Energies 10 01243

energies
Article
Feasibility Study of a Hybrid Building High Voltage
Alternating Current and Domestic Hot Water System
Combining a Photovoltaic-Thermal System and a
Ground Source Heat Pump
Yong-Dae Jeong 1 , Min Gyung Yu 2 and Yujin Nam 2, *
1 Building Energy Technology Center & Center for Climatic Environment Real-Scale Testing, 7 Jeongtong-ro,
Deoksan-myeon, Jincheon-gun, Chungcheongbuk-do 27872, Korea; jyd2092@naver.com
2 Department of Architectural Engineering, Pusan National University, 2 Busandaehak-ro 63, Geomjeong-gu,
Busan 46241, Korea; min324806@gmail.com
* Correspondence: namyujin@pusan.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-51-510-7652; Fax: +82-51-514-2230
Received: 8 June 2017; Accepted: 17 August 2017; Published: 21 August 2017
Abstract: Renewable energy systems have received a lot of attention as sustainable technology in
building sector. However, the efficiency of the renewable energy systems depends on the surrounding
conditions, and it could gradually decrease by excessive and long-term operation. As a solution, a
hybrid system can increase the reliability of energy production and decrease investment costs through
by reducing the system capacity. The hybrid system operates at the ideal performance, but the design
and operation method for hybrid system have not been established. In this paper, the performance
of the hybrid system combined with photovoltaic/thermal (PVT) system and ground source heat
pump (GSHP) system was analyzed using TRNSYS 17 and feasibility was assessed. The energy
consumption and performance efficiency of hybrid system were calculated according to operating
modes. Furthermore, seasonal performance factor (SPF) of hybrid system was compared with that of
conventional GSHP system. System performance was analyzed in various conditions such as the
usage of storage tank heating and set temperature for solar heating. As a result, the average SPF of
the developed system increased about 55.3% compared with the GSHP system.
Keywords: hybrid system; photovoltaic/thermal; ground source heat pump system;

performance analysis
1. Introduction
Recently, renewable energy system represent a sustainable and energy-saving technology in
buildings. In Korea, solar-energy systems such as photovoltaic (PV) have been regarded as the
most popular among the renewable energy systems. As for solar energy, it is expected to have
considerable potential as a main energy source in the future. The energy-generation efficiency of the
PV system, however, depends on the local solar radiation and the surrounding conditions, and it
gradually decreases as a result of the warmed surface temperature of the solar panel; furthermore, the
photovoltaic cells have significantly expensive installation costs [13]. A PVT system, which is devised
to increase the efficiency of the PV system, extracts heat from the PV module through air or liquid,
and it is classified according to the types of heating media and glass cover. An unglazed PVT collector
consists mainly of the heat-removal pipes located on the backside of the PV module, which reduce the
temperature of the PV module. An additional glass cover can increase the thermal performance of the
collector though, it conversely reduces slightly the optical and PV performances of the module [4,5].
A water-type PVT system would be definitely advantageous to save space and increase the efficiency
of the heat exchange rate [6].
Energies 2017, 10, 1243; doi:10.3390/en10081243 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 1243 2 of 29
Another renewable energy system, the ground source heat pump (GSHP) system, is on the rise as
an efficient technology for space heating and cooling in buildings. It can achieve high energy-savings by
utilizing annually stable underground temperatures as a heat source. The system performance depends
on the underground conditions such as ground thermal conductivity, underground temperature, and
groundwater level. However, excessive or long-term operations could lead to the decrease of system
performance for GSHP system. Therefore, several methods with an auxiliary heat source or ground
heat exchanger have been studied to prevent reducing the ground temperature. In this research, a
hybrid system which consists of a photovoltaic/thermal (PVT) and a geothermal solar-heat pump
(GSHP) is suggested to solve this problem.
This hybrid system can enhance the reliability of the energy production and decrease the
investment costs by reducing the system capacity. In addition, it is able to recover the underground
temperature, and from an energy viewpoint it operates independently by utilizing the electrical and
thermal production of the PVT module. Moreover, the PVT system integrated with the GSHP system
has other advantages. The surface temperature of the PVT-module would be lower, so that it can
increase power-production to further improve the performance efficiency.
Many studies have been carried out on hybrid systems which combine a GSHP system and a
solar system. Wang and Qi [7] analyzed the performance of underground thermal storage for a solar
ground-coupled heat-pump system (SGCHPS) for a residential building. Based on the experiment
results, the system performance during a longer period was simulated according to unit modeling, and
its parametric effects were discussed. The results suggested that the performance of the underground
thermal storage of the SGCHPS depends strongly on the intensity of the solar radiation and the match
between the water-tank volume and the area of the solar collectors. A reasonable ratio between
the tank volume and the area of the solar collectors was suggested to be in the range of 20 L/m2
to 40 L/m2 . An experimental study on a solar-assisted ground-coupled heat-pump system with a
solar-seasonal thermal storage installed in a cold-area house was presented by Wang et al. [8]. In this
case, the results provided that the system could meet the heating and cooling energy needs of the
building with average system performance coefficients of 6.55 and 21.35, respectively. Further, in the
heating and cooling modes of the Wang et al.s [8] study, the operation of the heat pump was not
required. Ozgener [9] used a system that comprises a solar-assisted geothermal heat pump and a small
wind turbine for the heating in agricultural and residential buildings. Here, the study theoretically
showed that 3.13% of the annual electrical-energy consumption of the modeled system and 12.53%
of the annual electrical-energy consumption of the secondary water pumping, brine pumping, and
fan coil can be met by utilizing the small wind-turbine system (SWTS). This result indicated that the
combination of a modeled passive solar-pre-heating technique with the geothermal heat pump system
(GHPS) and the SWTS is economically preferable to the conventional space-heating/cooling systems
in agricultural and residential building-heating applications; but only if these buildings are installed in
regions with sufficient wind resource.
Chen and Yang [10] conducted a numerical simulation of a solar-assisted ground-coupled
heat-pump system in northern China to provide both space heating and domestic hot water.
The simulation results indicated that the solar-collector area of the optimized system under the specified
load conditions is 40 m2 , while the borehole depth is 264 m. Here, the annual total-heat extraction,
plus 75% of the hot-water requirement, can be provided by solar energy when the optimized design is
used. Wang et al. [11] presented a novel hybrid solar-geothermal solar-heat-pump system (HSGSHPS)
that is composed of a ground heat-pump system (GHPS) and a solar-assisted GSHPS (SAGSHPS).
The simulated results showed that the design of the proposed HSGSHPS is reasonable to solve the
ground-temperature imbalance problem. A suitable control strategy for the solar collector and storage
was found according to the performance of the SAGSHPS. In addition, 32% of the electrical-energy
consumption in the HSGSHPS could be saved if the load-circulation pump is turned off when none
of the fan coils are running. Using the previous experimental investigations, Yang et al. [12] carried
out a numerical simulation regarding the performance of an SGSHPS operated in different heating
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 3 of 29
modes. Accordingly, the heat-pump performance, solar-collection performance, and borehole-wall

