Maimonides - Wikipedia

23/10/2016 MaimonidesWikipedia
Maimonides
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MoshebenMaimon(Hebrew:Mosheben
Maymon),orMsbinMaymn(Arabic:), MoshebenMaimon("Maimonides")
acronymedRambam(/rmbm/Hebrew:for
"RabbeinuMosheBenMaimon","OurRabbi/TeacherMoses
SonofMaimon"),andGraecized(andsubsequently
Latinized)MosesMaimonides(/mamndiz/[5]myMONi
deez),apreeminentmedievalSephardicJewishphilosopher
andastronomer,[6]becameoneofthemostprolificand
influentialTorahscholarsandphysicians[7][8][9]ofthe
MiddleAges.BorninCordova,AlmoravidEmpire(present
daySpain)onPassoverEve,1135or1138,[10][11][12][13][14]he
diedinEgyptonDecember12,1204,whencehisbodywas
takentothelowerGalileeandburiedinTiberias.[15][16]He
workedasarabbi,physician,andphilosopherinMorocco
andEgypt.
18thcenturyportraitofMaimonides
Duringhislifetime,mostJewsgreetedMaimonides'writings
Born 1135
onJewishlawandethicswithacclaimandgratitude,evenas
farawayasIraqandYemen,andalthoughMaimonidesrose Cordova,AlmoravidEmpire (presentday
tobecomethereveredheadoftheJewishcommunityin Spain)
Egypt,therewerealsovociferouscriticsofsomeofhis Died 12December1204(aged69)
writings,particularlyinSpain.Nonetheless,hewas
Fostat,Egypt,orCairo,Egypt[1]
posthumouslyacknowledgedasamongtheforemost
rabbinicalarbitersandphilosophersinJewishhistory,and Religion Judaism
hiscopiousworkcomprisesacornerstoneofJewish
Era MedievalPhilosophy
scholarship.HisfourteenvolumeMishnehTorahstillcarries
significantcanonicalauthorityasacodificationofTalmudic Region Jewishphilosophy
law.Heissometimesknownas"haNesherhaGadol"(the School Jewishlaw,Jewishethics
greateagle)inrecognitionofhisoutstandingstatusasabona
fideexponentoftheOralTorah. Influences
Influenced
AsidefrombeingreveredbyJewishhistorians,Maimonides
alsofiguresveryprominentlyinthehistoryofIslamicand Signature
Arabsciencesandismentionedextensivelyinstudies.
InfluencedbyAlFarabi(ca.872950/951),Avicenna(c.980
1037),andhiscontemporaryAverroes(11261198),hein
histurninfluencedotherprominentArabandMuslimphilosophersandscientists.Hebecameaprominent
philosopherandpolymathinboththeJewishandIslamicworlds.
Contents
1 Name
2 Biography
3 Influence
4 13principlesoffaith
5 Legalworks
5.1 Charity(tzedakah)
6 Philosophy
6.1 Negativetheology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maimonides 1/21
6.1 Negativetheology
6.2 Prophecy
6.3 Theproblemofevil
6.4 Astrology
6.5 Truebeliefsversusnecessarybeliefs
6.6 Resurrection,acquiredimmortality,andtheafterlife
6.7 Messianicera
6.8 TheOathofMaimonides
7 MaimonidesandtheModernists
8 Tributesandmemorials
9 Worksandbibliography
9.1 Judaicandphilosophicalworks
9.2 Medicalworks
9.3 Treatiseonlogic
10 Seealso
11 Notes
12 References
13 Bibliography
14 Externallinks
Name
HisfullHebrewnameisRabbiMoshehbenMaimon(Hebrew:),whoseacronymforms
"Rambam"()".HisfullArabicnameisAbImrnMsbinMaimnbinUbaidallhalQurtab(
)orMsbinMaymn(Arabic:)forshort.InLatin,the
Hebrew"ben"(sonof)becomestheGreekstylesuffix"ides"toform"MosesMaimonides".
Biography
MaimonideswasborninCrdobaduringwhatsomescholarsconsider
tobetheendofthegoldenageofJewishcultureintheIberian
Peninsula,afterthefirstcenturiesoftheMoorishrule.Atanearlyage,
hedevelopedaninterestinsciencesandphilosophy.Hereadthose
GreekphilosophersaccessibleinArabictranslations,andwasdeeply
immersedinthesciencesandlearningofIslamicculture.[17]Thoughthe
Gaonictradition,especiallyinitsNorthAfricanversion,formedthe
basisofhislegalthought,somescholarshavearguedinthe21stcentury
thatMuslimlaw,includingAlmohadlegalthought,alsohada ThedominionoftheAlmohad
substantialinfluence.[18]Maimonideswasnotknownasasupporterof Caliphateatitsgreatestextent,c.
mysticism,althoughastrongintellectualtypeofmysticismhasbeen 1200CE
discernedinhisphilosophy.[19]Heexpresseddisapprovalofpoetry,the
bestofwhichhedeclaredtobefalse,sinceitwasfoundedonpureinvention.Thissage,whowasreveredfor
hispersonalityaswellasforhiswritings,ledabusylife,andwrotemanyofhisworkswhiletravellingorin
temporaryaccommodation.[20]MaimonidesstudiedTorahunderhisfatherMaimon,whohadinturnstudied
underRabbiJosephibnMigash,astudentofIsaacAlfasi.
ABerberdynasty,theAlmohads,conqueredCrdobain1148,andabolisheddhimmistatus(i.e.,state
protectionoflifeandwealth)insomeoftheirterritories.ThelossofthisprotectedstatusthreatenedtheJewish
andChristiancommunitieswithconversiontoIslam,death,orexile.[20]Thehistoricalrecordsofabusesagainst
Jewsintheimmediatepost1148periodaresubjecttodifferentinterpretations.[21]ManyJewswereforcedto
convert,butduetosuspicionbytheauthoritiesoffakeconversions,thenewconvertshadtowearidentifying
clothingthatsetthemapartandmadethemsubjecttopublicscrutiny.[22][23]
Maimonides'sfamily,alongwithmostotherJews,choseexile.Some
say,though,thatitislikelythatMaimonidesfeignedaconversionto
Islambeforeescaping.[24]Thisforcedconversionwasruledlegally
invalidunderIslamiclawwhenbroughtupbyarivalinEgypt.[21]For
thenexttenyears,MaimonidesmovedaboutinsouthernSpain,
eventuallysettlinginFesinMorocco.Duringthistime,hecomposed
hisacclaimedcommentaryontheMishnahintheyears11661168.[25]
FollowingthissojourninMorocco,togetherwithtwosons,[26]he
sojournedintheHolyLand,beforesettlinginFustat,Egyptaround
1168.WhileinCairo,hestudiedinayeshivaattachedtoasmall
synagogue(whichnowbearshisname).[27]IntheHolyLand,heprayed
attheTempleMount.HewrotethatthisdayofvisitingtheTemple
Mountwasadayofholinessforhimandhisdescendants.
MaimonidesshortlythereafterwasinstrumentalinhelpingrescueJews
Maimonides'shouseinFes,Morocco
takencaptiveduringtheChristianKingAmalric'ssiegeoftheEgyptian
townofBilbays.HesentfiveletterstotheJewishcommunitiesof
LowerEgyptaskingthemtopoolmoneytogethertopaytheransom.
ThemoneywascollectedandthengiventotwojudgessenttoPalestine
tonegotiatewiththeCrusaders.Thecaptiveswereeventually
released.[28]
Followingthistriumph,theMaimonidesfamily,hopingtoincreasetheir
wealth,gavetheirsavingstohisbrother,theyoungestsonDavidben
Maimon,amerchant.Maimonidesdirectedhisbrothertoprocuregoods
onlyattheSudaneseportofAydhab.Afteralongarduoustripthrough
thedesert,however,Davidwasunimpressedbythegoodsonofferthere.
Againsthisbrother'swishes,DavidboardedashipforIndia,sincegreat
wealthwastobefoundintheEast.[29]Beforehecouldreachhis
destination,Daviddrownedatseasometimebetween11691170.The
deathofhisbrothercausedMaimonidestobecomesickwithgrief.
Inaletter(discoveredlaterintheCairoGeniza),hewrote:
MonumentinCordoba
Thegreatestmisfortunethathasbefallenmeduringmy
entirelifeworsethananythingelsewasthedemiseof
thesaint,mayhismemorybeblessed,whodrownedinthe
Indiansea,carryingmuchmoneybelongingtome,him,
andtoothers,andleftwithmealittledaughteranda
widow.OnthedayIreceivedthatterriblenewsIfellilland
remainedinbedforaboutayear,sufferingfromasoreboil,
fever,anddepression,andwasalmostgivenup.About
eightyearshavepassed,butIamstillmourningandunable
toacceptconsolation.AndhowshouldIconsolemyself?
Hegrewuponmyknees,hewasmybrother,[and]hewas
mystudent.[30]
Around1171,MaimonideswasappointedtheNagidoftheEgyptianJewishcommunity.[27]ArabistS.D.
