AIRCRAFT WING SKIN

VISHNU A R
15101062

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 Contents

1. Wing Introduction

1.1. Definition.3

1.2. Types of wing based on its position..3

1.3. Airfoil and wing representation..3

2. Function of the Wing

2.1. Wing main function..4

2.2. How wing produces lift? .................................................................................................. 4

2.3. Wing Components: Ribs, Stringers and skin.4

2.4. Function of Skin, Stringer, Spar..5

3. Desired properties of wing skin material ..5

3.1 Difference between upper and lower skin5
4. Materials used for manufacturing the Wing

4.1. 2024 Al alloy Properties.6

4.2. Reasons of choosing 2024 Al alloy and its Uses.6

5. Alternate Materials:
5.1. 6061 Al alloy Properties, Uses.7

5.2. 7075 Al alloy Properties and uses.8

6. Conclusion..9

7. References..10

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WING INTRODUCTION
The wings are aerofoils attached to each side of the fuselage and
are the main lifting surfaces that support the airplane in flight. There are
numerous wing designs, sizes, and shapes used by the various manufacturers.
Each fulfils a certain need with respect to the expected performance for the
particular airplane. Wings may be attached at the top, middle, or lower portion
of the fuselage. These designs are referred to as high-, mid-, and low-wing,
respectively. The number of wings can also vary. Airplanes with a single set of
wings are referred to as monoplanes, while those with two sets are called
biplanes. Many high-wing airplanes have external braces, or wing struts, which
transmit the flight and landing loads through the struts to the main fuselage
structure. Since the wing struts are usually attached approximately halfway out
on the wing, this type of wing structure is called semi-cantilever. A few high-
wing and most low-wing airplanes have a full cantilever wing designed to carry
the loads without external struts.

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The Function of a Wing
Providing lift is the main function of the wings of an aircraft.
The wings consist of two essential parts.
The internal wing structure, consisting of spars, ribs and stringers, and the
external wing, which is the skin. The wings are the most important lift-
producing part of the aircraft. Wings vary in design depending upon the aircraft
type and its purpose.
A wing's aerodynamic quality is expressed as its lift-to-drag ratio. The lift a
wing generates at a given speed and angle of attack can be one to two orders
of magnitude greater than the total drag on the wing.
By virtue of its shape alone, an airfoil will generate lift as air flows over it.
However, even more lift can be generated by the airfoil if it is tilted with
respect to the airflow. This tilt is called an airfoil's angle of attack. As the
wing is tilted, the air flowing over the top of the wing flows even faster than
the air flowing underneath. As the difference in the speed of the two airflows
increases, the difference in pressure increases also. This difference in pressure
that generates the lift force. So, as its angle of attack increases, the wing
generates more lift. Up to a certain angle of attack the air will flow smoothly
along the surface. If the angle of attack becomes too great, the air will get all
jumbled up and not flow smoothly around the airfoil. If this happens, lift will
not be generated. We say the wing "loses its lift" or "stalls".
Most airplanes are designed so that the outer tips of the wings are higher than
where the wings are attached to the fuselage.

This upward angle is called the dihedral and helps keep the airplane from
rolling unexpectedly during flight. Wings also carry the fuel for the airplane.

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Functions of Skin :
1) It transmits the aerodynamic forces to the longitudinal and transverse
supporting members by plate and membrane action.
2) It develops shearing stresses which react to the applied torsional moments
and shear forces.
3) It acts with the longitudinal members in resisting the applied bending and
axial loads.
4) It acts with longitudinal in resisting the axial load with the transverse
members in reacting the hoop or circumferential load when the structure is
pressurized.
5) In addition to theses, it provides an aerodynamic surface and cover for the
contents of the vehicle.

Functions of Longitudinals, Stringers or Stiffenners (Longerons):

1. They resist bending and axial loads along with the skin.
2. They divide the skin into small panels and thereby increase its buckling
and failure stresses.
3. They act with the skin in resisting axial loads caused by pressurization.

Desired properties of wing skin material

Upper skin and lower skin of the aircraft are having different loadings:
Upper skin : Primarily subjected to Tensile loading.
Lower skin : Primarily subjected to compressive loading.

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Materials used in manufacturing the Wing :
2024 Aluminium alloy:
Aluminium alloy 2024 is an aluminium alloy, with copper as the primary
alloying element. It is used in applications requiring high strength to weight
ratio, as well as good fatigue resistance.
Basic properties: Aluminium alloy 2024 has a density of 2.78 g/cm (0.1
lb/in), electrical conductivity of 30% IACS, Young's Modulus of 73 GPa
(10.6 Msi) across all tempers, and begins to melt at 500 C(932 F) 2024
aluminium alloy's composition roughly includes 4.3-4.5% copper, 0.5-0.6%
manganese, 1.3-1.5% magnesium and less than a half a percent of silicon,
zinc, nickel, chromium, lead and bismuth.
Mechanical Properties:
The mechanical properties of 2024 depend greatly on the temper
of the material
2024-O
2024-O temper aluminium has no heat treating. It has a maximum tensile
strength of 30-32 ksi (207-220 MPa), and maximum yield strength of no
more than 14,000 psi (96 MPa). The material has elongation (stretch before
ultimate failure) of 10-25%, this is the allowable range per applicable AMS
specifications.
2024-T3
T3 temper 2024 sheet has an ultimate tensile strength of 58-62 ksi (400-427
MPa) and yield strength of at least 39-40 ksi (269-276 MPa). It has an
elongation of 10-15%.
2024-T4
Solution treated and naturally aged.
2024-T351
T351 temper 2024 plate has an ultimate tensile strength of 68 ksi (470 MPa)
and yield strength of 41 ksi (280 MPa). It has elongation of 19%.
Uses:
Due to its high strength and fatigue resistance, 2024 is widely used
in aircraft structures, especially wing and fuselage structures under
tension. Additionally, since the material is susceptible to thermal shock,
2024 is used in qualification of liquid penetrant tests outside of normal
temperature ranges.