temperature were analyzed. According to Yang et al.s [12] experiment results, the system-operation
efficiency during the day can be improved with the assistance of solar energy in the combined operation
mode, while the excess solar energy collected during the day can be stored at the ground through
the ground-heat exchanger to improve the operation performance of the ground-source heat pump
(GSHP) during the night.
Solar and ground heat-pump systems were discussed in the International Energy Agency (IEA)
Task 44 Annex 38 [13]. A variety of combinations of solar and heat pump systems were presented,
and a performance-assessment method was finally suggested [13,14]. Although various previous
studies have been performed, a detailed method of system design and operation was not established.
Especially, there is few data to help decide a suitable system capacity in response to the building
load and local climate conditions. Furthermore, even though many researchers have suggested the
feasibility of a hybrid system with solar and geothermal energy, there are few studies on quantitative
analysis of system performance for PVT and GSHP systems by transient energy simulation. It is very
important for the performance prediction of the hybrid system to analyze it under dynamic load
conditions by the integrated simulation because the operation methods of the individual systems
components significantly affect the performance of the other components. Therefore, the purpose
of this study is to provide basic data for setting optimal design guidelines for a hybrid system that
combines a PVT system and GSHP system by analyzing system performance dynamically according
to various operation modes. A performance analysis considered the climatic conditions and typical
buildings in Korea. In this paper, the seasonal performance factor (SPF) of the combined GSHPPVT
(Geo-PVT) system was studied and its economic feasibility was estimated under various installation
conditions such as building load or weather conditions. Furthermore, the efficiency of the hybrid
system was improved by analyzing the operation modes between the PVT and the GSHP system.
The result was quantitatively compared with the conventional GSHP system, and an effective operation
method was suggested.
2. Analysis Model
2.1. System Summary

The main advantage using both the GSHP and PVT is that they are designed to complement
one another. In general, GSHP systems require a significant initial cost to dig boreholes and install
ground heat exchangers, and the solar system could offset the cost by partially meeting the heating
load. Additionally, GSHP system can stabilize heating and cooling energy supply even though the
performance of the PVT system differs on weather condition. Plus, the Geo-PVT system can establish
an energy-independent building by producing both electricity and thermal energy for heating, cooling
and hot water.
Figure 1 shows system concept of Geo-PVT system. The Geo-PVT system consists of a ground-heat
exchanger (GHE), a heat pump, a circulation pump in source side (P1), a circulation pump in load side
(P2), a PVT module, a solar-circulation pump (P3), a heat-storage tank (HST), a storage-circulation
pump (P4), a fan-coil unit (FCU), and three-way valves. Basically, the main load of building is covered
by the GSHP system. PVT system and heat storage tank (HST) can be utilized as auxiliary heat source
to reduce peak load. In summer season, cooling operation is performed only with the GSHP system.
Thermal energy is supplied from both the GSHP and PVT systems to the HST and building, and the
thermal energy in the storage tank is used for both heating and hot-water supply. System operation is
controlled by the circulation pumps and the three-way valves.
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 4 of 29
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 4 of 28
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 4 of 28
Figure 1. System concept of Geo- photovoltaic/thermal system.

Figure1.1.System
Figure Systemconcept
conceptof
ofGeo-
Geo-photovoltaic/thermal
photovoltaic/thermal system.
system.
2.2. System Operation Modes
2.2.
2.2. System
System Operation
Operation Modes
Modes
The Geo-PVT system has seven operation modes, as shown in Figure 2, including three heating-
The Geo-PVT system
The Geo-PVT systemhas
hasseven
seven operation
operation modes,
modes, as shown
as shown in Figure
in Figure 2, including
2, including three
three heating-
operation modes, one cooling mode, two heat storage modes, and an underground heat storage
heating-operation
operation modes, modes, one cooling
one cooling mode, two mode,
heattwo heat storage
storage modes, modes,
and an and an underground
underground heat
heat storage
mode. The cooling operation is only performed through the heat pump. Each operation mode of the
storage
mode. Themode. The cooling
cooling operation
operation is only is only performed
performed throughthrough thepump.
the heat heat pump. Each operation
Each operation mode mode
of the
Geo-PVT system depends on the temperature condition of heat source and the existence of loads. The
of the Geo-PVT
Geo-PVT system
system depends
depends on theontemperature
the temperature condition
condition of heat
of heat sourcesource andexistence
and the the existence of loads.
of loads. The
operation mode can be categorized into the following three types: heating and cooling mode, heat-
The operation
operation modemode cancategorized
can be be categorized
into into the following
the following threethree
types:types: heating
heating and cooling
and cooling mode,mode,
heat-
storage mode, and underground heat-storage mode.
heat-storage
storage mode,mode, and underground
and underground heat-storage
heat-storage mode.mode.
Figure 2. Operation modes of Geo-PVT system.