GoiteinbelievestheleadershiphedisplayedduringtheransomingoftheCrusadercaptivesledtothis
appointment.[31]WiththelossofthefamilyfundstiedupinDavid'sbusinessventure,Maimonidesassumedthe
vocationofphysician,forwhichhewastobecomefamous.HehadtrainedinmedicineinbothCrdobaandin
Fes.Gainingwidespreadrecognition,hewasappointedcourt
physiciantotheGrandVizierAlQadialFadil,thentoSultan
Saladin,afterwhosedeathheremainedaphysiciantotheroyal
family.[32]
Inhismedicalwritings,Maimonidesdescribedmanyconditions,
includingasthma,diabetes,hepatitis,andpneumonia,andhe
emphasizedmoderationandahealthylifestyle.[33]Histreatises
becameinfluentialforgenerationsofphysicians.Hewas
knowledgeableaboutGreekandArabicmedicine,andfollowedthe
principlesofhumorisminthetraditionofGalen.Hedidnotblindly
acceptauthoritybutusedhisownobservationandexperience.[33]
JuliaBessFrankindicatesthatMaimonidesinhismedicalwritings
soughttointerpretworksofauthoritiessothattheycouldbecome
acceptable.[32]Maimonidesdisplayedinhisinteractionswith
patientsattributesthattodaywouldbecalledintercultural
awarenessandrespectforthepatient'sautonomy.[34]Althoughhe
SculptureofMaimonidesintheU.S.
frequentlywroteofhislongingforsolitudeinordertocomecloser
HouseofRepresentatives.
toGodandtoextendhisreflectionselementsconsideredessential
inhisphilosophytothepropheticexperiencehegaveovermostof
[35]
histimetocaringforothers. Inafamousletter,Maimonidesdescribeshisdailyroutine:Aftervisitingthe
Sultan'spalace,hewouldarrivehomeexhaustedandhungry,where"Iwouldfindtheantechambersfilledwith
gentilesandJews...Iwouldgotohealthem,andwriteprescriptionsfortheirillnesses...untiltheevening...
andIwouldbeextremelyweak."[36]Ashegoesontosayinthisletter,evenontheSabbathhewouldreceive
membersofthecommunity.Itisremarkablethathemanagedtowriteextendedtreatises,includingnotonly
medicalandotherscientificstudiesbutsomeofthemostsystematicallythoughtthroughandinfluential
treatisesonhalakha(rabbiniclaw)andJewishphilosophyoftheMiddleAges.[37]In1173/4,Maimonideswrote
hisfamousIggeretTeman(EpistletoYemen).[38]Ithasbeensuggestedthathis"incessanttravail"undermined
hisownhealthandbroughtabouthisdeathat69(althoughthisisanormallifespan).[39]Hisrabbinicwritings
arevaluedasfundamentalandunparalleledresourcesforreligiousJewstoday.
MaimonidesdiedonDecember12,1204(20thofTevet4965)inFustat.
Itiswidelybelievedthathewasbrieflyburiedinthestudyroom(beit
hamidrash)ofthesynagoguecourtyard,andthat,soonafter,in
accordancewithhiswishes,hisremainswereexhumedandtakento
Tiberias,wherehewasreinterred.[40]TheTombofMaimonidesonthe
westernshoreoftheSeaofGalileeinIsraelmarkshisgrave.This
locationforhisfinalrestingplacehasbeendebated,forintheJewish
Cairenecommunity,atraditionholdsthatheremainedburiedin
Egypt.[41]
TheTombofMaimonidesinTiberias
Maimonidesandhiswife,thedaughterofMishaelbenYeshayahu
Halevi,hadonechildwhosurvivedintoadulthood,[42]Avraham,who
becamerecognizedasagreatscholar.HesucceededMaimonidesasNagidandascourtphysicianattheageof
eighteen.Throughouthiscareer,hedefendedhisfather'swritingsagainstallcritics.TheofficeofNagidwas
heldbytheMaimonidesfamilyforfoursuccessivegenerationsuntiltheendofthe14thcentury.
Thephilosopher/doctoriswidelyrespectedinSpainandastatueofhimwaserectedinCrdobaneartotheonly
synagogueinthatcitytoescapedestructionduringyearsofpersecution.Althoughitnolongerfunctionsasa
Jewishhouseofworship,itisopentothepublic.
MaimonidesissometimessaidtobeadescendantofKingDavid,althoughhenevermadesuchaclaim.[43][44]
Influence
Maimonides'sMishnehTorahisconsideredbyJewseventodayasone
ofthechiefauthoritativecodificationsofJewishlawandethics.Itis
exceptionalforitslogicalconstruction,conciseandclearexpressionand
extraordinarylearning,sothatitbecameastandardagainstwhichother
latercodificationswereoftenmeasured.[45]Itisstillcloselystudiedin
rabbinicyeshivot(academies).Apopularmedievalsayingthatalso
servedashisepitaphstates,FromMosheh(oftheTorah)toMosheh
(Maimonides)therewasnonelikeMosheh.Itchieflyreferredtohis
rabbinicwritings.
ButMaimonideswasalsooneofthemostinfluentialfiguresin
medievalJewishphilosophy.HisbrilliantadaptationofAristotelian
thoughttoBiblicalfaithdeeplyimpressedlaterJewishthinkers,andhad
anunexpectedimmediatehistoricalimpact.[46]Somemoreacculturated
Jewsinthecenturythatfollowedhisdeath,particularlyinSpain,sought
toapplyMaimonides'sAristotelianisminwaysthatundercut
traditionalistbeliefandobservance,givingrisetoanintellectual
controversyinSpanishandsouthernFrenchJewishcircles.[47]The ThetitlepageofTheGuideforthe
intensityofdebatespurredCatholicChurchinterventionsagainst Perplexed
"heresy"andageneralconfiscationofrabbinictexts.Inreaction,the
moreradicalinterpretationsofMaimonidesweredefeated.AtleastamongstAshkenaziJews,therewasa
tendencytoignorehisspecificallyphilosophicalwritingsandtostressinsteadtherabbinicandhalakhic
writings.Thesewritingsoftenincludedconsiderablephilosophicalchaptersordiscussionsinsupportof
halakhicobservanceDavidHartmanobservesthatMaimonidesclearlyexpressed"thetraditionalsupportfora
philosophicalunderstandingofGodbothintheAggadahofTalmudandinthebehaviorofthehasid[thepious
Jew]."[48]MaimonideanthoughtcontinuestoinfluencetraditionallyobservantJews.[49][50]
ThemostrigorousmedievalcritiqueofMaimonidesisHasdaiCrescas'sOrAdonai.Crescasbuckedtheeclectic
trend,bydemolishingthecertaintyoftheAristotelianworldview,notonlyinreligiousmattersbutalsointhe
mostbasicareasofmedievalscience(suchasphysicsandgeometry).Crescas'scritiqueprovokedanumberof
15thcenturyscholarstowritedefensesofMaimonides.ApartialtranslationofCrescaswasproducedbyHarry
AustrynWolfsonofHarvardUniversityin1929.
BecauseofhispathfindingsynthesisofAristotleandBiblicalfaith,Maimonideshadafundamentalinfluence
onthegreatChristiantheologianSaintThomasAquinas.[51]AquinasrefersspecificallytoMaimonidesin
severalofhisworks,includingtheCommentaryontheSentences.
13principlesoffaith
InhiscommentaryontheMishnah(tractateSanhedrin,chapter10),Maimonidesformulateshis"13principles
offaith".TheysummarizedwhatheviewedastherequiredbeliefsofJudaism:
1.TheexistenceofGod.
2.God'sunityandindivisibilityintoelements.
3.God'sspiritualityandincorporeality.
4.God'seternity.
5.Godaloneshouldbetheobjectofworship.
6.RevelationthroughGod'sprophets.
7.ThepreeminenceofMosesamongtheprophets.
8.TheTorahthatwehavetodayistheonedictatedtoMosesbyGod.
9.TheTorahgivenbyMoseswillnotbereplacedandthatnothingmaybeaddedorremovedfromit.
10.God'sawarenessofallhumanactionsandthoughts.
11.Rewardofgoodandpunishmentofevil.
12.ThecomingoftheJewishMessiah.
13.Theresurrectionofthedead.
MaimonidescompiledtheprinciplesfromvariousTalmudicsources.Theseprincipleswerecontroversialwhen
firstproposed,evokingcriticismbyRabbisHasdaiCrescasandJosephAlbo,andwereeffectivelyignoredby
muchoftheJewishcommunityforthenextfewcenturies.("DogmainMedievalJewishThought,"Menachem
Kellner).However,theseprincipleshavebecomewidelyheldtoday,OrthodoxJudaismholdsthesebeliefsto
beobligatory.[52]Twopoeticrestatementsoftheseprinciples(AniMa'aminandYigdal)eventuallybecame
canonizedinmanyeditionsofthe"Siddur"(Jewishprayerbook).
Legalworks
WithMishnehTorah,MaimonidescomposedacodeofJewishlawwith
thewidestpossiblescopeanddepth.Theworkgathersallthebinding
lawsfromtheTalmud,andincorporatesthepositionsoftheGeonim
(postTalmudicearlyMedievalscholars,mainlyfromMesopotamia).
WhileMishnehTorahisnowconsideredtheforerunneroftheArbaah
TurimandtheShulchanAruch(twolatercodes),itmetinitiallywith
muchopposition.[53]Thereweretwomainreasonsforthisopposition.
First,Maimonideshadrefrainedfromaddingreferencestohisworkfor
thesakeofbrevitysecond,intheintroduction,hegavetheimpression
ofwantingto"cutout"studyoftheTalmud,[54]toarriveataconclusioninJewishlaw,althoughMaimonides
laterwrotethatthiswasnothisintent.HismostforcefulopponentsweretherabbisofProvence(Southern
France),andarunningcritiquebyRabbiAbrahambenDavid(RaavadIII)isprintedinvirtuallyalleditionsof
MishnehTorah.Itwasstillrecognizedasamonumentalcontributiontothesystemizedwritingofhalakha.
