a
owl was an enemy shaman's shadow self (Glass-Coffin bird and a fish, freedom of movement, flexibility, grace, I
1998:122). Finally, a modern scientific subject from moved as a tiger in the jungle, joyously, feeling the ground
under my feet, feeling my power; my chest grew larger. I
Santiago perhaps summed it up best when he
then approached an animal, any animal. / only saw its
described himself first as becoming an immense bird,
neck, and then experienced what a tiger feels when looking
then a fish, then:
at its prey. (Naranjo 1973:185, author's italics)
Such a complete identification of oneself with an

animal, to the extent of experiencing a mighty predator's
2. See, for example, Stone-Miller 2002a: cat. nos. 143, 147, 157, selective focus on the vulnerable necks of potential prey,
187, 219, 222, 261, 263, 297, 311, 325, 355, 356, 396, 397. certainly informs the images discussed in this essay.
Stone-Miller: Human-animal imagery, shamanic visions, and ancient American aesthetics 49
Amerindian artists conveyed conflated human-animal

beings as "real" in their definition of reality.3 As
examples, a famous Moche stirrup spout vessel features
a woman shaman with an owl head (Stone-Miller
2002b:111, ill. 89) and an allied Costa Rican ceramic
effigy of a woman shaman (fig. 2) actively transforms
into a crocodile. Her round eyes bulge out; her head
erupts into scutes (bony ridges); her lower legs sprout
crocodilian heads; snakes encircle her waist; one
supernaturally ten-fingered hand holds a cup that likely
held the mind-altering brew; and she sits on a special
bench, itself also a fantastical double-headed animal
(Stone-Miller 2002a:126-127). These ?mages, among
countless others, are neither couched in terms of normal
visual experience nor rest comfortably within the
category of the wholly human (it can be argued that in
shamanic thought such a category does not exist). It is
fruitless?and frankly ethnocentric of us?to try to force
such multidimensional works of art into our linear
Western system of thought when they so creatively lay
bare the ancient American conviction in a visionary
palimpsest of realities.
A working definition of shamanism is necessary as a
theoretical framework in which such animal
transformation experiences can be mobilized to help
interpret ancient artistic imagery. First, it is important to
acknowledge at the outset what shamanism is not: a Figure 2. Female Shaman Seated on a Bicephalic Crocodile
religion with set deities, liturgies, physical spaces, and Bench. Central America, Costa Rica, Atlantic Watershed, El Rio
institutionalized roles. Shamanism can best be thought Appliqu?. Period V, a.D. 500-800. Ceramic. 83/4x 73/4x 51/2 in.
of as a spiritual stance and a set of practices based on (22.2 x 19.7 x 14 cm). 1991.4.319. Ex coll. William C. and
flux; therefore, appropriately enough, it cannot itself be Carol W. Thibadeau, Michael C. Carlos Museum (Photograph
held to static and neatly characterized parameters. That by Michael McKelvey).
very flexibility, plus the widely perceived efficacy and
the advantages it offers for human adaptation to stressful
situations (Dobkin de Rios 1984; McClenon 1994;
Winkelman 2000), have helped shamanism persevere
for millennia. It has retained a core of experiential among a welter of sensation full of synesthetic
practices orally transmitted through strict, long-term perceptions (i.e., smells that are heard, sights that are
apprenticeships. This "core shamanism" can be felt, etc.; Kl?ver 1928). Precisely because of the overt
understood as a spiritual orientation toward a direct, visuality of supernatural communications, shamanic
transcendent, non-human, healing experience of cultures tend to produce art imagery, embody values,
supernatural cosmic energy (encompassing human, and choose forms and design configurations that are
animal, natural, and abstractly divine aspects) achieved not primarily based on normal human perceptual
through altered consciousness states that feature multi phenomena, but rather on the brilliantly colorful, rapidly
sensorial visions. Within altered consciousness states the shifting, combinatory possibilities of visions. Theirs is a
visual effects are perhaps the most dramatic, albeit religious complex of the Image; however, because the
person actively becomes many things simultaneously
3. Cultural definitions of "realism" vary. For example, Mexica (including patterns and things we consider inanimate
lyric poems about art, artists, and artistry are worth noting: "The one [Siegel 1977:4]) this Image is a lived and breathed
who gives life to clay . . . /The good potter / he takes great pains with subjective entity, not merely a passively absorbed
his work; / he teaches the clay to lie. . . ."(Leon-Portilla 1963:173). external visual object.
a b
Figure 3. Vessel in the Form of a Bufo alvariusToa? with Vision Serpent. Central
Appliqu?. Period V, a.D. 500-800. Ceramic. 39/16x 67/8x 45/8in. (9.1 x 17.4 x 11.8
Thibadeau, Michael C. Carlos Museum (Photographs by Michael McKelvey).
a. Front view b. Rear view
The purpose of the transformativeThe vision quest

dedication to a life lived partly
experience decidedly eschews the recreational.
state is undertaken as a solemn duty t
problems indigenous
Narrative after narrative by anthropologist, of the human condition. Sh
shaman, and scientific subject alike include understated
presupposes that extraordinary individ
observations such as "this is not pleasant" (Reichel
the spiritual realm to act as conduits
Dolmatoff 1972:92) or "illusions ofhuman sight, community
hearing and and the Beyond?i
taste ... are not of an agreeable, but theonexperience
the contrary, of travelling,
of usually ou
a terrifying and distressful kind" throughout
(Lewin 1931, the cosmos. Visionary enco
as quoted
in Schultes and Raffauf 1992:57). beingsSome go ininto more
the celestial and underworld
graphic detail: one informant describes shaman sacred
the information (herbal me
repeated
experience of being squeezed throughout powers of hisvarious
vision byanimal spirits) that
naturalistically enormous, neon-colored boabody,
cure the constrictors.4
the community, and natu
In terms of actual and perceived size, in Panam?,
ensuring health,these
conflict resolution, an
brightly colored rainforest snakes,terrestrial
such as theplane. Hence scenes of hea
red-tailed
boa (Boa constrictor ortonii), reach nine feet,
patients and elsewhere
entranced shamans seekin
up to eighteen feet, in length (Helms found in many
1995:19, fig.ancient
7), American cult
not to mention that visionary perception often
that these tends
long-practiced rituals indee
toward macropsia, the enlarging of asall
they continuein
phenomena to today (e.g., Sharo
the visual field (Kl?ver 1928:38). In 1977;
fact,Berrin 1997:136, cat. no. 75).
most people
called to the role of shaman resist its arduous
Given such a visual definition of sha
appears
responsibilities, sometimes for the better a natural
part of theirsubject for art histo
lives (St. Pierre and Long Soldier 1995:178-207).
(Cordy-Collins 1977, 1980). Yet analys
solely on the first level of shamanic ic
identifying
4. Augustin Grefa to Michael McQuaide, personal effigies of shamans (F?rst
communication 2002.
and the abundant images of particular
substances and their use.5 As support for the many