Figure2.2. Operation
Figure Operation modes
modesof
ofGeo-PVT
Geo-PVTsystem.
system.
Figure 3 presents the control algorithm of the system. In this figure, the design temperature of
Figure 3 presents the control algorithm of the system. In this figure, the design temperature of
room was set at 22 C for the heating operation and 26 C for the cooling operation [15], which can
room was set at 22 C for the heating operation and 26 C for the cooling operation [15], which can
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 5 of 29
Figure
Energies 3 presents
2017, 10, 1243 the control algorithm of the system. In this figure, the design temperature 5 of of
28
room was set at 22 C for the heating operation and 26 C for the cooling operation [15], which can be
changed
be changed according to building
according conditions
to building such as such
conditions the usage
as theor location.
usage orWhen the indoor
location. Whentemperature
the indoor
is below 22 C,
temperature is heating
below 22operation of FCU
C, heating starts in
operation of winter and when
FCU starts it is 24
in winter and C, the operation stops.
when it is 24 C, the
When the operation
operation stops. When time and
the the roomtime
operation temperature meet temperature
and the room the requirements meetforthethe heating operation,
requirements for the
the heating
heating operation
operation, theusing theoperation
heating heat storage tank
using theisheat
performed
storageconsidering the temperature
tank is performed considering of the
heat storage tank
temperature of thefirst.
heatThe heating
storage tankusing
first.the
Theheat storage
heating tank
using is heat
the a method
storagein tank
whichis increases
a methodthe in
utilization
which increasesefficiency of the solarefficiency
the utilization thermal energy
of the in consideration
solar thermal energy of theincase where the production
consideration of the case
time
where and thethe usage timetime
production of the solar
and thethermal energy
usage time of are
the different.
solar thermalIf theenergy
temperature of the storage
are different. If the
tank is low
temperature of or if the heating operation using the storage tank is not performed, the
storage tank is low or if the heating operation using the storage tank is not heating using the
solar thermal
performed, theenergy
heatingis performed.
using the solar thermal energy is performed.
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Control algorithm of
Control algorithm of Geo-PVT
Geo-PVT system
system in
in simulation.
simulation.
Considering the heat source supply temperature of the heat pump and the temperature of the
Considering the heat source supply temperature of the heat pump and the temperature of the
heat storage tank, the heating using solar heat is set to be supplied directly to the building when the
heat storage tank, the heating using solar heat is set to be supplied directly to the building when the
temperature exceeds 35 C. When the heating operation using the heat storage tank and the solar heat
temperature exceeds 35 C. When the heating operation using the heat storage tank and the solar heat
is not performed, the heating operation using the ground source heat pump is performed. The heat
is not performed, the heating operation using the ground source heat pump is performed. The heat
storage operation works when the temperature of the heat storage tank is reduced to 50 C or less
storage operation works when the temperature of the heat storage tank is reduced to 50 C or less
under the condition that the heating operation is not operated. The heat-storage operation mode can
under the condition that the heating operation is not operated. The heat-storage operation mode can
be divided into the following two types according to the type of heat source: use of the PVT module
be divided into the following two types according to the type of heat source: use of the PVT module
and use of the heat pump. When the outlet temperature of the PVT module is higher than the outlet
and use of the heat pump. When the outlet temperature of the PVT module is higher than the outlet
temperature of the HST load-side, the heat-storage mode operates to use solar heat. The heat-storage
temperature of the HST load-side, the heat-storage mode operates to use solar heat. The heat-storage
mode using the heat pump works when the PVT module is not used. The underground heat storage
mode using the heat pump works when the PVT module is not used. The underground heat storage
mode can be operated to prevent reduction of the electrical efficiency and to recover the underground
temperature. This mode operates if the outlet temperature of the PVT module is higher than the
underground temperature during non-heating or non-heat-storage operations.
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 6 of 29
mode can be operated to prevent reduction of the electrical efficiency and to recover the underground
temperature. This mode operates if the outlet temperature of the PVT module is higher than the
Energies 2017, 10, 1243
underground temperature during non-heating or non-heat-storage operations. 6 of 28
2.3.
2.3.Calculation
CalculationMethod
Methodfor
forthe
theSystem
SystemPerformance
Performance
Figure
Figure44 indicates simulationmodelling
indicates the simulation modellingofof Geo-PVT
Geo-PVT system
system implemented
implemented in TRNSYS
in TRNSYS in
in order
order to calculate the system performance. As shown in Figure 4, it is composed
to calculate the system performance. As shown in Figure 4, it is composed with a standard u-type with a standard u-
type ground
ground heatheat exchanger
exchanger (type557a),
(type557a), water water to water
to water heatheat
pump pump (type927),
(type927), (type
(type 560),560),
heatheat storage
storage with
with variable inlets and uniform losses (type 64), 4 pipe performance fan coil
variable inlets and uniform losses (type 64), 4 pipe performance fan coil for FCU (type987), pump for FCU (type987),
pump (type3d),
(type3d), valve,valve, andIn
and etc. etc. In order
order to model
to model the thermal
the thermal behavior
behavior of a of a building
building model,
model, a multi-
a multi-zone
zone building
building component
component (type
(type 56) was56) was utilized,
utilized, which
which reads thereads
buildingthe description
building description from an
from an external file
external file generated based on user supplied information with program
generated based on user supplied information with program called TRNBuild. The geometric model called TRNBuild. The
geometric modelwas
of the building of established
the building was established
through the TRNSYSthrough
3D plugin theforTRNSYS 3D plugin
Google Sketchup, andfor Google
export it to
Sketchup,
TRNBuildand for export
TRNSYS it simulation.
to TRNBuild for TRNSYS
Through the 3Dsimulation. Throughzones
model, all thermal the 3D model, all
to simulate in thermal
TRNSYS
zones
have to simulate
been drawn.in TRNSYS have been drawn.
Figure
Figure4.4.Simulation
Simulationmodelling
modellingofofGeo-PVT
Geo-PVTsystem.
system.
The simulation determines whether the heat source system corresponds to heating and hot water
The simulation determines whether the heat source system corresponds to heating and hot
load of the building model and its performance. Here, corresponding to the hot water load is
water load of the building model and its performance. Here, corresponding to the hot water load is
determined so as to judge whether the thermal energy supplied from the heat storage tank satisfies
determined so as to judge whether the thermal energy supplied from the heat storage tank satisfies the
the hot water load. The calculator component was utilized to describe that the amount of hot water
hot water load. The calculator component was utilized to describe that the amount of hot water load
load is supplied from the heat storage tank every day, which is calculated by the daily hot water
is supplied from the heat storage tank every day, which is calculated by the daily hot water supply
supply amount of the building. The hot water is to be supplied at 45 C from the storage tank as much
amount of the building. The hot water is to be supplied at 45 C from the storage tank as much as the
as the amount of hourly hot water demand, and the storage tank is filled back to maintain the tank
amount of hourly hot water demand, and the storage tank is filled back to maintain the tank level
level with water at 15 C as much as the used hot water. The water temperature 15 C is set
with water at 15 C as much as the used hot water. The water temperature 15 C is set considering
considering underground temperature because the storage tank is buried in ground.
underground temperature because the storage tank is buried in ground.
A U-tube type GHE model was utilized as a component of the ground-heat duct storage (DST)
model which is developed by Hellstrm in the mathematical-physics laboratory at Lund University
in Sweden [16]. According to the DST model, the GHE-outlet temperature is calculated as follows:
, = , + (1 ) (1)
Here, TGHE,in is the inlet temperature of ground heat exchanger. In this model, if the fluid flow
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 7 of 29
A U-tube type GHE model was utilized as a component of the ground-heat duct storage (DST)
model which is developed by Hellstrm in the mathematical-physics laboratory at Lund University in
Sweden [16]. According to the DST model, the GHE-outlet temperature is calculated as follows:
TGHE,out = TGHE,in + (1 ) Tground (1)
Here, TGHE,in is the inlet temperature of ground heat exchanger. In this model, if the fluid flow
rate approaches zero, the outlet temperature reaches the surrounding ground temperature Tground .
is a damping factor that is defined as follows:
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 7 of 28
! !
v V p Lp
is a damping factor that is=defined
exp as follows:
= exp (2)
Cf Qf Cf Qf
= = (2)
The thermal model of the PVT component relies on the algorithms presented in the flat plate
collectors section of the Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes textbook by Duffie and Beckman [17].
The thermal model of the PVT component relies on the algorithms presented in the flat plate
The mean absorber-place temperature can be used to calculate the energy rate Q at which is added to
collectors section of the Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes textbook by uDuffie and Beckman
the flow stream by the collector, as follows:
[17]. The mean absorber-place temperature can be used to calculate the energy rate at which is
added to the flow stream by the collector, as follows:
Qu = Ac [S UL ( Tabs Tamb )] (3)
= [ ( )] (3)
where AC is area of the solar collector. This can be either gross area or net area but should be consistent
where AC is area of the solar collector. This can be either gross area or net area but should be consistent
with the provided loss coefficients and PV power conversion coefficients. The overall loss coefficient
with the provided loss coefficients and PV power conversion coefficients. The overall loss coefficient
of the collector UL is the sum of the top (Ut ), bottom (Ub ), and edge (Ue ) loss coefficients.
of the collector UL is the sum of the top (Ut), bottom (Ub), and edge (Ue) loss coefficients.
The power generation of the PVT module can be estimated by multiplying the solar energy
The power generation of the PVT module can be estimated by multiplying the solar energy
incident on the surface with the efficiency of the photovoltaic module, as following Equation (4). S is
incident on the surface with the efficiency of the photovoltaic module, as following Equation (4). S is
the net absorbed solar radiation and accounts for the absorbed solar radiation minus the PV-power
the net absorbed solar radiation and accounts for the absorbed solar radiation minus the PV-power
production. Equation (5) is the formula to calculate S. The efficiency of the PV cells is a function of the
production. Equation (5) is the formula to calculate S. The efficiency of the PV cells is a function of
PV cell temperature and the incident solar radiation, as following Equation (6). Figure 5 indicates the
the PV cell temperature and the incident solar radiation, as following Equation (6). Figure 5 indicates
efficiency of the PV cells as a function of the cell temperature at the constant radiation:
the efficiency of the PV cells as a function of the cell temperature at the constant radiation:
Power
==(
( ))n ((I AM))GT((PV)) (4)(4)
S = ()n I AMGT (1 PV ) (5)