Throughoutthecenturies,ithasbeenwidelystudiedanditshalakhicdecisionshaveweighedheavilyinlater
rulings.
InresponsetothosewhowouldattempttoforcefollowersofMaimonidesandhisMishnehTorahtoabideby
therulingsofhisownShulchanAruchorotherlaterworks,RabbiYosefKarowrote:"Whowoulddareforce
communitieswhofollowtheRambamtofollowanyotherdecisor,earlyorlate?...TheRambamisthegreatest
ofthedecisors,andallthecommunitiesoftheLandofIsraelandtheArabistanandtheMaghrebpractice
accordingtohisword,andacceptedhimastheirrabbi."[55]
Anoftcitedlegalmaximfromhispenis:"Itisbetterandmoresatisfactorytoacquitathousandguiltypersons
thantoputasingleinnocentonetodeath."Hearguedthatexecutingadefendantonanythinglessthanabsolute
certaintywouldleadtoaslipperyslopeofdecreasingburdensofproof,untilwewouldbeconvictingmerely
accordingtothejudge'scaprice.[56]
ScholarsspecializinginthestudyofthehistoryandsubcultureofJudaisminpremodernChina(SinoJudaica)
havenotedsurprisingsimilaritiesbetweenthisworkandtheliturgyoftheKaifengJews,descendantsofPersian
merchantswhosettledintheMiddleKingdomduringtheearlySongdynasty.[57]Beyondscripturalsimilarities,
MichaelPollakcommentstheJews'Pentateuchwasdividedinto53sectionsaccordingtothePersianstyle.[58]
Healsopointsout:
Thereisnoproof,tobesure,thatKaifengJewryeverhaddirectaccesstotheworksof"theGreat
Eagle,"butitwouldhavehadampletimeandopportunitytoacquireorbecomeacquaintedwith
themwellbeforeitsreservoirofJewishlearningbegantorunout.NordotheMaimonidean
leaningsofthekehillahcontradictthehistoricalevidencethathastheJewsarrivinginKaifengno
laterthan1126,theyearinwhichtheSungfledthecityandnineyearsbeforeMaimonideswas
born.In1163,whenthekehillahbuiltthefirstofitssynagogues,Maimonideswasonlytwenty
eightyearsold,sothatitishighlyunlikelythatevenhisearliestauthoritativeteachingscouldby
thenhavereachedChina.[59]
Charity(tzedakah)
OneofthemostwidelyreferredtosectionsoftheMishnehTorahisthesectiondealingwithtzedakah.In
HilkhotMatanotAniyim(LawsaboutGivingtoPoorPeople),Chapter10:714,Maimonideslistshisfamous
EightLevelsofGiving(wherethefirstlevelismostpreferable,andtheeighththeleast):[60]
1.Givinganinterestfreeloantoapersoninneedformingapartnershipwithapersoninneedgivinga
granttoapersoninneedfindingajobforapersoninneedsolongasthatloan,grant,partnership,orjob
resultsinthepersonnolongerlivingbyrelyinguponothers.
2.Givingtzedakahanonymouslytoanunknownrecipientviaaperson(orpublicfund)whichis
trustworthy,wise,andcanperformactsoftzedakahwithyourmoneyinamostimpeccablefashion.
3.Givingtzedakahanonymouslytoaknownrecipient.
4.Givingtzedakahpubliclytoanunknownrecipient.
5.Givingtzedakahbeforebeingasked.
6.Givingadequatelyafterbeingasked.
7.Givingwillingly,butinadequately.
8.Giving"insadness"(givingoutofpity):ItisthoughtthatMaimonideswasreferringtogivingbecauseof
thesadfeelingsonemighthaveinseeingpeopleinneed(asopposedtogivingbecauseitisareligious
obligation).Othertranslationssay"Givingunwillingly."
Philosophy
ThroughtheGuideforthePerplexed(whichwasinitiallywrittenin
ArabicasDallatalirn)andthephilosophicalintroductionsto
sectionsofhiscommentariesontheMishna,Maimonidesexerted
animportantinfluenceontheScholasticphilosophers,especially
onAlberttheGreat,ThomasAquinasandDunsScotus.Hewasa
JewishScholastic.EducatedmorebyreadingtheworksofArab
MuslimphilosophersthanbypersonalcontactwithArabian
teachers,heacquiredanintimateacquaintancenotonlywithArab
Muslimphilosophy,butwiththedoctrinesofAristotle.
MaimonidesstrovetoreconcileAristotelianphilosophyandscience
withtheteachingsoftheTorah.[61]InhisGuideforthePerplexed,
heoftenexplainsthefunctionandpurposeofthestatutory
provisionscontainedintheTorahagainstthebackdropofthe
historicalconditions.Maimonidesissaidtohavebeeninfluenced
byAsaphhaJehoudi,whowasthefirstHebrewmedicalwriter. DepictionofMaimonidesteachingstudents
aboutthe'measureofman'inan
Negativetheology illuminatedmanuscript.
TheprinciplethatinspiredhisphilosophicalactivitywasidenticaltoafundamentaltenetofScholasticism:
therecanbenocontradictionbetweenthetruthswhichGodhasrevealedandthefindingsofthehumanmindin
scienceandphilosophy.MaimonidesprimarilyrelieduponthescienceofAristotleandtheteachingsofthe
Talmud,commonlyfindingbasisintheformerforthelatter.Insomeimportantpoints,hedepartedfromthe
teachingofAristotleforinstance,herejectedtheAristoteliandoctrinethatGod'sprovidentcareextendsonly
tohumanity,andnottotheindividual.
MaimonidesadmirationfortheneoPlatoniccommentatorsledhimtodoctrineswhichthelaterScholasticsdid
notaccept.Forinstance,Maimonideswasanadherentof"negativetheology"(alsoknownas"Apophatic
theology".)Inthistheology,oneattemptstodescribeGodthroughnegativeattributes.Forinstance,oneshould
notsaythatGodexistsintheusualsenseofthetermitcanbesaidthatGodisnotnonexistent.Weshouldnot
saythat"Godiswise"butwecansaythat"Godisnotignorant,"i.e.,insomeway,Godhassomepropertiesof
knowledge.Weshouldnotsaythat"GodisOne,"butwecanstatethat"thereisnomultiplicityinGod'sbeing."
Inbrief,theattemptistogainandexpressknowledgeofGodbydescribingwhatGodisnot,ratherthanby
describingwhatGod"is".
TheScholasticsagreedthatnopredicateisadequatetoexpressthenatureofGod,buttheydidnotsaythatno
affirmativetermcouldbeappliedtoGod.Theyacknowledgedthatwhiletheterms"eternal,""omnipotent,"
etc.,asweapplythemtoGodareinadequate,atthesametimewemaysay"Godiseternal"etc.Weneednot
stop,asMaimonidesdid,withthenegative"Godisnotnoteternal,"etc.Maimonidessuggestedthatwhen
peoplegiveGodanthropomorphicqualities,theydonotexplainanythingmoreofwhatGodis,becausepeople
cannotknowtheessence.
Maimonides'suseofapophatictheologyisnotuniquetothistimeperiodortoJudaism.Forexample,Pseudo
DionysiustheAreopagiteandMaximustheConfessor,EasternChristiantheologians,haddevelopedapophatic
theologyforChristianitynearly900yearsearlier.SeeNegativetheologyforusesinotherreligions.
Prophecy
Heagreeswith"thePhilosopher"(Aristotle)inteachingthattheuseoflogicisthe"right"wayofthinking.In
ordertobuildaninnerunderstandingofhowtoknowGod,everyhumanbeingmust,bystudy,meditationand
uncompromisingstrongwill,attainthedegreeofcompletelogical,spiritualandphysicalperfectionrequiredin
thepropheticstate.Hereherejectspreviousideas(especiallyportrayedbyRabbiYehudaHaleviin"Hakuzari")
thatinordertobecomeaprophet,Godmustintervene.Maimonidesclaimsthatanymanhasthepotentialto
becomeaprophet(notjustJews)andthatinfactitisthepurposeofthehumanrace.
Theproblemofevil
Maimonideswroteontheodicy(thephilosophicalattempttoreconciletheexistenceofaGodwiththeexistence
ofevil).HetookthepremisethatanomnipotentandgoodGodexists.[62][63][64][65]InhisGuideforthe
Perplexed,Maimonideswritesthatalltheevilthatexistswithinhumanbeingsstemsfromtheirindividual
attributes,whileallgoodcomesfromauniversallysharedhumanity(Guide3:8).Hesaysthattherearepeople
whoareguidedbyhigherpurpose,andtherearethosewhoareguidedbyphysicalityandmuststrivetofindthe
higherpurposewithwhichtoguidetheiractions.
Tojustifytheexistenceofevil,assumingGodisbothomnipotentandomnibenevolent,Maimonidespostulates
thatonewhocreatedsomethingbycausingitsoppositenottoexistisnotthesameascreatingsomethingthat
existssoevilismerelytheabsenceofgood.Goddidnotcreateevil,ratherGodcreatedgood,andevilexists
wheregoodisabsent(Guide3:10).Therefore,allgoodisdivineinvention,andevilbothisnotandcomes
secondarily.
Maimonidesconteststhecommonviewthateviloutweighsgoodintheworld.Hesaysthatifonewereto
examineexistenceonlyintermsofhumanity,thenthatpersonmayobserveeviltodominategood,butifone
looksatthewholeoftheuniverse,thenheseesgoodissignificantlymorecommonthanevil(Guide3:12).