?mages of humans as animals in Maya art, recent
linguistic decipherment of hieroglyphs has provided the
sign and word for the animal self, the way, translated as
the person's co-essence (Houston and Stuart 1989; Coe
1992:256-258; Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993:190
192). Interestingly, the term "co-essence" has been cited
in some modern anthropological literature as an apt
characterization of the relational worldview of female
shamans in contemporary northern Peru (Glass-Coffin
1998:187). Yet the visual problem posed by co-essences,
the depiction of two-as-one, remains rarely approached
(Stone-Miller 2002a:xxiii).
Also widely represented in ancient American art are
the myriad non-hallucinogenic practices that bring
about the same types of visions?blood loss, dancing,
drumming, chanting, singing, fasting, sensory or sleep
deprivation (Siegel 1977:2). One of the most famous
images is that of Lady K'ab'al Xooc (Lady Shark), whose
blood loss-induced vision during her husband's
accession ritual is one of five images of Vision Serpents
at the Maya site of Yaxchil?n (T?te 1992:88-91), and
these apparitions are celebrated elsewhere as well (fig.
3; Schele and Miller 1986:174-209). Dancers,
drummers, and singers are illustrated throughout ancient
American art (e.g., Freidel, Schele and Parker
1993:258-274). In more general texts, such performers
are rarely described as in, or inducing, trance states. Figure 4. Meditating Female Shaman Effigy. Central America,
Trancing individuals may also be referenced via more Costa Rica, Greater Nicoya, Rosales Zoned Engraved, Rosales
subtle visual clues, as in the pronounced vertebrae of Variety. Period IV, 500 b.c.-a.d. 300. Ceramic. 12%x 9 x 63/4
Costa Rican emaciated shaman-ascetics ?mages (e.g. in. (32 x 26 x 18 cm). 1991.4.344. Ex coll. William C. and
Ferrero 1977:322, ill. 111-81; Paul andTurpin 1986:23; Carol W. Thibadeau, Michael C. Carlos Museum (Photograph
F?rst 1998:173-175; Stone-Miller 2002a:140-141, cat. by Michael McKelvey).
no. 307). Finally, talented, experienced shamans can
alter their brain waves through meditative practices
alone; there are innumerable ancient American effigies
of people sitting, usually with their hands on their knees these images of voluntary sensory deprivation have
(figs. 4, 5a-c, 8a; Labb? 1998:67-78). Often their eyes received slight attention, likewise the implication that
are shown as tight slits, pupil-less, or completely closed; they were understood to be shamans who are out of
visionary percepts appear to both open and closed eyes their bodies, "elsewhere," and most probably in their
(e.g., Wasson 2001:144). Being rather "minimalist," animal form(s). Many things are not visual "givens" in
ancient American art, just as the normally hidden is held
to be all the more powerful in shamanic thought.6
However these transformative visions were
5. These identified hallucinogen images include those of peyote
(F?rst 1972:136-184), espingo seeds (Donnan 1978:130; Stone-Miller accomplished, they were taken as evidence of other
2002:cat. nos. 516, 519), San Pedro cactus (Sharon and Donnan cosmic realms whose reality and ability to reveal truth
1977), Banisteriopsis caapi (Cordy-Col I ins 1980), and morning-glory
(F?rst 1974b), among the more than ninety vision-inducing plants
indigenous to the Americas (Schultes and Hofmann 1992:66-79). The
hallucinogen-excreting toad is also a recurrent ?mage (fig. 3), receiving 6. The unseen as a partner to the seen in ancient American
some of its due in more recent scholarship (Davis and Weil 1992; aesthetics is a vast topic that I have begun to explore in lectures and
Labb? 1998:175; Stone-Miller 2002a: 118-120, 124-125, 232, 235). will form a major part of the Flowers in the Dark project.
Figure 5. Incensario with Sun God-Jaguar Way Lid Figures. Mesoamerica, Highland Guatemala, Maya. Early
Classic, a.D. 200-550. Ceramic. 73/4 x 51/8 in. diam. (19.8 x 13.1 cm diam.). 1992.15.176. Gift of Laurence C. and
Cora W. Witten II, Michael C. Carlos Museum (Photographs by Michael McKelvey).
a. Anthropomorphic side b. Jaguar side c. Side view
and solve problems was preeminent. (If we are not undergraduate or a Tukano shaman (Reichel-Dolmatoff
usually predisposed to agree; however, that should be 1975:figs. 39, 40), there is a very strong pattern to
irrelevant to our scholarly pursuits.)7 visions, a sequence of common experiences: brilliant
A contemporary Peruvian shaman recently reported and shifting colors and shapes, attack by predators,
to me a relevant vision in which the B. caapi plant spirit transformation into those and other beings, flying, seeing
asked him, "Do you want to learn?" and he replied, distant places and times, speaking to spiritual beings,
"Yes." The plant enjoined him, "Then let yourself be and understanding the universal life force in all things
taught," and its spirit pulled very hard on his ear and (Harner 1973; Reichel-Dolmatoff 1975:168- 174;
whispered into it, "Let me drink you, you don't drink Naranjo 1973). While the exact colors, animals,
me. When you drink me, you drink with your ego. If I messages, etc., remain particular to the visionary and his
drink you, as a plant, a pure plant, I'll show you the or her specific vision experience, Siegel has shown that
wisdom of all the plants." In this worldview the plants over 70 percent of subjects report an encounter with a
are the "bosses," as this informant called them, so the celestial spiritual being, whether believed to be a "Sky
plants can "drink us" (Anonymous, personal Spirit in the Milky Way" or an "angel," according to
communication 2002). Such a "turnabout" is strikingly one's cultural expectations.8 Therefore, I contend that
reminiscent of the vengeful dogs and turkeys in the the core values and content of visions in ancient times
Popol Vuh creation story and exemplifies the shamanic can be reconstructed fairly reliably because in general
understanding of an entirely animate universe. structure, content, and order visions have nearly
To connect modern experience with ancient art, it is universal, quite specific characteristics that often
important to note that visions' typical, even surprisingly transcend the culture, time, and religious orientation of
predictable, overarching properties have been well the visionary. This rather predictable hallucinatory
documented in European accounts of the Amazonian sequence and content makes ancient American art more
region for hundreds of years. The sixteenth-century understandable, and all the richer in providing a context
explorations of the "New" World report, "when the for its nearly overwhelming emphasis on multivalent
hearbe had doen his woorke he [the Prieste] did revive imagery. What may be tiger transformation for a modern
and awake and gaeve them their answeres according to Santiagan was almost certainly jaguar co-essence in
the visions and illusions which he sawe" (Monardes antiquity; it has been shown repeatedly that one is very
1572, quoted in Schultes and Raffauf 1992:88). Botanist likely to see large predatory animals, whether one is an
Richard Spruce in the nineteenth century sampled urban sophisticate or a traditional rainforest dweller.
hallucinogens (Schultes and Hofmann 1992:65), as did While I will not attempt to account for the reasons
Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff in the 1970s, reporting behind these commonalities, whether physical,
similar results. Visions have been explored in the chemical, psychological, or spiritual (Winkelman 2000),
scientific literature for over seventy years; as early as shared visual experiences represent a significant primary
1928 Heinrich Kl?ver first published the typical source for the understanding of deeper content, values,
mescaline experiential sequence, and more recently and formal choices recurrent in ancient American art
Siegel and others substantiated it and those of other (Stone-Miller 2002a:xv-xxvi).
substances (1977). Whether the subject is a Harvard The vast majority of visions are brilliantly colorful and
feature recurring geometric patterns at the outset
7. To us the very word "hallucination" means a patently unreal

figment of the imagination (Siegel 1977:2). The negative impact of our 8. Expectations and background obviously effect visionary
opposite worldview is typified by the recent presentation of a ceramic content. Some people do not achieve visions at all (whether from
sculpture of a mushroom and a human (Calvo Mora et al. 1995:57, 85 chemical, psychological, or pharmacological reasons), some do not
[no. 26]). In two of the three photographs of this piece it is see any large jungle animals (Dobkin de Rios 1984:126-128), others
intentionally oriented upside down, the mushroom precariously do not find spiritual meanings are revealed. However, this would have
balanced on its cap in order to show the human figure underneath it been as true in ancient times as today, given that a shaman was a
in an upright position. Yet the Costa Rican sculptor patently meant for special person whose visionary ability set him or her apart. This does
the mushroom to overwhelm, invert, and alter the perspective of the not invalidate the independently discovered patterns of the majority of
tiny person literally "under its influence." As such, the viewer of the visions for the majority of people, including city-dwellers envisioning
work was to experience a disorientation parallel to that felt by the wild animals, and peoples of all faiths having revelatory, spiritual
trancing person; in states of altered perception, one loses the usual insights. It is at the level of these "patterns to the patterns" that it can
kinesthetic sense, feels freed from the pull of gravity, and experiences be safely claimed that there are widespread human responses to states
major shifts in relative and absolute scale (Kl?ver 1928:49, 38). of altered consciousness.
(Reichel-Dolmatoff 1975:172-173; Siegel 1977:4;