=( ) (1 ) (5)
= X X (6)
PV = nominal CellTemp Radiaion (6)

Figure 5.
Figure Efficiency of
5. Efficiency W/m22radiation.
of PV cell as a function of the cell temperature at a 350 W/m radiation.
Under off-normal conditions, the transmittance-absorptance product at normal incidence is

multiplied by the following equation in order to get the transmittance-absorptance at other incidence
angles. This equation is referred to as the incidence angle modifier (IAM):
( ) (1 + )( ) ( )
( ) + +
( ) 2 ( ) ( ) (7)
= =
( )
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 8 of 29
Under off-normal conditions, the transmittance-absorptance product at normal incidence is

multiplied by the following equation in order to get the transmittance-absorptance at other incidence
angles. This equation is referred to as the incidence angle modifier (IAM):
()
(1+cos) () ()
() GbT () b + GbT 2
s
()n
+ GbT g () g
n n
I AM = = (7)
()n GT
The heat pump performance is based on the entering source-side and load-side temperatures and
is in accordance with the catalog data. The heat-pump catalog data is shown in Figures 6 and 7. It was
set that the ground-heat exchanger is a single U-pipe buried in a vertical borehole at a depth of 150 m.
To explain
Energies 2017,more about other components, the heat storage model expresses the thermal performance
10, 1243 8 of 28
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 8 of 28
of a fluid-filled sensible energy in storage tank. And the FCU model represents a fan coil where the
air
coiliswhere
heatedthe
where or cooled
air is as it passes
is heated
heated across
or cooled
cooled ascoils embracing
it passes
passes acrosshot and
coils cold liquid
embracing flow
hot andstreams. Plus,flow
cold liquid
liquid the
coil the air or as it across coils embracing hot and cold flow
pump
streams.model
Plus, isthe
simply
pump setmodel
to a mass
is flow rate
simply set using
to a a variable
mass flow control
rate usingfunction.
a variable control function.
streams. Plus, the pump model is simply set to a mass flow rate using a variable control function.
Figure 6. Heating catalog data of heat pump.

Figure 6. Heating catalog data of heat pump.
Figure 7. Cooling catalog data of heat pump.

Figure 7. Cooling
Figure 7. Cooling catalog
catalog data
data of
of heat
heat pump.
pump.
System performance
System performance is is calculated
calculated by by the
the total
total energy
energy consumption
consumption and and total
total energy
energy production.
production.
In System
this paper,performance
the fixed is calculated
time step in thebysimulation
the total energy consumption
statement is 5 min, and the
and totalsystem
energyperformance
production.
In this paper, the fixed time step in the simulation statement is 5 min, and the system performance
In this paper,
was estimated the
estimated by fixed
by the time
the seasonalstep in the
seasonal performancesimulation
performance factors statement
factors (SPF is
(SPFHP 5 min, and the system performance
HP, SPFSolar, and SPFSystem) based on the
was
was , SPFSolar, and SPFSystem) based on the
estimated
simulationbyresults
the seasonal
results in each
eachperformance Here,factors
case. Here, the seasonal
seasonal SPFSolar , and SPF
(SPFHP ,performance factor is a)abased
System on thethat
coefficient simulation
can be
be
simulation in case. the performance factor is coefficient that can
results
obtained in each
by case.
dividing Here,
the the
total seasonal
cooling andperformance
heating factor
energy is
during a coefficient
the heating that
andcan be
coolingobtained
season by
by
obtained by dividing the total cooling and heating energy during the heating and cooling season by
dividing
totalthe
the total total cooling
power and heating
consumption. The energy during
calculation the heating
formula is asasand cooling season
following by the(8)(10).
Equations total power
The
the power consumption. The calculation formula is following Equations (8)(10). The
consumption.
calculation processThe
process is calculation
is illustrated
illustrated informula
in Figureis
Figure 8. as following
8. Q
Q representsEquations
represents thethe useful(8)(10).
useful energy The
energy from calculation
from the
the output process
output of of the
the
calculation
system, and P represents the sum of all of the input electrical energy that
system, and P represents the sum of all of the input electrical energy that is required to produce is required to produce
the useful
the useful energy.
energy. This
This method
method is is based
based on
on the
the report
report of
of IEA
IEA Task
Task 44 44 Annex
Annex 38: 38:
= (( )) = ((