Man,hereasons,istooinsignificantafigureinGod'smyriadworkstobetheirprimarycharacterizingforce,
andsowhenpeopleseemostlyevilintheirlives,theyarenottakingintoaccounttheextentofpositive
Creationoutsideofthemselves.
Maimonidesbelievesthattherearethreetypesofevilintheworld:evilcausedbynature,evilthatpeoplebring
uponothers,andevilmanbringsuponhimself(Guide3:12).ThefirsttypeofevilMaimonidesstatesisthe
rarestform,butarguablyofthemostnecessarythebalanceoflifeanddeathinboththehumanandanimal
worldsitself,herecognizes,isessentialtoGod'splan.Maimonideswritesthatthesecondtypeofevilis
relativelyrare,andthathumanitybringsituponitself.Thethirdtypeofevilhumansbringuponthemselvesand
isthesourceofmostoftheillsoftheworld.Thesearetheresultofpeoplefallingvictimtotheirphysical
desires.Topreventthemajorityofevilwhichstemsfromharmwedotoourselves,wemustlearnhowtoignore
ourbodilyurges.
Astrology
Maimonidesansweredaninquiryconcerningastrology,addressedtohimfromMarseille.[66]Herespondedthat
manshouldbelieveonlywhatcanbesupportedeitherbyrationalproof,bytheevidenceofthesenses,orby
trustworthyauthority.Heaffirmsthathehadstudiedastrology,andthatitdoesnotdeservetobedescribedasa
science.Heridiculestheconceptthatthefateofamancouldbedependentupontheconstellationsheargues
thatsuchatheorywouldroblifeofpurpose,andwouldmakemanaslaveofdestiny.[67]
Truebeliefsversusnecessarybeliefs
InGuideforthePerplexedBookIII,Chapter28,[68]Maimonidesdrawsadistinctionbetween"truebeliefs,"
whichwerebeliefsaboutGodthatproducedintellectualperfection,and"necessarybeliefs,"whichwere
conducivetoimprovingsocialorder.Maimonidesplacesanthropomorphicpersonificationstatementsabout
Godinthelatterclass.HeusesasanexamplethenotionthatGodbecomes"angry"withpeoplewhodowrong.
IntheviewofMaimonides(takenfromAvicenna),Goddoesnotbecomeangrywithpeople,asGodhasno
humanpassionsbutitisimportantforthemtobelieveGoddoes,sothattheydesistfromdoingwrong.
Resurrection,acquiredimmortality,andtheafterlife
Maimonidesdistinguishestwokindsofintelligenceinman,theonematerialinthesenseofbeingdependent
on,andinfluencedby,thebody,andtheotherimmaterial,thatis,independentofthebodilyorganism.Thelatter
isadirectemanationfromtheuniversalactiveintellectthisishisinterpretationofthenospoietiksof
Aristotelianphilosophy.Itisacquiredastheresultoftheeffortsofthesoultoattainacorrectknowledgeofthe
absolute,pureintelligenceofGod.
TheknowledgeofGodisaformofknowledgewhichdevelopsinustheimmaterialintelligence,andthus
confersonmananimmaterial,spiritualnature.Thisconfersonthesoulthatperfectioninwhichhuman
happinessconsists,andendowsthesoulwithimmortality.OnewhohasattainedacorrectknowledgeofGod
hasreachedaconditionofexistence,whichrendershimimmunefromalltheaccidentsoffortune,fromallthe
allurementsofsin,andfromdeathitself.Manisinapositiontoworkouthisownsalvationandhisimmortality.
Spinoza'sdoctrineofimmortalitywasstrikinglysimilar.ButSpinozateachesthatthewaytoattainthe
knowledgewhichconfersimmortalityistheprogressfromsenseknowledgethroughscientificknowledgeto
philosophicalintuitionofallthingssubspecieternitatis,whileMaimonidesholdsthattheroadtoperfection
andimmortalityisthepathofdutyasdescribedintheTorahandtherabbinicunderstandingoftheorallaw.
ReligiousJewsbelievedinimmortalityinaspiritualsense,andmostbelievedthatthefuturewouldincludea
messianiceraandaresurrectionofthedead.ThisisthesubjectofJewisheschatology.Maimonideswrotemuch
onthistopic,butinmostcaseshewroteabouttheimmortalityofthesoulforpeopleofperfectedintellecthis
writingswereusuallynotabouttheresurrectionofdeadbodies.Rabbisofhisdaywerecriticalofthisaspectof
thisthought,andtherewascontroversyoverhistrueviews.[69]
RabbinicworksusuallyrefertothisafterlifeasOlamHaba(theWorldtoCome).Somerabbinicworksusethis
phrasetorefertoamessianicera,aneraofhistoryhereonEarthinotherrabbinicworksthisphrasereferstoa
purelyspiritualrealm.DuringMaimonides'slifetimethedebateexpandedintoafullblowncontroversy,with
MaimonideschargedasahereticbysomeJewishleaders.
SomeJewsatthistimetaughtthatJudaismdidnotrequireabeliefinthephysicalresurrectionofthedead,as
theafterlifewouldbeapurelyspiritualrealm.TheyusedMaimonides'sworksonthissubjecttobackuptheir
position.Inreturn,theiropponentsclaimedthatthiswasoutrightheresyforthemtheafterlifewashereon
Earth,whereGodwouldraisedeadbodiesfromthegravesothattheresurrectedcouldliveeternally.
Maimonideswasbroughtintothisdisputebybothsides,asthefirstgroupstatedthathiswritingsagreedwith
them,andthesecondgroupportrayedhimasahereticforwritingthattheafterlifeisfortheimmaterialspirit
alone.
Eventually,Maimonidesfeltpressuredtowriteatreatiseonthesubject,the"Ma'amarTehiyyatHametim""The
TreatiseonResurrection."Chaptertwoofthetreatiseonresurrectionreferstothosewhobelievethattheworld
tocomeinvolvesphysicallyresurrectedbodies.Maimonidesreferstoonewithsuchbeliefs,asbeingan"utter
fool"whosebeliefis"folly".
Ifoneofthemultituderefusestobelieve[thatangelsareincorporeal]andpreferstobelievethatangels
havebodiesandeventhattheyeat,sinceitiswritten(Genesis18:8)'theyate',orthatthosewhoexistin
theWorldtoComewillalsohavebodieswewon'tholditagainsthimorconsiderhimaheretic,andwe
willnotdistanceourselvesfromhim.Maytherenotbemanywhoprofessthisfolly,andletushopethat
hewillgonofartherthanthisinhisfollyandbelievethattheCreatoriscorporeal.
Maimonidesalsowrites,thatthosewhoclaimedthathebelievedtheversesoftheHebrewBiblereferringtothe
resurrectionwereonlyallegorical,werespreadingfalsehoodsand"revolting"statements.Maimonidesasserts
thatbeliefinresurrectionisafundamentaltruthofJudaismaboutwhichthereisnodisagreement,andthatitis
notpermissibleforaJewtosupportanyonewhobelievesdifferently.HecitesDaniel12:2and12:13as
definitiveproofsofphysicalresurrectionofthedeadwhentheystate"manyofthemthatsleepintheearthshall
awake,sometoeverlastinglifeandsometoreproachesandeverlastingabhorrence"and"Butyou,goyourway
tilltheendforyoushallrest,andwillarisetoyourinheritanceattheendofthedays."
Whilethesetwopositionsmaybeseenasincontradiction(noncorporealeternallife,versusabodily
resurrection),Maimonidesresolvesthemwithathenuniquesolution:Maimonidesbelievedthatthe
resurrectionwasnotpermanentorgeneral.Inhisview,Godneverviolatesthelawsofnature.Rather,divine
interactionisbywayofangels,whomMaimonidesoftenregardstobemetaphorsforthelawsofnature,the
principlesbywhichthephysicaluniverseoperates,orPlatoniceternalforms.[Thisisnotalwaysthecase.In
HilchotYesodeiHaTorahChaps.24,Maimonidesdescribesangelsthatareactuallycreatedbeings.]Thus,ifa
uniqueeventactuallyoccurs,evenifitisperceivedasamiracle,itisnotaviolationoftheworld'sorder.[70]
Inthisview,anydeadwhoareresurrectedmusteventuallydieagain.Inhisdiscussionofthe13principlesof
faith,thefirstfivedealwithknowledgeofGod,thenextfourdealwithprophecyandtheTorah,whilethelast
fourdealwithreward,punishmentandtheultimateredemption.InthisdiscussionMaimonidessaysnothingof
auniversalresurrection.Allhesaysitisthatwhateverresurrectiondoestakeplace,itwilloccuratan
indeterminatetimebeforetheworldtocome,whichherepeatedlystateswillbepurelyspiritual.
Hewrites"Itappearstousonthebasisoftheseverses(Daniel12:2,13)thatthosepeoplewhowillreturnto
thosebodieswilleat,drink,copulate,beget,anddieafteraverylonglife,likethelivesofthosewhowilllivein
theDaysoftheMessiah."MaimonidesthusdisassociatedtheresurrectionofthedeadfromboththeWorldto
ComeandtheMessianicera.
Inhistime,manyJewsbelievedthatthephysicalresurrectionwasidenticaltotheworldtocomethusdenialof
apermanentanduniversalresurrectionwasconsideredtantamounttodenyingthewordsoftheTalmudicsages.
However,insteadofdenyingtheresurrection,ormaintainingthecurrentdogma,Maimonidespositedathird
way:Thatresurrectionhadnothingtodowiththemessianicera(hereinthisworld)orwithOlamHaba(
)(thepurelyspiritualafterlife).Rather,heconsideredresurrectiontobeamiraclethatthebookofDaniel
predictedthusatsomepointintimewecouldexpectsomeinstancesofresurrectiontooccurtemporarily,
whichwouldhavenoplaceinthefinaleternallifeoftherighteous.