Harner 1973:173). Visions almost universally then
involve terrifying struggles with great predators,
especially felines, snakes, and crocodilians, arguably the
three most widespread natural subjects in most ancient
American art (figs. 2, 5b, 10). They often progress from
interaction with these animals as separate beings to the
dizzying transformations of one's human form into them
and many others (figs. 1, 2, 6-9 [left], 11, 12). A later
hallucinatory stage typically involves flying, usually
taking avian form and travelling in air but also as other
beings "flying" under the sea or earth (fig 12). Visions
very often culminate in a powerful feeling of emotional
unity with all beings, a far-reaching recognition that all
things are fully alive (Harner 1973:155-175). At almost
no point do the feelings and sights correspond to an
easily described, coherent, linear narrative, but rather
jump and tumble in a poetic waterfall of imagery.
Each of these visionary stages, and the overwhelming
experience of them as a kaleidoscopic whole, appears in
multiple images throughout the corpus of ancient
American art.9 A few particularly overt depictions of the Figure 6. Stirrup Spout Vessel with Jaguar-Human Figure.
conflicting, impossible, odd, and disturbing nature of South America, Central Andes, North Coast, Moche. Early
visions are seen in a group of Moche vessels that differ Intermediate Period, a.d. 1-650. Ceramic. 85/8x 6% in. (21.9 x
from the thousands of others in their ambivalence 16.2 cm). 1989.8.164. Gift of William C. and Carol W.
toward coherent beings and form itself (e.g. Berr?n Thibadeau, Michael C. Carlos Museum (Photograph by
1997:116-117; Stone-Miller 2002b:114, ill. 91 ). Michael McKelvey).
Asymmetrical and unnerving, these "outliers" have been
entitled "relief fantasy scenes" and likened to the potato
people images (themselves deeply transformational).
However, one "confused conglomeration of motifs" that that are alive with vengeance, thousand-legged insect
includes sea lion, monkey, human, bird, and other warriors, deer-people, and so on (Quilter 1990; Donnan
"vague" bodies is described as possibly "induced by 1997). Not merely vague, loosely symbolic, or
ritual consumption of the San Pedro cactus or some metaphoric, these super-animated combinations result
other psychoactive drug" (ibid.:116). Eyes emerge from the visionary revelation that all things are alive.
without entire heads, heads without bodies, and the
orientations of the various partial beings differ, as
The imagery of becoming
opposed to the clear and complete images that
characterize the rest of the Moche corpus, even if they I contend that many ?mages that combine various
portray composite beings (figs. 1, 6, 7). Trying to identify states of being into one simultaneous, multiple entity;
or name all the individual elements would be to miss embody change in form and stress becoming "Other"; or
the strong artistic message of liminality, unusual show beings that are between cultural categories, have
juxtaposition, and unprecedented transition. For often been misrepresented by seemingly neutral
example, Panamanian art features boa-like beings that terminology. Figures that seem predominantly human
nonetheless may have sting-ray or hammerhead shark are often called "ritual impersonators." This supremely
heads as well as legs (Stone-Miller 2002a:cat. no. 390). hazy concept is typically used without acknowledging
Even typical Moche art, despite its seeming naturalism, shamanic values. The idea that ancient American art
often concerns itself with other levels of reality: shields predominantly features images of persons merely
costumed as animals and/or deities is highly
9. This constitutes the topic of Flowers in the Dark, my current unsatisfying. First, it fails to see masquerading as part of
research project. an overarching preoccupation with representing the
Figure 7. Chav?n-Revival Effigy Head Goblet with Rattle Handle. South America, Central Andes, North Coast,
Moche. Early Intermediate Period, a.D. 1-650. Ceramic. 7 x 5V2 x 23/8 in. rim diam. (17.8 x 14 x 6 cm rim
diam.). 1989.8.159. Gift of William C. and Carol W. Thibadeau, Michael C. Carlos Museum (Photograph by
Michael McKelvey).
shamanic change into the animal co-essence. Second, the symbolic and ritual motivation went far beyond
the term "impersonator" implies that there is a mere costuming. The superimposition of dead over living
distinction being drawn between the representation of a body graphically reenacted the cycle of life and death
person and the being or force they are pretending to be via, among other things, a symbolic reference to the
(pretense figures in our definition of impersonator), as maize seed's miraculous springtime growth from the
opposed to the representation of a profound unity of a sloughed-off husk (ibid.).
human with other cosmically important forces. If, for A number of images, in fact, use costume elements to
example, a person is shown dressed as a jaguar, such a place themselves so far down the continuum of
costume ritually transforms the individual from a unitary, transformation as to be animals masquerading as
normal human body into a multiple, supernatural one. If humans, such as the masked dogs of Colima (Miller
we further recall that in the shamanic experience 2001:55, ill. 34). Others may be seen as humans so
everything is understood to be animate, then costumes profoundly embedded in their animal selves that only
are full of life force themselves (the Moche animated one lone item of clothing remains (figs. 6, 12). In the
objects are a case in point; Quilter 1990). Townsend's seated jaguar (fig. 6) the scarf suggests that it is, in fact,
classic study of the N?huatl term teotl, the Aztec's name a completely transformed person, as do the almond
for the divine sacred energy manifest in all things, shows shaped eyes (Stone-Miller 2002a:cat. no. 524). In the
that costumes were considered full of teotl and therefore bird, the wings tied like a cape around the neck imply
merited special burial after use (1979:28). the same thing (fig. 12). The vision experience, as noted
Certain ancient American images do make it clear above, takes viewers so far from their human point of
that they depict a person wearing a special view that they adopt an animal's perspective entirely.
transformative suit, ornaments, headdress, and so on. Some modern shamanic belief further includes the idea
The Maya murals in Bonampak Room 1, in fact, show that animals have their own animal shamans (dogs have
dressing for a ritual as a primary subject and thus one dog shamans, jaguars have jaguar shamans), and if the
can reconstruct exactly how the elaborate back racks same logic holds as for human shamans, these animal
and headdresses were worn (Miller 1986:69-79). In shamans might well have either animals (e.g. Stone
sculptural media, there may be textural shifts to Miller 2002a:155-156, cat. no. 364) or humans as their
differentiate layers of clothing (Berrin 1997:138, cat. no. alter-egos as well (Buchillet 1992:216). Thus, who is
77), edges, or different planar levels to indicate the wearing what, or whom, cannot account for the panoply
superimposition of masks (Abel-Vidor 1981:212, cat. of shamanic shape shifting. Admittedly there may be a
nos. 196, 197), painted ties on body coverings (Stone large gray area in which opinions differ as to whether a
Miller 2002a:cat. no. 163), spots on animal skin suits given image is costumed or transformed; for example,
(Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993:359), and lines to the enigmatic masked Colima dogs might be seen as
represent hems or seams (Stone-Miller 2002b:150, ill. dogs' dog shamans, a human shaman in dog form, a
120). Dressed figures typically maintain some dog dressed as a person, a dog guiding the dead (Miller
semblance of a vertical pose and their human features 2001:56-57), or the abstract idea that dogs have souls
are at least partially visible, in other words, normal like humans (F?rst 1998:186). Yet there certainly are
hands or feet protrude from the suit, human mouths or ways to distinguish dress from transitional bodies, such
eyes can be glimpsed under the mask. An "x-ray" (better as the absence of any delineated edges, ties, hems,
termed an "internal") view may be used to underscore planes, or textures as a starting point.
the person within another identity (e.g., Miller 2001:36, Paracas embroidered figures are a prime example of
ill. 23). The most obvious examples of clear costuming the need to see clothing as only one element in a
are the many Mexica images of Xipe Totee (The Flayed continuum of transformation. In a significant advance
One), with their meticulous detailing of the skin suit's over the undifferentiated application of "ritual
various ties, large stitches to hold the heart sacrifice tear impersonator," Anne Paul and SolveigTurpin pinpointed
together, scaly texture to indicate the skin suit, dangling a large subset of Paracas "Block Color" figures that
extra hands and/or feet, and living eyes and mouth represent ecstatic shamans, figures shown with bent
visible through the holes in the dead face (Pasztory backs, snake hair, emaciated bodies, and specific ritual
1983:pls. 199, 200, 267, 298; Townsend 2000:121, ill. paraphernalia (1986). I would add that the bent body
69). The Xipe ritual, participants, and associated acts to position the shaman between states, preventing
imagery, however, also represent a well-documented gravity from claiming him in any definitive way and
example of ancient American ritual practice in which allowing him to participate simultaneously in human
Figure 8. Tripod Vessel with Jaguar-Human Features. Central America, Costa Rica, Greater Nicoya, Pataky Polychrome, P?taky
Variety. Period VI, a.D. 1000-1350. Ceramic. 12 x 5V4in. diam. x 225/8 in. circum. (30.5 x 13.3 cm diam. x 57.5 cm circum.).
1991.4.337. Ex coll. William C. and Carol W. Thibadeau, Michael C. Carlos Museum (Photographs by Michael McKelvey).
a. Front view b. Rear view
bodily vertically and animal corporeal horizontality. His bottomed ones perpendicular to the leg with toes at the
torso, impossibly shown clothed and with the emaciated front only [e.g., Stone-Miller 1994:83]).10 These are the
ribs below, only becomes possible in the visionary realm few candidates for a "costumed-human shaman"
in which the perceived essence of an entity wins out category. However, a number of these upright figures
over its surface appearance (Stone-Miller 2002a:xv ff.). had what can be characterized as animal feet, in which
Based on Raul and Turpin's important work, I would a digit curls down from the back of the heel. Although
further suggest that the majority of the Paracas figures perhaps closest to monkey feet with their thumb-like
depict one form of shaman or another. Variation in the back toe, some of these non-human feet possess very
figures' body and limb positioning, the shape of their long, curled, pointed "toes," unlike those of primates.
feet, and their costumes help establish how relatively These sharp digits may stand for the arrangement of
animal-transformed they are in a given image. In an talons on raptorial birds (a single talon at the back of the
informal survey of thirty-one Block Color embroidered