+
+
)) (8)
= = (8)
(( ))
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 9 of 29
is illustrated in Figure 8. Q represents the useful energy from the output of the system, and P
represents the sum of all of the input electrical energy that is required to produce the useful energy.
This method is based on the report of IEA Task 44 Annex 38:
R
Use f ul energy( Heat pump) ( Q HP B + Q HPST ) dt
SPFHP = = R (8)
Input energy( Heat pump) PHP dt
R
Use f ul thermal energy( PVT ) ( Q PVT G + Q PVT ST + Q PVT B ) dt
SPFSol = = R (9)
Input energy( PVT ) ( PP3,G + PP3,ST + PP3,B ) dt
Use f ul energy(System)
SPFTotal system =
RInput energy(System) produced energy( PVT ) (10)
( QRPVT B + Q HPRB + QST B + Q DHW ) dt
= ( Psystem dt PPVT,Production ) dt
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 9 of 28
Figure 8.
Figure 8. Calculation
Calculation method
method of
of SPF.
SPF.
2.4. Economic
2.4. Economic Evaluation
Evaluation ModelModel ofof Geo-Photovoltaic/Thermal
Geo-Photovoltaic/Thermal System System
In this
In this study,
study, thethe feasibility
feasibility ofof the
the proposed
proposed hybrid
hybrid system
system waswas evaluated
evaluated based
based onon aa return
return on on
investment (ROI) analysis including initial cost, operating cost and maintenance
investment (ROI) analysis including initial cost, operating cost and maintenance cost of the Geo-PVT cost of the Geo-PVT
system compared
system compared with with the
the GSHP
GSHP system.
system.
The system capacities were designed
The system capacities were designed for for peak
peak load
load ofof building
building model.
model. The
The capacity
capacity ofof ground
ground
source heat pump system was settled considering peak load and safety
source heat pump system was settled considering peak load and safety rate. A PVT module (1.63 mrate. A PVT module (1.63 m22))
was assumed
was assumed to to have
have heat
heat capacity
capacity of of 0.3
0.3 kWkW based
based on
on simulation
simulation result.
result. For
For this
this reason,
reason, itit was
was
assumed that 20 m 2 of PVT system has as same capacity as 1RT (3.5 kW) of GSHP system.
2
assumed that 20 m of PVT system has as same capacity as 1RT (3.5 kW) of GSHP system.
In this
In this paper,
paper, the the Geo-PVT
Geo-PVTsystem systemwas wasmademade upupwith
withthethePVT system,
PVT system,which replaced
which 1RT1RT
replaced (3.5
kW) of heat pump capacity. During heating operation, hybrid system
(3.5 kW) of heat pump capacity. During heating operation, hybrid system is available to reduce theis available to reduce the
capacity of heat pump. However, the heat pump capacity should not be lower
capacity of heat pump. However, the heat pump capacity should not be lower than cooling peak load than cooling peak load
because only
because only heat
heat pump
pump system
system cancan respond
respond to to cooling
coolingload.
load.
The system power consumption was calculated
The system power consumption was calculated through the through the simulation
simulation considering
considering the the ground
ground
temperature. As for ROI analysis, life cycle cost (LCC) was calculated for 20 years,
temperature. As for ROI analysis, life cycle cost (LCC) was calculated for 20 years, and it was analyzed and it was analyzed
in two
in two cases;
cases; one
one case
case is
is that
that the
the generated
generated electricity
electricity of
of the
the PVT
PVT module
module utilized
utilized for
for operation,
operation, and and
the other case is that it is sold at the price of the power exchange. LCC analysis applied
the other case is that it is sold at the price of the power exchange. LCC analysis applied the net present the net present
value method and the calculation procedure is to add the recurring costs ( ) and non-recurring costs
value method and the calculation procedure is to add the recurring costs (PA ) and non-recurring
( ), as following Equation (11) [18]. The inflation rate was set as 3.4%, which reflects the recent
costs (PF ), as following Equation (11) [18]. The inflation rate was set as 3.4%, which reflects the recent
economic situation in Korea for a detailed prediction:
economic situation in Korea for a detailed prediction:
[(1 + ) 1]
= P+ + PA [(1 + i ) 1] (11)
LCC = (1 F )
n +
(1 + )n (11)
i (1 + i ) i (1 + i )
In order to determine initial investment cost, the initial cost of each system was determined by
referring to the renewable energy sources standard price and Korea On-Line E-Procurement System
in Public Procurement Service [19,20]. Also, in order to estimate the maintenance costs, it was
assumed that the life span of heat pump and PVT module were 20 years, and heat storage tank and
circulating pump were replaced for every 1015 years, respectively. The electricity unit price was
followed by the standard unit price of Korean Electric Power Corporation (KEPCO) and the selling
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 10 of 29
In order to determine initial investment cost, the initial cost of each system was determined by
referring to the renewable energy sources standard price and Korea On-Line E-Procurement System in
Public Procurement Service [19,20]. Also, in order to estimate the maintenance costs, it was assumed
that the life span of heat pump and PVT module were 20 years, and heat storage tank and circulating
pump were replaced for every 1015 years, respectively. The electricity unit price was followed by
the standard unit price of Korean Electric Power Corporation (KEPCO) and the selling price of the
electricity was referred to the System Marginal Price (SMP) from the Korea Power Exchange. The price
from the SMP was set as 100.6 won/kWh, at average price.
2.5. Case Study

The building model for simulation was set as 106 m2 standard housing supplied by the Ministry of
Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs in Korea, which is an authorized model with representative to be
widely popularized. Therefore, the reliable model can provide a great ripple effect of the hybrid system.
The building model is divided into two floors and accommodates a living room, four bedrooms,10
Energies 2017, 10, 1243
and a
of 28
Energies 2017, 10, 1243
kitchen. The floor plan of the building is shown in Figure 9 [21]. The weather data of the simulation 10 of 28
model is based onmodel

of the simulation Seoul,isSouth
basedKorea, which
on Seoul, wasKorea,
South provided by was
which Meteonorm.
providedAn by average outside
Meteonorm. An
of the simulation model is based on Seoul, South Korea, which was provided by Meteonorm. An
temperature
average outside andtemperature
solar radiation
andinsolar
Seoulradiation
described
in in Figure
Seoul 10.
described in Figure 10.
average outside temperature and solar radiation in Seoul described in Figure 10.
Figure 9.
Figure 9. The
The building
building model
model for
for simulation.
simulation.
Figure 10. Weather data in Seoul.