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Alternate materials

6061 Aluminium alloy:

6061 is a precipitation hardening aluminium alloy, containing
magnesium and silicon as its major alloying elements.
Originally called "Alloy 61S," it was developed in 1935 .It has
good mechanical properties and exhibits good weldability. It is
one of the most common alloys of aluminium for general
purpose use.
It is commonly available in pre-tempered grades such as 6061-O (annealed) and
tempered grades such as 6061-T6 (solutionized and artificially aged) and 6061-
T651 (solutionized, stress-relieved stretched and artificially aged).
Basic Properties:
6061 has a density of 2.70 g/cm (0.0975 lb/in).
Chemical Composition:
The alloy composition of 6061 is:
Silicon minimum 0.4%, maximum 0.8% by weight
Iron no minimum, maximum 0.7%
Copper minimum 0.15%, maximum 0.40%
Manganese no minimum, maximum 0.15%
Magnesium minimum 0.8%, maximum 1.2%
Chromium minimum 0.04%, maximum 0.35%
Zinc no minimum, maximum 0.25%
Titanium no minimum, maximum 0.15%
Other elements no more than 0.05% each, 0.15% total
Remainder Aluminium (95.85%98.56%)
Mechanical Properties:
The mechanical properties of 6061 depend greatly on the temper,
or heat treatment, of the material. Young's Modulus is 10106 psi
(69 GPa) regardless of temper.
6061-O
Annealed 6061 (6061-O temper) has maximum tensile strength no
more than 18,000 psi (125 MPa), and maximum yield strength no
more than 8,000 psi (55 MPa). The material has elongation (stretch
before ultimate failure) of 25 30%.
6061-T4
T4 temper 6061 has an ultimate tensile strength of at least 30,000 psi (207
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MPa) and yield strength of at least 16,000 psi (110 MPa). It has elongation of
16%.
6061-T6
T6 temper 6061 has an ultimate tensile strength of at least 42,000 psi (300
MPa) and yield strength of at least 35,000 psi (241 MPa). More typical values
are 45,000 psi (310 MPa) and 40,000 psi (275 MPa), respectively. In
thicknesses of 0.250 inch (6.35 mm) or less, it has elongation of 8% or more;
in thicker sections, it has elongation of 10%. T651 temper has similar
mechanical properties. The typical value for thermal conductivity for 6061-
T6 at 80C is around 152 W/m K. A material data sheet defines the fatigue
limit under cyclic load as 14,000 psi (100 MPa) for 500,000,000 completely
reversed cycles using a standard RR Moore test machine and specimen. Note
that aluminum does not exhibit a well-defined "knee" on its S-n graph, so
there is some debate as to how many cycles equates to "infinite life". Also
note the actual value of fatigue MMM limit for an application can be
dramatically affected by the conventional de-rating factors of loading,
gradient, and surface finish.
Uses:
6061 is commonly used for the following:
construction of aircraft structures, such as wings and fuselages , more
commonly in homebuilt aircraft than commercial or military aircraft. 2024
alloy is somewhat stronger, but 6061 is more easily worked and remains
resistant to corrosion even when the surface is abraded, which is not the case
for 2024, which is usually used with a thin Alclad coating for corrosion
resistance.
yacht construction, including small utility boats .
automotive parts, such as wheel spacers.
the manufacture of aluminium cans for the packaging of foodstuffs and
beverages.
6061-T6 is used for:
the construction of bicycle frames and components.
many fly fishing reels.
The famous Pioneer plaque was made of this particular alloy.
the secondary chambers and baffle systems in firearm sound
suppressors (primarily pistol suppressors for reduced weight and
functionality), while the primary expansion chambers usually require 17-
4PH or 303 stainless steel or titanium .
7075 Aluminium alloy:
Aluminium alloy 7075 is an aluminium alloy, with zinc as the primary
alloying element. It is strong, with a strength comparable to many steels, and
has good fatigue strength and average machinability, but has less resistance to
corrosion than many other Al alloys. 7000 series alloys such as 7075 are often
used in transport applications, including marine, automotive and aviation, due
to their high strength-to-density ratio.
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Conclusion

The main Function of Wing is to produce lift. Basically, the Construction of the
wing is a framework composed chiefly of spars, ribs, and (possibly) stringers.
Aluminium alloy 2024 is an aluminium alloy, with copper as the primary
alloying element. Due to its high strength and fatigue resistance, 2024 is widely
used in aircraft structures, especially wing (lower wing) and fuselage structures.
7075 Al alloy is used in upper skin due its higher strength.
Suggestion: The advantages of composite laminates in terms of light weight
makes it the most suitable candidate over Aluminium alloys.

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References:

1) Engineering material : Properties and selection by

K.G.BUDINSKI
2) Wikipedia
3) http://www.aeronautics.nasa.gov
4) http://virtualskies.arc.nasa.gov

5) http://aluminium.matter.org.uk/

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