Messianicera
PerhapsoneofMaimonides'smosthighlyacclaimedandrenownedwritingsishistreatiseontheMessianicera,
writtenoriginallyinJudeoArabicandwhichheelaboratesoningreatdetailinhisCommentaryonthe
Mishnah(Introductiontothe10thchapteroftractateSanhedrin,alsoknownasPereele).
MaimonidesontheMessianicEra
MishnahCommentary
TractateSanhedrin
Pereele(Chapter10)
"'ThedaysoftheMessiah'(i.e.,theMessianicEra)isatimeframeinwhichthekingdomshallreturnto
Israel,andthey(i.e.,thepeopleofIsrael)willreturntotheLandofIsrael,andthekingwhoshallstandupwill
establishtheplaceofhiskingdominZion,whosenameshallbeextolledanditwillreachuntotheendsofthe
earth,being[even]greaterthanSolomon'skingdom,andthenationswillenteracovenantofpeacewithhim,
andalllandsshallservehimonaccountoftheabundanceofhisrighteousness,andforthewondrousthings
thatshallberevealedthroughhimwhosoevershallriseupagainsthim,theLordwillcuthimoffanddeliver
himintohishands.AlloftheScripturalversesbearwitnessofhim,andofuswithhim,butthereisnothing
whichexistsnowthatwillchange,exceptingthatthekingdomwillbegivenovertoIsraelthushaveweheard
itinthelanguageusedbytheSages:'ThereisnodifferencebetweenthisworldandthedaysoftheMessiah,
exceptingonlythesubjugationofkingdoms'(San.91b).Thereshallremaininhisdays,both,thestrongandthe
weak,incomparisontoothers,onlythatinthosedaysthepeople'slivelihoodwillbemademucheasierfor
them,insofarthatifamanshouldworkanyworknomatterhowshortlived,hewillgainmuchthereby.Thisis
thatwhichtheyhavespokenabout,saying:'Inthefuture,theLandofIsraelshallproducesweetrollsofbread
andclothesmadeofwhitewoollenfabric'(Shab.30b),seeingthatpeoplewillsaywheneveramanfinds
somethingready[andpreparedforuse]inabundancethatsoandsohasfoundbakedbreadandacookeddish,
theproofofwhichbeingwhatiswritten:'Andthesonsofthestrangershallbeyourfieldworkersandvine
dressers'(Isa.61:5).Meaning,atimeofploughingandatimeofreapingwillbethereWherefore,itwasforthis
reasonthatthateruditemanwhosaidthesethings[a]wasangeredathisdisciplewhenhefailedtounderstand
theirimportandhadthoughtratherthatthesethingsshouldbeunderstoodintheirplainsense,andhewas
compelledtoanswerhiminawaythathe'dunderstand,eventhoughthatwasn'ttheproperresponse[togive
him].Theevidenceforthis,viz.,thathedidn'tgivehimatruthfulanswerinaccordancewithwhathelearned
oftheverse,isthis:'Don'tanswerafoolishmaninaccordancewithhisfolly'(Proverbs26:4).
Nowthegreatestadvantageatthattimewillbethatwe'llhaverestfromthesubjugationofthewicked
kingdom,whichpreventsusfromperformingthatwhichGodhasenjoineduntoustodo,whileknowledge
willbevastlyincreased,asitsays:'FortheearthshallbefilledwiththeknowledgeoftheLord'(Isa.11:9).
Meanwhile,battlesandwarswillcometoanend,asitsays:'Nationshallnotliftupaswordagainstnation'
(Micha4:3) ,whileallthosewhowillbeinthosedayswillattaintogreatperfection,bywhichhewillmeritthe
worldtocome.TheMessiahwillthendie[asallmen],andhisson,andhisson'ssonwillruleafterhim.Now
Godhasalreadydescribedhisdeathhesays:'Heshallnottirenorbeweary,tillheestablishjudgmentinthe
earth:andtheislesshallhopeforhislaw'(Isa.42:4).Hiskingdomshallcontinueforaverylongtime,whilethe
livesofmenwillalsobeprolongedforbytheabsenceofworriesandtroublestheyshallprolongtheirlives.
Neithershoulditseemstrangethathiskingdomwillcontinueforthousandsofyears,inasmuchastheSages
havealreadysaidthatnomatterhownoblethethingsthatarecollectedtogether,whentheyarebutfewthat
areamassedtogether,theywillfallapart.Nevertheless,wedonotdesirethedaysoftheMessiahsothatour
grainandpossessionsmightincrease,orsothatwecanmounthorses,orbeengagedinrevelryofdrinkand
musicalinstruments,asthosewhoareconfusedmaythink.Rather,theprophetsferventlydesiredthemandthe
piousmenlongedforthembecauseofwhatshallbethereoftheingatheringofrighteousmen,andofproper
conduct,andwisdom,andtheuprightnessofthekingandhisgreatwisdomandhisdrawingnighuntothe
Creator,justasitwassaidofhim:'Thouartmyson,[etc.]'(Psalm2:7),aswellastheobservanceoftheentire
LawofMoses,withoutworriesandwithoutfear,andwithoutconstraint,justasHehaspromised'Andthey
shallteachnomoreeverymanhisneighbour,andeverymanhisbrother,saying,KnowtheLORD.Forthey
shallallknowme,fromtheleastofthemtothegreatestofthem'(Jer.31:33[34])'andIshallputmyLawin
theirheart,''andIshallremovetheheartofstonefromyourflesh'(Ezek.36:26),andtherearemanysimilar
theirheart,''andIshallremovetheheartofstonefromyourflesh'(Ezek.36:26),andtherearemanysimilar
versesthatspeakofsuchmatters.Itisinthismanner[thataman]willacquirethenextworldwithafirm
acquisition,whilethedesiredend[ofeveryman]istheworldtocome,andallthatcomesbeforeitis[merely]
humaneffort.
Wherefore,hethatcanperceivethetruthhaslookedattheultimatepurposeoflifeandhasforsakenallother
things,wherebyHesays:'AllofIsraelhasaportionintheworldtocome.'Moreover,seeingthatthisisthe
desiredendandpurposeofone'slife,itisnotfittingthathewhowishestoserve[hisMaker]outoflove
shouldserveHimforthesoleintentofattainingthenextworld,aswehavepremisedearlier,butratherthathe
mayserveHiminthemannerthatIshallprescribe,viz.,thatifhehasalreadycometobelievethatknowledge
hasbeenimparteduntotheprophetsfromGod,andthatbyit(i.e.,thatknowledge)Hehasrevealedtothem
thatthe[coveted]virtuesaresuchandsuch,andthefaultsaresuchandsuch,itbehooveshim,therefore,by
reasonofhisbeingamoderatemanofreason,todrawneartothevirtuesandtoshunthatwhichisdeficient.If
hehasdonethis,Lo!Hewouldhavecompletedthemortalchapter[relatedtohisexistence],andheisthen
distinguishedfromthe[brute]beastsandsincehewouldhavebecomea[more]perfectman,oneofthe
virtuesofmanisthatnohindrancebefoundthatwillhinderhimfromattaininglifeforhissoulinwhatishis
remaining[spiritual]existencethroughher(i.e.,thesoul's)[continued]consciousness,[b]andwhichisthe
worldtocomeaswehaveexplained.[c]Moreover,itisthatwhichissaid:'Beyenotlikeahorse,[or]likea
mule,whichhasnounderstanding[whomustbeheldbackbybitandbridle]'(Psalm32:9),meaning,thething
thatpreventsthemfromidlenessanduncontrollableconductisanexternalthinglikeabitandabridle.Maya
manneverbelikethis,butrather,lethissoulbewhatstopshimfromactinginsuchamanner,thatistosay,
his[inner]humanform[d][giventomanbyGodatthehourofCreation]ifitwereperfected,itwillprevent
himfromwhateverthingthatwithholdsfromhimperfection(i.e.,thebettermentofhiscondition),which
thingsarecalleddeficiencies,butitwillspurnhimoninwhateverisconsideredwholesome,whichthingsare
thevirtues.Thistheniswhathasbecomeclearuntomefromalloftheirwordsrelatingtothisnoblematter,
butthingsthatcanbeeasilymisconstrued."[e]
Notes:
a.RabbanGamlielsee:BabylonianTalmud,Shabbat30b
b.TheJudeoArabicwordusedbyMaimonidesis,or"thatwhichisknownbyher(i.e.,bythesoul),"
meaning,theensintelligibile.Sometranslatethiswordas"perceivedintellect."
c.See:MishneTorah(Hil.Teshuvah,chapter8),formoreonwhatismeantby"theworldtocome."
d.See:MishneTorah(Hil.YesodeiHaTorah4:8[14])foradiscussiononthesoul.Elsewhere,inHil.Teshuvah8:3,
Maimonideswrites:"Every'soul'thatismentionedhereinthiscontextisn'tthe[animated]spiritthatstandsinneed
ofabody,butratherthe'formofthesoul,'whichistheknowledge[attainedbythemind]withwhichone
comprehendstheCreatoraccordingtoitsability."SeealsotheGuideforthePerplexed,partiii,thelastchapter,on
thefourthkindofperfection.
e.Thislastaddition,"butthingsthatcanbeeasilymisconstrued,"iswritteninMaimonides'soriginalJudeoArabic
text,butwasomittedinthetranslatedprintedtexts.RabbiYosefQafihpointsouttheomission,andinsertsitinhis
newtranslation.See:Mishnah,withCommentaryofMaimonides(ed.YosefQafih),vol.2,RavKookInstitute,
Jerusalem1963(Hebrew)
TheOathofMaimonides
TheOathofMaimonidesisadocumentaboutthemedicalcallingandrecitedasasubstitutefortheOathof
Hippocrates.TheOathisnottobeconfusedwithamorelengthyPrayerofMaimonides.Thesedocumentsmay
nothavebeenwrittenbyMaimonides,butlater.[32]ThePrayerappearedfirstinprintin1793andhasbeen
attributedtoMarcusHerz,aGermanphysician,pupilofImmanuelKant.[71]
MaimonidesandtheModernists
MaimonidesremainsoneofthemostwidelydebatedJewishthinkersamongmodernscholars.Hehasbeen
adoptedasasymbolandanintellectualherobyalmostallmajormovementsinmodernJudaism,andhas
provenimmenselyimportanttophilosopherssuchasLeoStraussandhisviewsontheimportanceofhumility
havebeentakenupbymodernhumanistphilosophers,includingPeterSinger.