Figure
Figure 10.
10. Weather data in
Weather data in Seoul.
Seoul.
Thermal properties for heating and cooling load analysis were set using the central-district
standard of the Korean Energy Saving Design Standards of Buildings published by the Ministry of
Land, Infrastructure and Transport [22]. The heating and cooling operation condition was referred
from the handbook of the Society of Air-conditioning and Refrigerating Engineers of Korea, as
from the handbook of the Society of Air-conditioning and Refrigerating Engineers of Korea, as
outlined below [23]. The simulation-design parameters for the system-capacity calculation are shown
outlined below [23]. The simulation-design parameters for the system-capacity calculation are shown
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 11 of 29
from the handbook of the Society of Air-conditioning and Refrigerating Engineers of Korea, as outlined
below [23]. The simulation-design parameters for the system-capacity calculation are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Basic simulation design parameter.
Contents Value Units

Location Seoul, Korea
Simulation time NovemberOctober Month
Energies 2017,
Energies 2017, 10,
10, 1243
1243 11 of 28
Simulation time step 5 Minutes11 of 28
Design temperature Heating 22, Cooling 26 C
Table 1.
Operation Time Table 1. Basic
Basic simulation
simulation08:00~20:00/20:00~08:00
design parameter.
design parameter. Hour
Ventilation 1/h
Contents
Contents Value
Value Units
Units
Building model Affordable Housing Model N-14-27
Location Seoul, Korea
Location
Total floor area Seoul,106Korea m2
Simulation
Simulation timetime NovemberOctober
NovemberOctober Month
Month 2
Simulation time
Simulation stepRoof
time step 0.269
55 0.269 W/m K
Minutes
Minutes
Floor 0.405 0.405 W/m 2
Design temperature
Heat transmittance
Design temperature Heating 22,
Heating 22, Cooling
Cooling 26
26 C 2 K
C
External wall 0.269 0.269 W/m K
Operation Time
Operation Time 08:00~20:00/20:00~08:00
08:00~20:00/20:00~08:00 Hour
Windows 2.1 2.1 Hour
W/m2 K
Ventilation
Ventilation 1/h
1/h
Building model
Building model Affordable Housing
Affordable Housing Model
Model N-14-27
N-14-27
The heating Total
Total floor
load area
of the
floor areabuilding was calculated to determine 106
106 the capacity of the system. mmThe
2
2
peak
heating load was verified as 8.34 RoofkW for the heating period
Roof 0.269
0.269 0.269
in the target area. By 0.269 W/m
usingW/m K
the22 peak
K
heating load as the basis, the Floorcapacity was configured. 0.405
GSHP
Floor 0.405
The peak heating and 0.405
peak W/m22loads
cooling
0.405 W/m K
K
Heat transmittance
Heat transmittance
External wall
External wall 0.269
0.269 0.269 W/m
0.269 W/m22 K K
for Seoul are shown in Figures 11 and 12. The capacity of the heat pump, for which the peak heating
Windows
Windows 2.1
2.1 2.1 W/m
2.1 W/m22 KK
load is considered, was determined as 10 kW.
Figure 11.
Figure 11. The
The peak
peak load
load of
of heating
heating season.
season.
Figure 12. The

Figure The peak load
load of cooling
cooling season.
season.
Figure 12.
12. The peak
peak load of
of cooling season.
The thermal
The thermal properties
properties ofof the
the soil
soil was
was based
based on
on the
the features
features ofof granite
granite which
which isis widely
widely
distributed in
distributed in Korea.
Korea. The
The capacity
capacity of
of the
the PVT
PVT system
system was
was determined
determined asas 33 kW
kW inin consideration
consideration of
of the
the
power consumption of the heat pump, which was the maximum capacity for a residential
power consumption of the heat pump, which was the maximum capacity for a residential house that house that
can receive
can receive aa subsidy
subsidy from
from the
the Korea
Korea Energy
Energy Agency.
Agency. The
The PVT
PVT module
module with
with aa 15.33%
15.33% electrical
electrical
efficiency was used referring to the preceding research study [24]. The solar absorption
efficiency was used referring to the preceding research study [24]. The solar absorption area of area of the
the
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 12 of 29
The thermal properties of the soil was based on the features of granite which is widely distributed
in Korea. The capacity of the PVT system was determined as 3 kW in consideration of the power
consumption of the heat pump, which was the maximum capacity for a residential house that can
receive a subsidy from the Korea Energy Agency. The PVT module with a 15.33% electrical efficiency
was used referring to the preceding research study [24]. The solar absorption area of the PVT system in
one module was 1.63 m2 , so the total area is 20 m2 . The detailed conditions were set according to those
in Table 2. The daily flow-rate distribution of domestic hot water (DHW) is described in Figure 13, and
the daily DHW distribution profile was based on the advanced research [25].
In this paper, the performance of the Geo-PVT system was analyzed and it was compared with a
conventional GSHP system. Furthermore, the Geo-PVT system having HST was compared with the
Geo-PVT system without HST and the system performance according to the set-point of PVT usage
was calculated. Moreover, a simulation was conducted to find effective usage of the produced heat
from PVT. In addition, an economic evaluation regarding cost-saving that is related to the installation
of the proposed hybrid system was performed. Here, the heating capacity of the GSHP was replaced
by the solar heating of the PVT system. To develop the Geo-PVT system, a feasibility study was
assessed according to the initial and operating costs of the Geo-PVT system, and a comparison
analysis was performed. An optimal design depending on the building-floor areas was suggested by a
return-on-investment analysis.
Table 2. The parameters of Geo-PVT system in rated condition.
Component Description Value