figures, several combinations of human and animal 10. Upright can be pertinent to certain animals, however, such as
features became apparent. In the first grouping, most the butterfly or the monkey, though standing with head, hips,
vertically positioned figures (arguably a characteristically shoulders, and feet aligned is a human characteristic. Birds go both
human, bipedal pose) had human feet as well (flat ways; their bodies are often horizontal yet their feet hang down.
foot occurs in ospreys, condors, and others [Poole their necks, as when jaguars stalk (Perry 1970:51, 69).
1989:78, fig. 5.3; 78-81; 87]). They also resemble the Interestingly, the bent-back shamans, whose bodies are
feline dewclaw that facilitates tree climbing (Wolfe and neither horizontal nor vertical, are almost all human
Sleeper 1995:17). These multi-animal, but decidedly footed. Thus, the presentation of one element that is
non-human, feet are shown as crescent shaped and physically "impossible" in this reality is often balanced
hang straight down from the leg; not being flat or by one that is "possible"; this artistic strategy seemingly
perpendicular to the body or the "ground," they do not solves the problem of showing a figure as fundamentally
convey the possibility of standing upon them. The two things at once. It also may help signal that the
bird-in-flight foot thus seems to supercede other shaman who seems to be on this plane is actually
interpretations. There are never any indications that this elsewhere (or "elsewhen"). At the core of shamanic art is
foot is actually a shoe or boot (no color distinction or the paradox?at least for us?that a shaman is a person,
line crosses the ankle and the protruding back talon yet at that moment is not in a human state. Hence to
makes an unlikely shape for footwear; by contrast, Maya juxtapose parts of the body that inhabit different states of
jaguar skin sandals come to mind as clearly delineated). being captures this experiential concept of multiple
Thus, some of the most otherwise "human" Paracas simultaneous presences. Combination of opposites
figures have a fundamentally transformed part of their likewise encapsulates the shaman's mediating role in the
body, an animal foot that tellingly propels them out of cosmic landscape.
normal human gravitational space. Although the term "ritual impersonator" no longer
A second grouping of Paracas figures all have suffices, especially given these impossible views, poses,
horizontally positioned bodies (the inherent position of and non-human body parts, identifying precisely what
cats, reptiles, snakes, and many, if not most, animals) constitutes costume remains problematical with Paracas
along with animal feet, suggesting that these represent figures. Some elements that are commonly interpreted as
even more relatively transformed shamans. A sideways costumes or accessories may well be other things. The
body plus non-weight-bearing feet visually reinforce the "batons" held by many figures, especially ecstatic
sense of suspension, flying, and being beyond the shamans, look suspiciously like entheogenic mushrooms
human pull of gravity. Flying is, of course, the staple (Cantrell n.d.). In one example (Stone-Miller
experience of the vision state (Harner 1973:158-160). 1994:84-85, color pi. 11), for instance, the curved,
Images in which the two human legs hang down from high-pitched triangular tops, long thin stems, and dark
the body absolutely mimic the position of many birds' lines between the two capture the main features of the
legs in flight. When all four arms and legs are shown to psilocybin mushroom very succinctly (Schultes and
dangle, human position can likewise approach the Hofmann 1992:54). Many other figures wear what seem
orientation of the four limbs of felines, crocodiles, to be giant costumes, in which regular tunics, loincloths,
lizards, etc. Not only Paracas but also Nasca and Moche arms, legs, and perhaps some facial features are
images use this device of dangling limbs to present the recognizable below or under their enormous
transitional image in liminal space (Hornor n.d.; Donnan headdresses (e.g., Lavalle and Lang 1983:117). While
1992:50, fig. 85; Berrin 1997:146, cat. no. 86; 147). they are realistically shown, the very grand scale of
Some figures do not fall easily into any of these three these outfits raises some doubt as to which reality they
categories (upright humans with human feet, upright inhabit. Despite the thousands of delicate Paracas
humans with animal feet, sideways humans with animal textiles preserved in the desert sands, none of these
feet). In terms of body position, figures may be upright cloth sharks or falcon costumes has survived. In general,
in their body but have a sideways head, or vice versa. it is rarely clear whether a given face is non-human or
This may be seen as a less extreme version of the bent that of a painted or masked person, or whether a given
back pose of Raul and Turpin's ecstatic shaman, another figure is wearing a cape or has wings (Stone-Miller
way to defy normal gravity, to show the experiential 1994:79-81, color pis. 8a, b; Lavalle and Lang
state of becoming. Disjunction between head and body 1983:89). Again, since extreme facial treatments seek to
position may also be another reference to animal change the human visage to "Other" (usually via
capabilities. For instance, birds can cock their heads colorful pattern and/or feline whiskers, both shamanic
sideways in extreme ways (Juniper and P?rr 1998:69, elements) and since the capes do give the figure
right) and normally horizontal animals can raise their "wings," these distinctions seem more pressing to us
heads high up from their backs, as when crocodiles than they probably were to the makers of such
bellow (Ross 1989:115-117), or dramatically down from intentionally and creatively enigmatic images.
Some of the most telling pieces of the puzzle are the both-ends type, to name only two instances. A second,
plethora of emanations that erupt from all body and even more bizarre natural occurrence of two-headed
costume parts, wind around in space, and end most snakes consists of mutants, snakes whose single bodies
often in snakes, but also in other animals, human heads, erupt into two independent heads (Cunningham
or complete figures. Given visionary spirituality, this 1937).11 Such snakes may have two heads and one tail,
aesthetic choice is not surprising: During trances any the most common type, or one head and two tails, or
sinuous element, such as one's own hair or fingers or two heads and two tails. While admittedly not an
the branches of a tree, may become a snake or another everyday sighting, word of these memorable mutations
such being. The depicted emanations often defy would no doubt spread in ancient times as it does today.
identification as exuberant costuming because they link Be that as it may, snakes come with two heads in nature,
directly to the body itself. In particular, if they were whether about six times a year as they molt or for a full
huge pendants sewn onto tunics, besides never being year (the normal lifespan of the two-headed snake), just
found archaeologically, how would they curve upwards, as they purport to in the supernatural realm. "Many
writhe, and float around the body in gravity-defying headedness," in the sense of a person emanating other
splendor? Fantastical bodily emanations, especially heads or a snake with an extra one, may be a
snakes, are one of the core diagnostic features of particularly succinct way to depict a multiplicity of
shamanic imagery (figs. 2, 3; Cordy-Collins 1980; F?rst being states.
1998:173). Almost all ancient American styles include In sum, I would argue that Paracas imagery depicts
figures emanating snakes in one form or another. To many shamans, not simply one. The same can be said
name but a few instances, snakes emerge from the head for Nasca imagery (Hornor n.d.), and that of Moche
of figures at Chav?n de Huantar and Tiwanaku (Stone (Sharon and Donnan 1977), West Mexican (F?rst 1998),
Miller 2002b:32, 34, 38, 39, 132, 133); they are the Maya (Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993), and many other
tongues and arms of Calima effigies (Labb? 1986:55, figs cultures of the ancient Americas. Such a contention
46, 47; 67, color plate V); at least one Costa Rican toad does not mean that every ancient American image is
effigy dons a two-headed snake (fig. 3b), and Maya that of a shaman (fig. 9, right; see below), neither does
rulers hold the double-headed snake bar, perhaps the the ubiquity of images compromise the special nature of
Vision Serpent itself, as their prime insignia of politico individual shamans. In fact, the myriad images of
spiritual power (Miller 1999:111, ill. 86). As a terrestrial shamans in divergent styles correspond to the cross
animal, the constant molting of the snake obviously cultural pattern that shamans have quite specific
embodies transformation itself.
specialties and are differentiated as to their types and
However, the molting snake can be taken further as a levels of expertise. Shamans universally seem to
prime shamanic emanation based on the corporeal specialize in soul retrieval, childbirth, or the fertility of
animal as it appears in this world. The double-headed particular animals, to name a few (e.g. Buchillet
snake, found so frequently in the corpus of ancient 1992:212). This could help account for the iconographie
American art, does not have to be viewed as purely variety of figures, with whale-shamans being held
symbolic (as did F?rst 1998:173). There are two ways in responsible for fish fertility and butterfly-shamans for
which a double-headed snake can be transferred to art successful pollination. In terms of proficiency, there also
directly from the observation of nature and thus can seems to be a differentiation of levels of shamanic
exist in the trancing shaman's memory. At the beginning power and ability, garnered in long, arduous
of a snake's molting process its old, shadowy skin head apprenticeships and demonstrated in numerous vision
and its newly revealed solid head are actually adjacent experiences associated with high rates of cure. One's
to one another (Mattison 1986:73). Later in the process, level of expertise could be shown in the relative amount
the old head travels down the body to lodge briefly at of costumed versus transformed body, i.e., the attainment
the tail before being fully sloughed off as part of the of the full animal self, and in the relative horizontality of
entire inside-out skin. Thus, these two versions of a truly the overall position, i.e., flying prowess. For instance, the
"two-headed" snake exist, as magical yet real moments modern but traditional Siona of Colombia distinguish
of multiplicity within natural cycles. Both types of
double snakes are depicted in art: a Costa Rican
11. Hundreds have been documented, from ancient Greek
entheogenic toad image displays the side-by-side-head accounts to worldwide web reports to a recent children's publication,
type (fig. 3b), while the Maya serpent bar and Vision the November 2003 Scholastic Reader. They occur about one in
Serpent in Yaxchil?n Lintel 25 represent the heads-at 10,000 births.
between "only a man" (the uninitiated or neophyte),