Inacademia,particularlywithintheareaofJewishStudies,theteachingofMaimonideshasbeendominatedby
traditionalscholars,generallyOrthodox,whoplaceaverystrongemphasisonMaimonidesasarationalistone
resultisthatcertainsidesofMaimonides'sthought,includinghisoppositiontoanthropocentrism,havebeen
obviated.TherearemovementsinsomepostmoderncirclestoclaimMaimonidesforotherpurposes,aswithin
thediscourseofecotheology.[72]Maimonides'sreconciliationofthephilosophicalandthetraditionalhasgiven
hislegacyanextremelydiverseanddynamicquality.
ChabadandTheRohrJewishLearningInstitutefocusonMaimonides'steachingthateachJewshould
understandhisuniqueimportanceintheworld.[73][74]
Tributesandmemorials
Maimonideshasbeenmemorializedinnumerousways.Forexample,
oneoftheLearningCommunitiesattheTuftsUniversitySchoolof
Medicinebearshisname.ThereisalsoMaimonidesSchoolin
Brookline,Massachusetts,MaimonidesAcademySchoolinLos
Angeles,California,theBrauserMaimonidesAcademyinHollywood,
Florida,[75]andMaimonidesMedicalCenterinBrooklyn,NewYork.In
2004,conferenceswereheldatYale,FloridaInternationalUniversity,
PennState,andtheRambamhospitalinHaifa,Israel,whichisnamed
afterhim.Tocommemoratethe800thanniversaryofhisdeath,Harvard
Universityissuedamemorialvolume.[76]In1953,theIsraelPostal
AuthorityissuedapostagestampofMaimonides,pictured.InMarch PlaqueofMaimonidesatRambam
2008,duringtheEuromedConferenceofMinistersofTourism,The MedicalCenter,Haifa
TourismMinistriesofIsrael,MoroccoandSpainagreedtowork
togetheronajointprojectthatwilltracethefootstepsoftheRambam
andthusboostreligioustourisminthecitiesofCrdoba,Fezand
Tiberias.[77]
Worksandbibliography
Judaicandphilosophicalworks
MaimonidescomposedworksofJewishscholarship,rabbiniclaw,
ManuscriptpagebyMaimonides.
philosophy,andmedicaltexts.MostofMaimonides'sworkswere
JudeoArabiclanguageinHebrew
writteninJudeoArabic.However,theMishnehTorahwaswrittenin letters.
Hebrew.HisJewishtextswere:
CommentaryontheMishna(HebrewPirushHamishnayot,ArabicKitabalSiraj),writteninJudeo
Arabic.ThiswasthefirstfullcommentaryeverwrittenontheentireMishnah,anditenjoyedgreat
popularitybothinitsArabicoriginalanditsmedievalHebrewtranslation.Thecommentaryincludes
threephilosophicalintroductionswhichwerealsohighlyinfluential:
TheIntroductiontotheMishnahdealswiththenatureoftheorallaw,thedistinctionbetweenthe
prophetandthesage,andtheorganizationalstructureoftheMishnah.
TheIntroductiontoMishnahSanhedrin,chapterten(PerekHelek),isaneschatologicalessaythat
concludeswithMaimonides'sfamouscreed("thethirteenprinciplesoftheTorah").
TheIntroductiontoTractateAvot(popularlycalledTheEightChapters)isanethicaltreatise.
SeferHamitzvot(trans.TheBookofCommandments).Inthiswork,Maimonideslistsallthe613mitzvot
traditionallycontainedintheTorah(Pentateuch).Hedescribesfourteenshorashim(rootsorprinciples)to
guidehisselection.
SeferHa'shamad(letterofMartydom)
MishnehTorah,alsoknownasSeferYadhaChazaka,acomprehensivecodeofJewishlaw
GuideforthePerplexed,aphilosophicalworkharmonisinganddifferentiatingAristotle'sphilosophyand
Jewishtheology.WritteninJudeoArabic,andcompletedbetween1186and1190.[78]Thefirsttranslation
ofthisworkintoHebrewwasdonebySamuelibnTibbonin1204.[61]
Teshuvot,collectedcorrespondenceandresponsa,includinganumberofpublicletters(onresurrection
andtheafterlife,onconversiontootherfaiths,andIggerethTeimanaddressedtotheoppressedJewry
ofYemen).
HilkhothaYerushalmi,afragmentofacommentaryontheJerusalemTalmud,identifiedandpublished
bySaulLiebermanin1947.
Medicalworks
MaimonideswrotetenknownmedicalworksinArabicthathavebeentranslatedbytheJewishmedicalethicist
FredRosnerintocontemporaryEnglish.[33][79]
TheArtofCureExtractsfromGalen(Barzel,1992,Vol.5)[80]isessentiallyanextractofGalen's
extensivewritings.
CommentaryontheAphorismsofHippocrates(Rosner,1987,Vol.2Hebrew:[81])is
interspersedwithhisownviews.
MedicalAphorisms[82]ofMoses(Rosner,1989,Vol.3)titledFusulMusainArabic("Chaptersof
Moses,"Hebrew:[83])contains1500aphorismsandmanymedicalconditionsaredescribed.
TreatiseonHemorrhoids(inRosner,1984,Vol.1Hebrew:[84])discussesalsodigestion
andfood.
TreatiseonCohabitation(inRosner,1984,Vol.1)containsrecipesasaphrodisiacsandantiaphrodisiacs.
TreatiseonAsthma(Rosner,1994,Vol.6)[85]discussesclimatesanddietsandtheireffectonasthmaand
emphasizestheneedforcleanair.
TreatiseonPoisonsandTheirAntidotes(inRosner,1984,Vol.1)isanearlytoxicologytextbookthat
remainedpopularforcenturies.
RegimenofHealth(inRosner,1990,Vol.4Hebrew:[86])isadiscourseonhealthyliving
andthemindbodyconnection.
DiscourseontheExplanationofFitsadvocateshealthylivingandtheavoidanceofoverabundance.
GlossaryofDrugNames(Rosner,1992,Vol.7)[87]representsapharmacopeiawith405paragraphswith
thenamesofdrugsinArabic,Greek,Syrian,Persian,Berber,andSpanish.
Treatiseonlogic
TheTreatiseonLogic(Arabic:MaqalaFiSinatAlMantiq)hasbeenprinted17times,includingeditionsin
Latin(1527),German(1805,1822,1833,1828),French(1935),andEnglish(1938),andinanabridgedHebrew
form.TheworkillustratestheessentialsofAristotelianlogictobefoundintheteachingsofthegreatArabic
philosopherssuchasAvicennaand,aboveall,AlFarabi,"theSecondMaster,"the"FirstMaster"being
Aristotle.InhisworkdevotedtotheTreatise,RmiBraguestressesthefactthatAlFarabiistheonly
philosophermentionedtherein.Thisindicatesalineofconductforthereader,whomustreadthetextkeeping
inmindAlFarabi'sworksonlogic.IntheHebrewversions,theTreatiseiscalledThewordsofLogicwhich
describesthebulkofthework.Theauthorexplainsthetechnicalmeaningofthewordsusedbylogicians.The
Treatisedulyinventoriesthetermsusedbythelogicianandindicateswhattheyreferto.Theworkproceeds
rationallythroughalexiconofphilosophicaltermstoasummaryofhigherphilosophicaltopics,in14chapters
correspondingtoMaimonides'sbirthdateof14Nissan.Thenumber14recursinmanyofMaimonides'sworks.
Eachchapteroffersaclusterofassociatednotions.Themeaningofthewordsisexplainedandillustratedwith
examples.Attheendofeachchapter,theauthorcarefullydrawsupthelistofwordsstudied.
Untilveryrecently,itwasacceptedthatMaimonideswrotetheTreatiseonlogicinhistwentiesoreveninhis
teen[88]years.HerbertDavidsonhasraisedquestionsaboutMaimonides'sauthorshipofthisshortwork(andof
othershortworkstraditionallyattributedtoMaimonides).HemaintainsthatMaimonideswasnottheauthorat
all,basedonareportoftwoArabiclanguagemanuscripts,unavailabletoWesterninvestigatorsinAsia
Minor.[89]RabbiYosefKafihmaintainedthatitisbyMaimonidesandnewlytranslatedittoHebrew(asBeiur
M'lekhetHaHiggayon)fromtheJudeoArabic.[90]
Seealso
IggeretTeman(EpistletoYemen) GoldenageofJewishcultureinSpain
AlFarabi MaimonidesFoundation
ThomasAquinas MishneTorah
Averroes
GoldenageofJewishcultureinSpain
Notes
1.Goldin,HymanE.KitzurShulchanAruchCodeofJewishLaw,ForwardtotheNewEdition.(NewYork:Hebrew
PublishingCompany,1961)
2."HNet".