Capacity 10 kW (water to water type)
Heat pump 0.42 kg/s (Load side)
Flow rate
0.5 kg/s (Source side)
Type Closed type single U-tube
Borehole depth 150 m
Ground heat exchanger
Number of boreholes 1
Borehole radius 0.1 m
Module Type Unglazed water type
Collector width x length (Area) 4.92 m 3.96 m (19.5 m2 )
PVT Module
PV efficiency 15.33%
Orientation/Slope South/45
Tank volume 0.3 m3
Heat storage tank
Heat loss coefficient 0.694 W/m2 K
Rated total cooling/heating capacity 12 kW
Fan coil unit Rated volumetric air flow rate 0.3 m3 /s
Power consumption 0.15 kW
Circulation Pump1 Flow rate 0.5 kg/s
(Heat pump source side) Power consumption 0.25 kW
(Heat pump load side) Power consumption 0.22 kW
(PVT module circulation) Power consumption 0.22 kW
(STFCU circulation) Power consumption 0.25 kW
Storage thermal conductivity 3.5 W/m2 K
Soil Conditions
Storage heat capacity 2520 kJ/m3 K
of the proposed hybrid system was performed. Here, the heating capacity of the GSHP was replaced
by the solar heating of the PVT system. To develop the Geo-PVT system, a feasibility study was
assessed according to the initial and operating costs of the Geo-PVT system, and a comparison
analysis
Energies was
2017, 10, performed.
1243 An optimal design depending on the building-floor areas was suggested
13 of by
29
a return-on-investment analysis.
Figure13.
Figure 13. The
Thesupply
supplypattern
patternof
ofdaily
dailyDHW.
DHW.
Table 2. The parameters of Geo-PVT system in rated condition.

3. Validity of the Simulation Model
Component Description Value
In this study, in order to verify the validity of simulation model, the simulation result was
Capacity 10 kW (water to water type)
compared with the experimental result. The performance of the solar cell was measured according
Heat pump 0.42 kg/s (Load side)
to the standard test condition (STC) specified Flow
in rate
the IEC regulations, which 0.5 are
kg/sthe solarside)
(Source radiation
of 1000 W/m2 , the spectrum of AM 1.5 standard, and the solar cell temperature of 25 C. In this
Type Closed type single U-tube
experiment, the electrical performance accordingBoreholetodepth
the ambient temperature and the 150circulating
m water
Ground heat exchanger
temperature was measured based on theNumber test results under the standard test conditions.1 A fixed amount
of boreholes
of irradiation intensity was maintained Boreholeusing a radius
solar simulator and the electric0.1currentvoltage
m
performance was measured according to the ambient
Module Type temperature and the inlet temperature
Unglazed water type of the
circulating water. Collector width x length (Area) 4.92 m 3.96 m (19.5 m2)
PVT Module
The constant temperature and humidity PV efficiency
chamber used in the experiment was 15.33%
the AL SEC4100
Orientation/Slope South/45
manufactured by ATLAS (Linsengericht, Germany), and the artificial light source was irradiated using
a metal halide
Heat lamp
storage tank(Uniformity Class B)Tank volume
capable of adjusting the emission spectrum 0.3 m3 as the light
Heat loss coefficient
source. The DS-100c I-V curved tracer was used to measure the electric current-voltage 0.694 W/mperformance.
2K
Rated total cooling/heating capacity 12 kW

The surface temperature of the module was measured using a thermocouple thermometer at the center
Fan coil unit Rated volumetric air flow rate 0.3 m3/s
of the top, middle, and bottom of the module, and data was recorded using a GL820 Data Logger
(Graphtec, Yokohama, Japan). Table 3 indicates the specification of the measurement equipment.
Experiments
(Heat pump using a prototype
source side) PVT module were carried out at a solar photovoltaic
Power consumption
center located at
0.25 kW
Techno Park (Chung-buk
Circulation Pump2 Province, South Korea). The
Flow rate nominal specifications of the
0.42 kg/smodule used
PV
in the experiment
(Heat pump load areside)
listed in Table 4. Power consumption 0.22 kW
(PVT module circulation)Table 3. Specification of the measurement equipment.
Equipment Comments Item
(STFCU circulation) Power consumption 0.25 kW
Wave range 400~100 nm
Storage thermal conductivity 3.5 W/m2 -K
Solar
Soil simulator
Conditions
Measurement accuracy
Storage 2% 2 digit 0.4 digit/ C
heat capacity 2520 kJ/m3 K
Temperature range 40 C 150 C Uniformity 1 C
Temp & Humid Chamber ALSEC 4100
3. Validity of the Simulation Model
Humidity range 20~98% RH Uniformity 3.0% RH
In this study, in order to verifyContinues

Light source Type, Uniformity : Class B
the validity Metal halide lamp
of simulation model, the simulation result was
compared I-Vwith the experimental result. The performance of the solar cell was measuredI-Vaccording
test system
1000 Volts; 3 ranges 1000 V, 100 V, 10 V/100 Amperes; 3 DS-100c Curve to
ranges 100 A, 10 A, 1 A tracer
the standard test condition (STC) specified in the IEC regulations, which are the solar radiation of
Data logger 20 ch, Expandable up to 200 ch by unit of 20 ch GL820 Data logger
1000 W/m2, the spectrum of AM 1.5 standard, and the solar cell temperature of 25 C. In this
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 14 of 29
Table 4. Photovoltaic module electrical characteristic.
Electrical Characteristics Value Units

STC Nominal maximum output power 250 W
Open circuit voltage 36.78 V
Short circuit current 8.93 A
Nominal maximum output voltage 30.46 V
Nominal maximum output current 8.21 A
Maximum system voltage (V) 1000 V
Module size 1644 992 40 mm
Module conversion efficiency 15.33 %
Cell type Single crystal -
In the experiment, an unglazed type of PVT-water module was used and the photovoltaic cells of
the PVT module were single crystal photovoltaic cells with an electrical efficiency of 15.33% under
standard temperature conditions. The PVT module combined an aluminum type of absorber plate
and a circulating water pipe with copper to enhance heat transfer performance. The performance
experiment was carried out under conditions of illumination of artificial light source and circulation of
fluid in the PVT module.
Figure 14 is a scheme of the performance experiments. The temperature of the circulating water
was set at 10 C, 15 C and 20 C considering the system connection with GSHP system. The flow rate
of the circulation water was set to 0.083 kg/s. Table 5 shows the experimental results compared with
the simulation
Energies 2017, data in terms of surface temperature, thermal and electrical efficiency.
10, 1243 14 of 28
Figure
Figure 14.14.Scheme
Schemeof
of the
the PVT
PVT performance
performanceexperiment.
experiment.
Table 5. Experiment results of the PVT performance experiment [24].