"one who has left" (a mid-level shaman), and "a seer" (a
master shaman) (Langdon 1992:53). "Left," to them,
refers to the ability to leave one's physical body and fly
through the cosmos. Perhaps the intricacies of body
position, foot type, costuming, and emanations in
Paracas embroideries were a precise visual coding of
such carefully delineated shamanic arts.
The experience of animal transformation posed a
fascinating and inspiring problem for all ancient
American artists to solve: freed of the limitations of
normal representation, the human-animal continuum
engages the imagination and pushes the creative mind
to new heights (as the visions did the shamans' minds).
As a basis for an aesthetic, shamanism is fantastic, in
both senses of the word. It is important to see that these
many artists solved the common problem of depicting
this visionary-based continuum of animals and humans
in many divergent ways. Mesoamerican, Costa Rican,
and Central Andean cultures all focussed their skills on
the interface of human with key visionary animals,
particularly the jaguar, crocodile, toad, snake, and bird.
Here I will add only a few examples involving the
ubiquitous jaguar and taken from the Michael C. Carlos
Museum collection (see also Stone-Miller 2002a).
As with Paracas figures, artists first must choose
between human verticality and animal horizontality,
Figure 9. Left. Female Figure with Jaguar Features. Central
although there are bridging poses, such as humans America, Costa Rica, Diquis. Period VI, a.D. 1000-1520.
sitting or kneeling in a feline manner (interestingly, And?site. 145/8 x 7V4 x 3V2 in. (37.1 x 18.4 x 8.9 cm).
Olmec transformational figures that are more human in 1991.4.207. Ex coll. William C. and Carol W. Thibadeau,
character take a feline stance and only take a human Michael C. Carlos Museum. Right. Male Figure. Central
standing position as they become more feline; see Reilly America, Costa Rica, Diquis. Period VI, a.D. 1000-1520.
1989:13-15). In fact, this cat position that people Altered and?site, porous. 115/8 x 51/4x 2 in. (29.5 x 13.3 x 5.1
emulate, with their hands in front like the front legs and cm). 1991.4.212. Ex coll. William C. and Carol W. Thibadeau,
their kneeling legs like the back legs, may be a latent Michael C. Carlos Museum (Photograph by Michael
McKelvey).
message of human-feline overlap in the scarf-wearing
jaguar (fig. 6). Many shamanic objects tend to adopt the
opposite: an impossibly human bipedal position for an
animal. The Costa Rican Rataky-style jaguar effigy (figs.
8a, b) places its front paws like hands on the non of figure 5, a common symptom of the trance. In order
existent "knees" of back legs, as does the jaguar side of to be read as "animal," however, eyes must be
the Maya incensario lid dual figure (fig. 5b). Thus, an fundamentally round (figs. 2, 3, 5), as are those of
animal can be made to adopt the shamanic meditation terrestrial birds, cats, reptiles, and amphibians, the ones
pose so common in human ?mages (figs. 2, 4). that figure prominently in visions. The pupil is
Not surprisingly in a visions-oriented spiritual system, commonly enlarged in states of altered consciousness
an especially revealing focus of bodily transformation (fig. 7), so by choosing a circular eye an artist may be
seems to involve the eyes. Eyes may read as human by emphasizing the vision state as much as accurately
taking shapes other than round, especially almond rendering a specific animal's visual apparatus. Also, to
(figs. 1, 4-7, 9, 10, 12), and by having the whites be creatively liminal, artists may make eyes transitional
differentiated from the pupils (figs. 1, 4-7). Human eyes (figs. 8, 11), such as oval (between almond-shaped and
may bulge exaggeratedly, as in the two faces on the base round) and concentrically outlined, as are jaguar eyes
Figure 10. Jaguar Effigy. Central America, Costa Rica, Diquis. Period VI, a.D.
1000-1520. Basalt. 73/4x 133/4x 5V2 ?n. (19.6 x 34.9 x 14 cm). 1991.4.213. Ex
coll. William C. and Carol W. Thibadeau, Michael C. Carlos Museum (Photograph
by Michael McKelvey).
(by the dark fur around them) and human eyes (by from referencing the point of view of animals ("I saw
eyelashes). Artists may add characteristics that occur in only necks") to the fear felt prey (when the glinting eyes
neither humans nor animals, such as the orange dots in of the predator capture you in their sight), and from
the corners of all the eyes in figure 5. This is one of any seeing well in the dark (shamans have brilliant visions at
number of methods to indicate special sight abilities by night) to the Other Side as a mirror reflection of this one
creating special eyes. Separate animal and human (Saunders 1988, 1990; Stone-Miller 2002a:xxvi). Many
figures may share similar special eyes, while other transformational human-animal images originally may
human figures do not, so as to show one person as have had shiny inlaid eyes, as suggested for Olmec
animal-transformed and the other as normal (figs. 9 [left, statuary (Reilly 1989:8). Besides eyes, various other
right], vis-?-vis 10). In shamanic art, images of powerful features may be effectively altered or conflated in these
humans seem to adopt animal eyes in part because artistic meldings, such as human ears on a crocodile
jaguars and other predators have eyesight far superior to (fig. 11), bared teeth on humans (figs. 9, left; 10), and
that of humans, especially at night when humans are abstract pelt/body markings including jaguar's lower
most vulnerable and shamanic rituals take place. Many limb stripes (figs. 6-10; Perry 1970:69).
of the animals prominent in the tropical American The challenges inherent in depicting humans with
shamanic cultures and their imagery are physically animal selves can inspire artists to show a multiple
endowed with the tapetum lucidum (a membrane being as multi-sided. Shamans' profoundly dual selves
behind the retina that reflects light back into the eye so may have their human and animal sides rendered
as to multiply dramatically the ability to see in low-light literally as two things, as in a rare early Classic Maya
situations) including felines, crocodilians, owls, and incensario (figs. 5a-c). The welded back-to-back lid
various other nocturnal animals (Ross 1989:56; Gilbert figures unite a sun divinity in its old man form with its
1997:105). Such eerie, mirror-reflecting eyes represent jaguar way or animal spirit double. Both sit upright in
the shamanic visionary experience at various levels: the exact same, fully human pose, the kingly "posture of
royal ease" (Schaffer 1991).12 Significantly, each figure somewhat transitional, for instance, the protruding
has its right leg bent and its left leg dangling, so that humanoid nose and the not-quite-round eyes. Certainly
they patently do not take mirror-image positions; the the selective placement of decoration only on the limbs,
clear artistic message is that they are duplicate aspects around the neck of the figure, the vessel rim, and down
of one being. However, the jaguar self takes a certain the back, are not "realistic," as jaguars are spotted all
precedence in this composition: when looking at the sun over their bodies, with the lighter belly and darker back
divinity half, one sees him as having both his human (as clearly delineated in fig. 5b). However, since
ears and the round animal ears of his feline way (like the visionary blending of human and feline has already
two sets of ears on some Olmec transformation figures; rendered this a transformed shaman, then terrestrial sorts
Reilly 1989:12, fig. 13). On another level, this piece of realism by definition are not paramount. In shamanic
hieroglyphically embodies the broad concept of the art realism is always selective (for example, in the Maya
animal self: it is perhaps the most literal, three incensario the dark line differentiating darker from
dimensional version of the way glyph known, complete lighter areas is not found on actual jaguars). There are
with wavy intersection where spots give way to skin creative elements that speak to the essence of the jaguar,
(compare fig. 5c to Houston and Stuart 1989:3, fig. 1). however, such as the fact that the spots are actually tiny
Although the idea of the co-essence is so culturally and abstract jaguars themselves (especially visible on the
spiritually central, images as overt as this are very proper right upper leg). Perhaps this idiosyncratic
unusual in Maya art and in ancient American aesthetics treatment of the rosettes conveys that the shaman in
as a whole. Indeed, perhaps the idea of the animal spirit animal mode has the power of "jaguar concentrate."
was so fundamental that it did not necessitate In addition, when moved, the piece produces a
such obvious explication very often, even by the strong rattle from the movement of clay balls in the
documentary-minded Maya. However, this piece takes hollow legs and the mouth cavity. The sound is strikingly
one step beyond duality, representing the fact that Maya like the actual low grumbling voice of the jaguar (Krause
notions of transformation involved complex relationships 1996).13 Its head is positioned low on the vessel/body as
of human, divine, and animal ways (Freidel, Schele, and seen in the predatory cat when it growls and lowers its
Parker 1993:190-192). The two human faces on either head to stalk its prey (Perry 1970:51). Even the stripes
side of the base suggest that the dual figure lid represents on the lower parts of the four limbs, which might seem
a vision in the human shaman's likewise impossibly dual fanciful in a spotted cat, have a basis in actual jaguar
head. Humans become animals, animals become markings: small spots often meld into stripes there and
divinities, and divinities have human forms. As on the chest or head (ibid:106), perhaps the origin of the
mentioned above, all the eyes in the composition are otherwise fanciful spotted area around the head (figs. 9,
bulging and entranced, with orange dots in the corners, 10; Perry 1970:69; jaguars do not have manes or ruffs to
a special characteristic found in neither jaguar nor which this zigzag area might refer). This piece aptly
human eyes. Eyes serve here to reinforce the idea that shows how the ancient American artist, although freed
all four of these images, two human, one supernatural, by visionary fluidity from strict adherence to normal
and one animal, are aspects of each other and all fall appearances, selectively undertook to convey important
well outside of earthly parameters. aspects of the natural subject even in a transformational
Two Costa Rican solutions to the jaguar-human being.
problem differ from this Maya one in interesting ways. Another style and medium of ancient Costa Rica,
The Rataky-style piece (fig. 8), a high-quality example of Diquis stonework of the southwestern zone (figs. 9, 10),
a fairly common type from later northwestern Costa Rica shows us that in some cases only a comparison between
and southwestern Nicaragua, is almost completely separate human and jaguar effigies can reveal the precise
jaguar in form except for the vertical body position that character of their shamanic interdigitation. The male
posits its front paws as "hands" on the "knees" of its figure (fig. 9, right) betrays no animal characteristics and
back ones. This telltale posture of shamanic trance or has crescent-shaped eyes, a variant on the more typical
meditation echoes that of the lid figures of the Maya almond-shaped human eyes. However, the female in
piece and many others (figs. 2, 4). Other features are figure 9, left (identifiable by her breasts) and the feline
effigy in figure 10 share slanted almond-shaped eyes,
12. Incidentally, this piece represents a missing link between the
Olmec and the Late Classic Maya images of this important posture 13. The jaguar's vocalizations can be heard around the fourth
(Stone-Miller 2002a:cat. no. 1). minute of the recording.
double stripes on lower limbs, whiskers, and bared