3."MaimonidesIslamicInfluences".Plato.Stanford.
4."IsaacNewton:"JudaicmonotheistoftheschoolofMaimonides" ".Achgut.com.20070619.Retrieved20100313.
5."Maimonides"(http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/maimonides).RandomHouseWebster'sUnabridged
Dictionary.
6.Maimonides:AbImrnMs[Moses]ibnUbaydAllh[Maymn]alQurub[1](http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/
BEA/Maimonides_BEA.htm)
7.ABiographicalandHistoriographicalCritiqueofMosesMaimonides(http://www.med.uottawa.ca/historyofmedicine/
hetenyi/levinoff.htm)Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20130524172551/http://www.med.uottawa.ca/historyofme
dicine/hetenyi/levinoff.htm)May24,2013,attheWaybackMachine.
8.S.R.Simon(1999)."MosesMaimonides:medievalphysicianandscholar".ArchInternMed.159(16):18415.
doi:10.1001/archinte.159.16.1841.PMID10493314.
9.AtharYawarEmailAddress(2008)."Maimonides'smedicine".TheLancet.371(9615):804.doi:10.1016/S0140
6736(08)603657.
10.Davidson,pp.69,18.Ifthetraditionalbirthdateof14Nisanisnotcorrect,thenadatein1136or1137isalso
possible.
11.JoelE.Kramer,"MosesMaimonides:AnIntellectualPortrait,"p.47note1.InKennethSeeskin,ed.(September
2005).TheCambridgeCompaniontoMaimonides.ISBN9780521525787.
12.1138inStroumsa,MaimonidesinHisWorld:PortraitofaMediterraneanThinker,PrincetonUniversityPress,2009,
p.8
13.SherwinB.Nuland(2008),Maimonides,RandomHouseLLC,p.38
14."MosesMaimonides|biographyJewishphilosopher,scholar,andphysician".Retrieved20150604.
15.GedaliahibnYahyabenJoseph,ShalsheletHaKabbalah(http://www.hebrewbooks.org/6618)Jerusalem1962,p.
butinPDFp.109(Hebrew)
16.AbrahamZacuto,SeferYuchasin(http://www.hebrewbooks.org/11550),Cracow1580(Hebrew),p.261inPDF,which
reads:"...IsawinabookletthattheArkofGod,evenRabbiMosesb.Maimon,ofblessedmemory,hadbeentaken
up(i.e.euphemismfor"haddied"),intheyear[4],965annomundi(=1204/5CE)inEgypt,andtheJewsweptfor
himasdid[all]theEgyptiansthreedays,andtheycoinedanameforthattimeofyear,[saying],'therewas
wailing,'andontheseventhday[ofhispassing],thenewsreachedAlexandria,andontheeighthday,[thenews
reached]Jerusalem,andinJerusalemtheymadeagreatpublicmourning[onhisbehalf]andcalledforafastand
publicgathering,whereitwasthattheprayerprecentorreadouttheadmonitions,'Ifyoushallwalkinmystatutes
[etc.]'(Leviticus26:3ff.),aswellasreadtheconcludingverse[fromtheProphets],'AnditcametopassthatSamuel
spoketoallofIsrael[etc.],'andhethenconcludedbysayingthattheArkofGodhadbeentakenaway.Nowafter
certaindaystheybroughtuphiscoffintotheLandofIsrael,duringwhichjourneythievesencounteredthem,causing
thosewhohadgoneuptoflee,leavingtherethecoffin.Nowthethieves,whentheysawthattheyhadallfled,they
desiredtohavethecoffincastintothesea,butwereunablewithalltheirstrengthtouprootthecoffinfromthe
ground,eventhoughtheyhadbeenmorethanthirtymen,andwhentheyconsideredthematter,theythensaidto
themselvesthathewasagodlyandholyman,andsotheywenttheirway.However,theygaveassurancestotheJews
thattheywouldescortthemtotheirdestination,andsoitwasthattheyalsoaccompaniedhimandhewasburiedin
Tiberias."
17.Stroumsa,MaimonidesinHisWorld:PortraitofaMediterraneanThinker,PrincetonUniversityPress,2009,p.65
18.Strousma,MaimonidesinHisWorld,pp.6667
19.AbrahamHeschel,Maimonides(NewYork:FarrarStrauss,1982),Chapter15,"MeditationonGod,"pp.157162.
20.1954EncyclopediaAmericana,vol.18,p.140.
21.A.K.BennisonM.A.GallegoGarca(2008)."JewishTradinginFezontheEveoftheAlmohadConquest"(PDF).
22.Y.K.Stillman,ed.(1984)."Libs".EncyclopaediaofIslam.5(2nded.).BrillAcademicPublishers.p.744.
ISBN9004094199.
23."JewishVirtualLibrary".JewishVirtualLibrary.Retrieved20120919.
24.Stroumsa(2009),MaimonidesinHisWorld,p.59
25.SederHaDoros(year4927)quotesMaimonidesassayingthathebeganwritinghiscommentaryontheMishnawhen
hewas23yearsold,andpublisheditwhenhewas30.BecauseofthedisputeaboutthedateofMaimonides'sbirth,it
isnotclearwhichyeartheworkwaspublished.
26.Davidson,p.29.
27.Goitein,S.D.LettersofMedievalJewishTraders,PrincetonUniversityPress,1973(ISBN0691052123),p.208
28.Cohen,MarkR.PovertyandCharityintheJewishCommunityofMedievalEgypt.PrincetonUniversityPress,2005
(ISBN0691092729),pp.115116
29.The"IndiaTrade"(atermdevisedbytheArabistS.D.Goitein)wasahighlylucrativebusinessventureinwhich
JewishmerchantsfromEgypt,theMediterranean,andtheMiddleEastimportedandexportedgoodsrangingfrom
peppertobrassfromvariousportsalongtheMalabarCoastbetweenthe11th13thcenturies.Formoreinfo,seethe
"IndiaTraders"chapterinGoitein,LettersofMedievalJewishTraders,1973orGoitein,IndiaTradersoftheMiddle
Ages,2008.
30.Goitein,LettersofMedievalJewishTraders,p.207
31.Cohen,PovertyandCharityintheJewishCommunityofMedievalEgypt,p.115
32.JuliaBessFrank(1981)."MosesMaimonides:rabbiormedicine".TheYaleJournalofBiologyandMedicine.54(1):
7988.PMC2595894 .PMID7018097.
33.FredRosner(2002)."TheLifeofMosesMaimonides,aProminentMedievalPhysician"(PDF).EinsteinQuartJBiol
Med.19(3):125128.
34.GesundheitB,OrR,GamlielC,RosnerF,SteinbergA(April2008)."TreatmentofdepressionbyMaimonides
(11381204):Rabbi,Physician,andPhilosopher"(PDF).AmJPsychiatry.165(4):425428.
doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07101575.PMID18381913.
35.AbrahamHeschel,Maimonides(NewYork:FarrarStrauss,1982),Chapter15,"MeditationonGod,"pp.157162,
andalsopp.178180,184185,204,etc.IsadoreTwersky,editor,AMaimonidesReader(NewYork:Behrman
House,1972),commenceshis"Introduction"withthefollowingremarks,p.1:"Maimonides'sbiographyimmediately
suggestsaprofoundparadox.Aphilosopherbytemperamentandideology,azealousdevoteeofthecontemplativelife
whoeloquentlyportrayedandyearnedfortheserenityofsolitudeandthespiritualexuberanceofmeditation,he
neverthelessledarelentlesslyactivelifethatregularlybroughthimtothebrinkofexhaustion."
36.ResponsaPeerHaDor,143.
37.Suchviewsofhisworksarefoundinalmostallscholarlystudiesofthemanandhissignificance.See,forexample,
the"Introduction"subchapterbyHowardKreiseltohisoverviewarticle"MosesMaimonides,"inHistoryofJewish
Philosophy,editedbyDanielH.FrankandOliverLeaman,SecondEdition(NewYorkandLondon:Routledge,2003),
pp.245246.
38.ClicktoseefullEnglishtranslationofMaimonides's"EpistletoYemen"
39.Thecommentontheeffectofhis"incessanttravail"onhishealthisbySaloBaron,"MosesMaimonides,"inGreat
JewishPersonalitiesinAncientandMedievalTime,editedbySimonNoveck(B'naiB'rithDepartmentofAdult
JewishEducation,1959),p.227,whereBaronalsoquotesfromMaimonides'slettertoIbnTibbonregardinghisdaily
regime.
40.TheLifeofMaimonidesjnul.huji.ac.il(http://www.jnul.huji.ac.il/vexhibitions/rambam/eng/life.html),Jewish
NationalandUniversityLibrary
41.hsje.orgAmiramBarkat,"TheEndoftheExodusfromEgypt"(http://www.hsje.org/The%20end%20of%20the%20E
xodus%20from%20Egypt.pdf),Haaretz(Israel),21April2005
42."
43.SarahE.KareshMitchellM.Hurvitz(2005).EncyclopediaofJudaism.FactsonFile.p.305.ISBN97808160
54572.