teeth. By looking at all three sculptures together, it
becomes obvious that the woman is "jaguar-ized," while
the man is not.14 The effigies in figures 2 and 4 are also
female, as are other shaman images in the Carlos
collection (Stone-Miller 2002:cat. nos. 428, 431) and
elsewhere (Day and Tillett 1996). Shamanism is based
on a belief that the supernatural realm calls individuals
to become cosmic mediators, rather than that society
elects its spiritual leaders or individuals choose their
vocations. Thus, it allows for female spiritual calling and
possession of significant power even in male-dominated
political organizations (e.g. Glass-Coffin 1998; St. Pierre
and Long Soldier 1995).
Two final Central Andean Moche jaguar-human
images include the aforementioned scarf-wearer that sits
at the animal end of the continuum (fig. 6) and another
in which jaguar transformation is alluded to in the
headdress and the fanged mouth (fig. 7). The seated
feline?four-legged, horizontal, spotted, and with
accurately observed round ears?seems to be all jaguar
at first glance. However, it wears a scarf or necklace
around its neck, a contrasting-colored, distinctly edged
item raised to a higher level than the vessel surface. It
therefore fits the more strict criteria for a costume
element presented above. In addition, actual jaguars do
not have plain or differentially marked neck fur to which
Figure 11. Crocodile-Human Head Seat. Central America,
this could refer. The figure also has clearly human Costa Rica, Greater Nicoya. Period VI, a.D. 1000-1520. 18V2x
shaped almond eyes. This masterful effigy eerily conveys 11V4 x 16V2 in. (46.9 x 28.6 x 41.9 cm). And?site. 1988.12.11.
the shamanic experience of a person looking out from Gift of William C. and Carol W. Thibadeau, Michael C. Carlos
within a jaguar body. Another aspect bespeaks typical Museum (Photograph by Michael McKelvey).
transformational reversals: the spots are painted as light
on a darker body, whereas real jaguars have black
rosettes on light coats. The reversed world, in which
everyday coloration does not apply to the blinding the well of the cup, perhaps a mind-altering liquid such
vision state, is aptly communicated. Finally, the human as B. caapi itself, whether in actuality or symbolically.15
head of a Chav?n-revival Moche fanged face goblet (fig. Among many other works of art, these five
7) dons a jaguar headdress, its growling head at the conceptually allied, but stylistically distinct, images took
center of the forehead and oversized paws toward the on the challenges inherent in portraying transitional
temples. The artist added bulging eyes and deadly, feline jaguar and human states. While confronting a shamanic
crossed fangs, an Andean visual shorthand for the universal, the artists nevertheless betrayed their own and
animal transformation state. It is clearly an entranced their particular culture's approaches and assumptions.
shaman, whose wing-like red face paint may abstractly The Maya ?mage is the most additive, juxtaposing a
connote flying. The terrifying growl of the jaguar is jaguar-person, a deity-person, and a shaman-person on
evoked by the rattling clay balls in this piece's hollow different sides of the composition. Separate figures,
neck/handle. Brew of some kind could be drunk from especially anthropocentric ones, arguably hold more
sway in Maya art than elsewhere (Miller 1999:150-167).
14. It is important to note that it is not particularly unusual for a
female to be shown as a shaman, especially in the Intermediate Area 15. The goblet's interior residue tested negative for human blood.
(Labb? 1998:28, 41, 54, 59 [figs. 34, 36], 60, 63 [no. 41], 103 [no. It has not been tested for B. caapi, as the amount of remaining residue
82], 107, 108, 133 [no. 107]). is too small to produce conclusive results.
Figure 12. Flute in the Form of a Bird-Transformed Shaman. Central America, Costa Rica,
Greater Nicoya, Mora Polychrome, Guabal Variety. Period V-Period VI, a.D. 800-1200.
Ceramic. 31/2 x 21/2 x 81/2 diam. in. (8.8 x 6.5 x 22 diam. cm). 1991.4.288. Gift of William
C. and Carol W. Thibadeau, Michael C. Carlos Museum (Photograph by Dana Haugaard).
This may be a more favored Maya, perhaps even more 1; Stone-Miller 2002a:cat. no. 521) and animate objects
characteristically Mesoamerican, formal solution that (Berrin 1997:154; Quilter 1990), two additional
could be termed "additive duality." By contrast, Costa shamanic ?mages of multiplicity.
Rican versions seem to prefer what could be called I hope to have suggested here that ancient American
"embedded duality," two beings within one body, art confronted the paradoxical nature of visionary
whether proportionately favoring the jaguar (figs. 8a, b) imagery when it took on the problems of depicting
or the human (fig. 9, left) to frame the "Other." The non becoming rather than being. Since visions are by
shamanic human is patently left out of this liminal definition out of the ordinary, and specific visions will
status, "only a man" rather than a multiple being. In have their own character despite common features,
these few examples at least, the Andean images also there can be no singular way to show animal
nest more than one being in a single body, and often transformation. Ancient American artists of many stylistic
leave only one bit of the Other?an eye or a mouth?as traditions, perhaps in reflection of larger cultural
a reminder of the transformed state. Of course, no one predispositions, chose among the many possible modes
piece or two works of art can represent an entire culture in which to call into question the unitary human form. It
area. For instance, although still typically combining remains for a more ambitious study to fully elaborate the
animal and human in the same body, there are Amerindian predilection for amalgams of animals and
numerous other Moche- and other Andean-style images persons. These rich ?mages of non-corporeal human
of transitional states of being that chose other modes, bodies, simultaneous beings, sightless eyes seeing
perhaps the dominant one being human bodies with myriad wonders, and feet that never touch down seek to
animal heads, such as the famous owl-headed shaman represent the paradoxical realities of the Other Side as
(Sharon and Donnan 1977:380, left). It remains for a experienced in shamanic trance. It may behoove us to
full-scale study to compare a significant number of accommodate "seeing only necks" or "having the plants
different ancient American versions of animal drink us" in order to reconstruct more appropriately the
transformation, and to include plant beings (such as fig. ancient American artistic sensibility.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Czitrom, Carolyn Baus