44.H.J.Zimmels(1997).AshkenazimandSephardim:TheirRelations,Differences,andProblemsasReflectedinthe
RabbinicalResponsa(Reviseded.).KtavPublishingHouse.p.283.ISBN9780881254914.
45.IsidoreTwersky,IntroductiontotheCodeofMaimonides(MishnehTorah),YaleJudaicaSeries,vol.XII(NewHaven
andLondon:YaleUniversityPress,1980).passim,andespeciallyChapterVII,"Epilogue,"pp.515538.
46.ThisiscoveredinallhistoriesoftheJews.E.g.,includingsuchabriefoverviewasCecilRoth,AHistoryofthe
Jews,RevisedEdition(NewYork:Schocken,1970),pp.175179.
47.D.J.Silver,MaimonideanCriticismandtheMaimonideanControversy,11801240(Leiden:Brill,1965),isstillthe
mostdetailedaccount.
48.DavidHartman,Maimonides:TorahandPhilosophicQuest(Philadelphia:JewishPublicationSocietyofAmerica,
1976),p.98.
49.OntheextensivephilosophicalaspectsofMaimonides'shalakhicworks,seeinparticularIsidoreTwersky's
IntroductiontotheCodeofMaimonides(MishnehTorah),YaleJudaicaSeries,vol.XII(NewHavenandLondon:
YaleUniversityPress,1980).Twerskydevotesamajorportionofthisauthoritativestudytothephilosophicalaspects
oftheMishnehTorahitself.
50.TheMaimunistorMaimonideancontroversyiscoveredinallhistoriesofJewishphilosophyandgeneralhistoriesof
theJews.Foranoverview,withbibliographicreferences,seeIditDobbsWeinstein,"TheMaimonideanControversy,"
inHistoryofJewishPhilosophy,SecondEdition,editedbyDanielH.FrankandOliverLeaman(LondonandNew
York:Routledge,2003),pp.331349.AlsoseeColetteSirat,AHistoryofJewishPhilosophyintheMiddleAges
(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1985),pp.205272.
51.MercedesRubio(2006).AquinasandMaimonidesonthepossibilityoftheknowledgeofgod.SpringerVerlag.
doi:10.1007/1402047479_2.ISBN9781402047206.
52.http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/332555/jewish/Maimonides13PrinciplesofFaith.htm
53.Siegelbaum,ChanaBracha(2010)Womenatthecrossroads:awoman'sperspectiveontheweeklyTorahportion(htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=4HVwBMI5zK0C&pg=PA199&lpg=PA199&dq=Mishneh+Torah+met+initially+opp
osition&source=bl&ots=p7VTtHovyS&sig=_ntA1Qo23D9AQ5MvoggZ9194Tg4&hl=es419&sa=X&ved=0CB0Q6A
EwAmoVChMIldLSte66xwIVghyQCh22dA_s#v=onepage&q=Mishneh%20Torah%20met%20initially%20opposition
&f=false)GushEtzion:MidreshetB'erotBatAyin.ISBN9781936068098page199
54.LastsectionofMaimonides'sIntroductiontoMishnehTorah
55.AvkatRochelch.32(http://hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=636&pgnum=70)PDF
56.MosesMaimonides,TheCommandments,Neg.Comm.290,at26971(CharlesB.Chaveltrans.,1967).
57.Leslie,Donald.TheSurvivaloftheChineseJewsTheJewishCommunityofKaifeng.Toungpao,10.Leiden:Brill,
1972,p.157
58.Pollak,Michael.Mandarins,Jews,andMissionaries:TheJewishExperienceintheChineseEmpire.TheJewish
PublicationSocietyofAmerica,1980,p.413
59.Pollak,Mandarins,Jews,andMissionaries,pp.297298
60."HebrewSourceofMaimonides'sLevelsofGivingwithDannySiegel'stranslation"(PDF).Retrieved20120919.
61."TheGuidetothePerplexed".WorldDigitalLibrary.Retrieved22January2013.
62.MosesMaimonides(2007).TheGuidetothePerplexed.BNPublishers.
63.JosephJacobs."MosesBenMaimon".JewishEncyclopedia.Retrieved20110313.
64.ShlomoPines(2006)."Maimonides(11351204)".EncyclopediaofPhilosophy.5:647654.
65.IsadoreTwersky(2005)."Maimonides,Moses".EncyclopediaofReligion.8:56135618.
66.JoelE.Kramer,"MosesMaimonides:AnIntellectualPortrait,"p.45.InKennethSeeskin,ed.(September2005).The
CambridgeCompaniontoMaimonides.ISBN9780521525787.
67.Rudavsky,T.(March2010).Maimonidies.Singapore:WileyBlackwell.p.10.ISBN9781405148986.
68."GuideforthePerplexed,on".Sacredtexts.com.Retrieved20100313.
69.See:Maimonides'sMa'amarTeayyathHamethim(TreatiseontheResurrectionoftheDead),publishedinBookof
LettersandResponsa(),Jerusalem1978,p.9(Hebrew).AccordingtoMaimonides,certainJewsin
Yemenhadsenttohimaletterintheyear1189,evidentlyirritatedastowhyhehadnotmentionedthephysical
resurrectionofthedeadinhisHil.Teshuvah,chapter8,andhowthatsomepersonsinYemenhadbeguntoinstruct,
basedonMaimonides'steaching,thatwhenthebodydiesitwilldisintegrateandthesoulwillneverreturntosuch
bodiesafterdeath.Maimonidesdeniedthatheeverinsinuatedsuchthings,andreiteratedthatthebodywouldindeed
resurrect,butthatthe"worldtocome"wassomethingdifferentinnature.
70.CommentaryontheMishna,Avot5:6
71."OathandPrayerofMaimonides".Library.dal.ca.Retrieved20100313.
72."MaimonidesHisThoughtRelatedtoEcologyinTheEncyclopediaofReligionandNature".
73.Evans,Whitney(January3,2015)."Jewslookforwaystokeeptheirheritagealive".SaltLakeCity,Utah.Deseret
News.Retrieved5January2015."PartofRabbiZippel'sworkistohelpeducateeachJewabouthisorherunique
importance."Everyindividualisobligatedtolookatoneselfandsaytohimorherself,'Theentireuniversewas
createdformysake,'"Zippelsaid,paraphrasingtheJewishphilosopherMaimonides."Notintermsofarrogance,God
forbid,butonthecontrary,intermsofbothliabilityandresponsibility.Theworldwascreatedformysake.Itis
uptometogetthejobdone.""
74.Rubenstein,Mindy(December9,2014)."WorldwideCelebration:CompletingMaimonides'sMishnehTorah
WorldwideCelebration:CompletingMaimonides'sMishnehTorah".Retrieved5January2015."Sharedwiththem
thattheyhadtheopportunitytolearnthewholeTorah,saidBruk,codirectorofChabadLubavitchofMontana.
"Theyperseveredandmadeitthrough."Infact,thefourmentherabbiandthreecommunitymemberscommitted
tostudyingachapteradayforthreeyearstogetthroughtheoralandwrittenTorah,allthemitzvotindetail,along
withhundredsofthousandsofJewishmen,womenandchildrenaroundtheworldwhoalsochosetotakeonthis
monumentaltask."
75.DavidMOrris."MajorGrantAwardedtoMaimonides".FloridaJewishJournal.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJuly
30,2007.Retrieved20100313.
76."HarvardUniversityPress:Maimonidesafter800Years:EssaysonMaimonidesandhisInfluencebyJayM.
Harris".Hup.harvard.edu.Retrieved20100313.
77.ShellyPaz(8May2008)TourismMinistryplansjointprojectwithMorocco,Spain(http://web.archive.org/web/2011
0718101800/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1209627041328&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull).The
JerusalemPost
78.KehotPublicationSociety,Chabad.org.
79.Volume5translatedbyBarzel(forewordbyRosner).
80.Titlepage(https://web.archive.org/web/20160128032218/http://img.auctiva.com/imgdata/6/6/4/2/3/0/webimg/8734119
11_o.jpg),TOC(https://web.archive.org/web/20160128032227/http://img.auctiva.com/imgdata/6/6/4/2/3/0/webimg/87
3411923_o.jpg).
81.KetavimRefuiimVolume3(Hebrew)(https://www.otzar.org/wotzar/Book.aspx?155175&lang=eng)
82.Maimonides.MedicalAphorisms(Treatises1569101516212225),BrighamYoungUniversity,ProvoUtah
3411751_o.jpg).
3412019_o.jpg).
88.AbrahamHeschel,Maimonides.NewYork:FarrarStrauss,1982p.22("atsixteen")
89.Davidson,pp.313ff.
90.(first40pagesviewableforfree)(https://www.otzar.org/wotzar/book.aspx?149870&lang=eng)
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g/?p=15),Egypt,c.116768
TextsbyMaimonides
SiddurMesorathMoshe(http://www.derushapublishing.com/siddurmesorathmoshe.shtml),a
prayerbookbasedontheearlyJewishliturgyasfoundinMaimonides'sMishneTora
Rambam'sintroductiontotheMishnehTorah(Englishtranslation(http://www.mechonmamre.org/e/e000
0.htm))
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Barcelona,134748).TheRoyalLibrary,Copenhagen(http://www.kb.dk/permalink/2006/manus/293/)
UniversityofCambridgeLibrarycollection(http://www.lib.cam.ac.uk/TaylorSchechter/maimonidesexh
ibition.html)ofJudeoArabiclettersandmanuscriptswrittenbyortoMaimonides.Itincludesthelast
letterhisbrotherDavidsenthimbeforedrowningatsea.
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am.ac.uk/TaylorSchechter/fotm/may2012/)
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