1988 Los perms de la antigua provincia de Colima: estudio
Abel-Vidor, Suzanne, et al. y corpus de sus representaciones en arcilla en las
1981 Between Continents/Between Seas: Precolumbian Art colecciones del Museo Nacional de Antropolog?a.
of Costa Rica. Harry N. Abrams, New York. Instituto Nacional de Antropolog?a e Historia,
M?xico, D.F.
Alva, Walter, and Christopher B. Donnan
1993 Royal Tombs ofSip?n. Fowler Museum of Cultural Davis, Wade, and Andrew T. Weil
History, University of California, Los Angeles. 1992 "Identity of a New World Psychoactive Toad,"
Ancient Mesoamerica, 3:51-59.
Berrin, Kathleen, ed.
1997 The Spirit of Ancient Peru: Treasures from the Museo Day, Jane, and Alice C. Tillett
Arqueol?gico Rafael Larco Herrera. Thames and 1996 "The Ni coya Shaman," in Paths to Central American
Hudson and the Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco, Prehistory, ed. F. W. Lange, pp. 221-236. University
New York. Press of Colorado, Ni wot.
Buchillet, Dominique Dobkin de Rios, Marlene

1992 "Nobody Is There to Hear," in Portals of Power: 1984 Visionary Vine: Hallucinogenic Healing in the
Shamanism in South America, eds. E. J. M. Langdon Peruvian Amazon. Waveland Press, Prospect Heights,
and G. Baer. University of New Mexico Press, III.
Albuquerque.
Donnan, Christopher
Calvo Mora, Marlin, Leidy Bonilla Vargas, and Julio 1978 Moche Art of Peru: Pre-Columbian Symbolic
S?nchez P?rez Communication. Museum of Cultural History,
1995 Costa Rica: Gold, Jade, Forests/Oro, Jade, Bosques. University of California, Los Angeles.
University of Washington Press, Seattle. 1992 Ceramics of Ancient Peru. Fowler Museum of Cultural
History, University of California, Los Angeles.
Cantrell, Candra 1997 "Deer Hunting and Combat: Parallel Activities in the
n.d. "The Sacred Mushroom in Mesoamerican and Moche World," in The Spirit of Ancient Peru:
Andean Art," unpublished ms. Treasures from the Museo Arqueol?gico Rafael Larco
Herrera. Thames and Hudson and the Fine Arts
Clark, Kenneth Museum of San Francisco, New York.
1956 The Nude: A Study in Ideal Form. Pantheon Books,
Washington D.C. Fash, William
1991 Scribes, Warriors and Kings: The City of Copan and
Cobo, Fray Bernab? the Ancient Maya. Thames and Hudson, New York.
1990 Inca Religion and Customs. Hamilton trans.
University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas. Ferrero, Luis
1997 Costa Rica Precolombina: Arqueolog?a, Etnolog?a,
Coe, Michael D. Tecnolog?a, Arte. 3rd ed. Editorial Costa Rica, San
1992 Breaking the Maya Code. Thames and Hudson, New Jose.
York.
Freidel, David, Linda Schele, and Joy Parker
Cordy-Collins, Alana 1993 Maya Cosmos: Three Thousand Years on the Shaman's
1977 "Chavin Art: Its Shamanic/Hallucinogenic Origins," in Path. William Morrow, New York.
Pre-Columbian Art History: Selected Readings, eds.
A. Cordy-Collins and J. Stern. Peek Publications, P?lo F?rst, Peter
Alto. 1972 "To Find Our Life: Peyote Among the Huichol Indians
1980 "An Artistic Record of the Chavin Hallucinatory of Mexico," in Flesh of the Gods: The Ritual Use of
Experience," in The Masterkey:84-93. Hallucinogens, ed. P. F?rst. Waveland Press, Prospect
Heights, III.
Cunningham, Bert
1937 Axial Bifurcation in Serpents: An Historical Survey of
Serpent Monsters Having Part of the Axial Skeleton
Duplicated. Duke University Press, Durham, N.C.
1974a "Fertility, Vision Quest and Auto-Sacrifice: Some Kl?ver, Heinrich

Thoughts on Ritual Blood-Letting Among the Maya," 1966 [1928] Mescal and the Mechanisms of Hallucinations.
in The Art, Iconography, and Dynastic History of University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Palenque Part III, ed. M. G. Robertson, pp. 181-193.
Robert Louis Stevenson School, Pebble Beach, Krause, Bernie
California: Pre-Columbian Art Research. 1996 Nofes from the Wild: The Nature Recording
1974b "Morning Glory and Mother Goddess atTepantitla, Expeditions of Bernie Krause. Ellipsis Press, Roslyn,
Teotihuacan: Iconography and Analogy in Pre N.Y.
Columbian Art," in Mesoamerican Archaeology: New
Approaches, ed. N. Hammond, pp. 187-215. La Barre, Weston
University of Texas Press, Austin. 1964 "The Narcotic Complex of the New World."
1998 "Shamanic Symbolism, Transformation, and Deities in Diogenes 48 (Winter):125-138.
West Mexican Funerary Art," In Ancient West
Mexico: Art and Archaeology of the Unknown Past, Labb?, Armand J.
ed. R. F. Townsend. Thames and Hudson, New York. 1986 Colombia before Columbus: The People, Culture, and
Ceramic Art of Prehispanic Colombia. Rizzoli, New
Gilbert, Stephen York.
1997 Pictorial Anatomy of the Cat. University of 1998 Shamans, Gods, and Mythic Beasts: Colombian Gold
Washington Press, Seattle. and Ceramics in Antiquity. The American Federation
of the Arts and University of Washington Press, New
Glass-Coffin, Bonnie York and Seattle.
1998 The Gift of Life: Female Spirituality and Healing in
Northern Peru. University of New Mexico Press, Langdon, E. Jean Mattison
Albuquerque. 1992 "Dau: Shamanic Power in Siona Religion and
Medicine," in Portals of Power: Shamanism in South
Harner, Michael J. America, eds. Langdon and Baer, pp. 41-62.
1973 "Common Themes in South American Indian Yag? University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Experiences," in Hallucinogens and Shamanism, ed.
Michael J. Harner, pp. 155-175. Oxford University Lavalle, Jose Antonio, and Werner Lang
Press, New York. 1983 Culturas Precolombinas: Paracas. Banco del Cr?dito
del Peru en la Cultura, Lima.
Helms, Mary
1995 Creations of the Rainbow Serpent: Polychrome Leon-Portilla, Miguel
Ceramic Designs from Ancient Panama. University of 1963 Azfec Thought and Culture. Davis, trans. University of
New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Hilljonathan D. Marcus, Joyce

1992 "A Musical Aesthetic of Ritual Curing in the 1992 Mesoamerican Writing Systems.: Propaganda, Myth,
Northwest Amazon," in Portals of Power: Shamanism and History in Four Ancient Civilizations. Princeton
in South America, eds. E. Jean Matteson Langdon and University Press, Princeton.
Gerhard Baer, pp. 175-210. University of New
Mexico Press, Albuquerque. Martin, Richard P.
2003 Myths of the Ancient Greeks. Penguin Putnam, New
Hornor, Elizabeth York.
n.d. "Nasca Human Effigy Vessels as Shamanic Images,"
unpublished master's thesis, Emory University. Mattison, Christopher
1986 Snakes of the World. Facts on File, New York.
Houston, Stephen, and David Stuart
1989 "The Way Glyph: Evidence for 'Co-essences' among McClenon, James
the Classic Maya," in Research Reports on Ancient 1994 Wondrous Events: Foundations of Religious Belief.
Maya Wr/f/V?g30:1-16. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
Juniper, Tony, and Mike P?rr Miller, Mary Ellen

1998 Parrots: A Guide to Parrots of the World. Yale 1986 The Murals of Bonampak. Princeton University Press,
University Press, New Haven, Conn. Princeton.
Stone-Miller: Human-animal imagery shamanic visions, and ancient American aesthetics 67
1999 Maya Art and Architecture. Thames and Hudson, Quilter, Jeffrey
New York. 1990 "The Moche Revolt of the Objects." Latin American
2001 Art of Mesoamerica from Olmec to Aztec. 3rd ed. Antiquity *\ :1:42-65.
Thames and Hudson, New York. 2001 "Moche Mimesis: Continuity and Change in Public
Art in Early Peru," in Moche Art and Archaeology in
Miller, Mary Ellen, and Karl Taube, eds. Ancient Peru, ed. J. Pillsbury. Yale University Press,
1993 The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the New Haven.
Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican
Religion. Thames and Hudson, New York. Reichel-Dolmatoff, Gerardo
1972 "The Cultural Context of an Aboriginal Hallucinogen?
Musgrave-Portilla, L. Marie Banisteriopsis Caapi," in Flesh of the Gods: The
1982 "The Nahualli or Transforming Wizard in Pre- and Ritual Use of Hallucinogens, ed. P. T. F?rst. Praeger,
Postconquest Mesoamerica," Journal of Latin New York.
American Lore 8:1:3-62. 1975 The Shaman and the Jaguar: A Study of Narcotic
Drugs among the Indians of Colombia. Temple
Naranjo, Claudio University Press, Philadelphia.
1973 "Psychological Aspects of the Yag? Experience in an
Experimental Setting," in Hallucinogens and Reilly, F. Kent, III
Shamanism, ed. M. J. Harner. Oxford University 1989 "The Shaman in Transformation Pose: A Study of the
Press, New York. Theme of Rulership in Olmec Art." Record of the Art
Museum of Princeton University 48:2:4-21.
Par? atore, Kacey H.
n.d. "Birds of Pray: The Ecstatic Shaman Figure of Paracas Ross, Charles A., ed.
Necropolis Textiles," unpublished M.A. thesis. 1989 Crocodiles and Alligators. Facts on File, New York.
Pasztory, Esther Saunders, Nicholas

1983 Aztec Art. Abrams, New York. 1988 "Chatoyer: Anthropological Reflections on
Archaeological Mirrors," in Recent Studies in Pre
Paul, Anne Columbian Archaeology 1, eds. Saunders and
1990 Paracas Ritual Attire: Symbols of Authority in Ancient Monmollin. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.
Peru. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. 1990 "Tezcatlipoca: Jaguar Metaphors and the Aztec Mirror
1994 "Procedures, Patterns, and Deviations in Paracas of Nature," in Signifying Animals: Human Meaning in
Embroidered Textiles," in To Weave for the Sun: the Natural World, ed. R. Willis. Unwin Hyman,
Ancient Andean Textiles. Thames and Hudson, New London.
York.
Schaffer, Anne-Louise
Paul, Anne, and SolveigTurpin 1991 "The Maya 'Posture of Royal Ease,'" in Sixth Palenque
1986 "The Ecstatic Shaman Theme of Paracas Textiles." Round Table, 1986, eds. Merle Greene Robertson and
Archaeology 39:5:20-27. Virginia M. Fields, pp. 203-216. University of
Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Perry, Richard
1970 The World of the Jaguar. Taplinger Publishing Co., Schele, Linda, and Mary Ellen Miller
New York. 1986 The Blood of Kings: Dynasty and Ritual in Maya Art.
Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth.
Peterson, Jeanette
1990 Precolumbian Flora and Fauna: Continuity of Plant Schultes, Richard E., and Albert Hofmann
and Animal Themes in Mesoamerican Art. Mingei 1992 Plants of the Gods: Their Sacred, Healing and
International Museum of World Folk Art, San Diego. Hallucinogenic Powers. Healing Arts Press,
Rochester, Vermont.
Poole, Alan Forsyth
1989 Ospreys: A Natural and Unnatural History. Schultes, Richard E., and R. F. Raffauf
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England. 1992 Vine of the Soul: Medicine Men, their Plants and
Rituals in the Colombian Amazon. Synergetic Press,
Oracle, Arizona.
Schwartz, Marion Winkelman, Michael

1997 A History of Dogs in Early America. Yale University 2000 Shamanism: The Neural Ecology of Consciousness
Press, New Haven. and Healing. Bergin and Garvey, London.
Sharon, Douglas, and Christopher Donnan Wolfe, Art, and Barbara Sleeper
1977 "The Magic Cactus: Ethnoarchaeological Continuity 1995 Wild Cats of the World. Crown Publishers, New York.
in Peru," Archaeology 30:6:374-381.
Siegel, R. K. and L. J. West, eds.

1975 Hallucinations: Behaviour, Experience, and Theory.
John Wiley & Sons, New York.
1977 "Hallucinations," Scientific American 237:4:132-140.
Spruce, R.
1970 Geographical Magazine ca. 1870, reprinted in Nofes
of a Botanist on the Amazon and Andes, ed. A. R.
Wallace. Johnson Reprint Corp., New York.
St. Pierre, Mark, and Tilda Long Soldier

1995 Walking in the Sacred Manner: Healers, Dreamers,
and Pipe Carriers-Medicine Women of the Plains
Indians. Simon and Schuster, New York.
Stone-Miller, Rebecca
1994 To Weave for the Sun: Ancient Andean Textiles.
Thames and Hudson, New York.
2002 a Seeing with New Eyes: Highlights of the Michael C.
Carlos Museum Collection of Art of the Ancient
Americas. Michael C. Carlos Museum/University of
Washington Press.
2002b Art of the Andes from Chavin to Inca, rev. ed. (World
of Art series). Thames and Hudson Ltd., London and
New York.
T?te, Carolyn E.
1992 Yaxchil?n: The Design of a Maya Ceremonial City.
University of Texas Press, Austin.
Tedlock, Dennis, trans.

1996 Popol Vuh: the Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life. Rev.
ed. Simon and Schuster, New York.
Townsend, Richard F.
1979 State and Cosmos in the Art of Tenochtitlan. Studies
in Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology 20.
Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collections,
Washington, D.C.
2000 The Aztecs. Rev. ed. Thames and Hudson, London.
Wasson, R. Gordon
2001 "I Was a Disembodied Eye in Space," Shamans
Through Time: 500 Years on the Path to Knowledge,
eds. Jeremy Narby and Francis Huxley, pp. 141-147.
Thames and Hudson, London.

Estética en La Cerámica

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Estética en La Cerámica

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Human-Animal Imagery, Shamanic Visions, and Ancient American Aesthetics

Author(s): Rebecca Stone-Miller

Introduction these first humans merely crumbled, to be replaced by

maize, or even peanuts (fig. 1). Even though analysis of

However clear the importance of animals to Native

Such a complete identification of oneself with an

Amerindian artists conveyed conflated human-animal

The purpose of the transformativeThe vision quest

substances and their use.5 As support for the many

7. To us the very word "hallucination" means a patently unreal

(Reichel-Dolmatoff 1975:172-173; Siegel 1977:4;

between "only a man" (the uninitiated or neophyte),

double stripes on lower limbs, whiskers, and bared

BIBLIOGRAPHY Czitrom, Carolyn Baus

Buchillet, Dominique Dobkin de Rios, Marlene

1974a "Fertility, Vision Quest and Auto-Sacrifice: Some Kl?ver, Heinrich

Hilljonathan D. Marcus, Joyce

Juniper, Tony, and Mike P?rr Miller, Mary Ellen

Pasztory, Esther Saunders, Nicholas

Schwartz, Marion Winkelman, Michael

Siegel, R. K. and L. J. West, eds.

St. Pierre, Mark, and Tilda Long Soldier

Tedlock, Dennis, trans.

Potrebbero piacerti anche