Table 5. Experiment results of the PVT performance experiment [24].
Circulating Water Circulating Water Circulating Water
Section
Temperature 10 C Temperature 15 C Temperature 20 C
Circulating Water Error Circulating WaterError Circulating Water
Error
Section
Contents Simulation
Temperature 10 C Rate
Test Simulation Test 15 C
Temperature Rate
SimulationTemperature
Test C
20Rate
Surface Temperature 38.7 C 39.5 C 2.03%
Error 42.5 C 40.1 C 5.99%
Error 46.4 C 41.0 C 13.17% Error
Contents
Thermal Efficiency
Simulation
65.28%
Test
69.40% 5.94%
Simulation
65.67%
Test
65.50% 0.26%
Simulation64.62%
60.00%
Test 7.15%
Rate Rate Rate
Electrical Efficiency 13.90%
13.20% 5.30% 13.60% 13.10% 3.82% 13.31% 13.10% 1.60%
Surface Temperature 38.7 C 39.5 C 2.03% 42.5 C
40.1 C 5.99% 46.4 C 41.0 C 13.17%
Thermal Efficiency 65.28% 69.40% 5.94% 65.67% 65.50% 0.26% 60.00% 64.62% 7.15%
ElectricalAs a result, 13.90%
Efficiency thermal and efficiency
13.20% 5.30%decreased
as13.60% the temperature
13.10% 3.82% of 13.31%
the circulating
13.10% water
1.60%
increased. Generally, the electrical efficiency of PV decreased due to overheating of the PV panel.
However, in a PVT system, the temperature of the PV panel can be decreased by water circulation in
As a result, thermal and efficiency decreased as the temperature of the circulating water increased.
a pipe behind PV panel. The result of the PVT surface temperature showed a maximum margin of
Generally, the electrical efficiency of PV decreased due to overheating of the PV panel. However, in a
error of 13.17% between the simulation and experiment. The largest margins of error in the thermal
PVT and
system, the temperature
electrical efficiency wereof the
7.15%PVand
panel can respectively.
5.30%, be decreasedComparing
by water circulation in a pipe
the experimental behind
results
PV panel. The result of the PVT surface temperature showed a maximum margin
with the simulation results, they show a similar pattern according to the circulating waterof error of 13.17%
between the simulation and experiment. The largest margins of error in the thermal
temperature, but the numerical values are different. Even though the surface temperature resultand electrical
efficiency
underwere 7.15% and
the condition of 5.30%, respectively.
a circulation Comparing
water temperature ofthe experimental
20 C had an errorresults with the simulation
in the experiment, the
others
results, theyhad a slight
show error,pattern
a similar and it isaccording
assumed that thecirculating
to the spectral irradiance and spectrumbut
water temperature, values
the of the
numerical
solar cell were different from those used for the simulation.
4. Simulation Results
4.1. Performance Comparison between Geo-Photovoltaic/Thermal and Ground Source Heat Pump
The performance of the Geo-PVT system was compared with the conventional GSHP system.
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 15 of 29
values are different. Even though the surface temperature result under the condition of a circulation
water temperature of 20 C had an error in the experiment, the others had a slight error, and it is
assumed that the spectral irradiance and spectrum values of the solar cell were different from those
used for the simulation.
4. Simulation Results
4.1. Performance Comparison between Geo-Photovoltaic/Thermal and Ground Source Heat Pump
The performance of the Geo-PVT system was compared with the conventional GSHP system.
Figure 15 shows the conceptual design of the GSHP system and Geo-PVT system. In the Geo-PVT
system, the ground source is the main heat-source for the base load. On the other hand, the GSHP
which consists of a GHE, a heat pump, and a HST operates for all the heat production in building.
The individual system (ground-heat exchanger, heat pump, and circulation pumps) capacity and the
operating
Energiesconditions
2017, 10, 1243 of the GSHP were set to be the same as those of the Geo-PVT system.15 of 28
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 15 of 28
Figure 15. Conceptional design of GSHP system and Geo-PVT system.

Figure 15. Conceptional design of GSHP system and Geo-PVT system.
The advantage of the hybrid system can be confirmed through the calculated system-performance
factor. Prior to examining the monthly system performance during the heating and cooling period,
the representative day was selected to examine the operation conditions based on quantitative figures
with hourly thermal energy supply and energy consumption. The representative days chosen were 3
days when the heatingFigure
load15.
was the highest
Conceptional from
design 23 to system
of GSHP 25 January, as shown
and Geo-PVT in Figure 16.
system.
Figure 16. Ambient temperature and solar radiation in January.
Figures 17 and 18 show the hourly thermal energy supplied from the GSHP and Geo-PVT system
of the representative day. The GSHP system supplied a total of 214 kWh of thermal energy to the
building by operating the heat pump for 3 days. On the other hand, the Geo-PVT system supplied
192 kWh of thermal energy by working the heat pump, and produced 44 kWh of solar heat with the
PVT system. The operation time of the heat pump could be reduced by using the solar heat source.
The total heat pump operation time of the hybrid system for 3 days was 25 h and 30 min, which was
about 12% lower than that16.
Figure of the GSHPtemperature
Ambient system (28 hand
andsolar
45 min).
radiation in January.
Figures 17 and 18 show the hourly thermal energy supplied from the GSHP and Geo-PVT system
of the representative day. The GSHP system supplied a total of 214 kWh of thermal energy to the
building by operating the heat pump for 3 days. On the other hand, the Geo-PVT system supplied
192 kWh of thermal energy by working the heat pump, and produced 44 kWh of solar heat with the
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 16 of 29
Figures
Figures17 17 and
and 18
18 show
show the
the hourly
hourly thermal
thermal energy
energy supplied
supplied from
from the
the GSHP
GSHP and and Geo-PVT
Geo-PVT system
system
of the representative
of the representative day.day. The GSHP system
GSHP system supplied a total of 214
214 kWh of thermal energy to
kWh of thermal energy to the
the
building
building byby operating
operating the
the heat
heat pump
pump forfor 33 days.
days. On
On the
the other
other hand,
hand, the
the Geo-PVT
Geo-PVT system
system supplied
supplied
192
192 kWh
kWh ofof thermal
thermal energy
energy by
by working
working the the heat
heat pump,
pump, and
and produced
produced 44 44 kWh
kWh of of solar
solar heat
heat with
with the
the
PVT system.
The
The total
total heat
heat pump
pump operation
operation time
time of
of the
the hybrid
hybrid system
system for
for 33 days
days was
was 2525 hh and
and 30
30 min,
min, which
which was
was
about 12% lower than that of the GSHP system (28 h and
about 12% lower than that of the GSHP system (28 h and 45 min). 45 min).
Figure 17.
17. The heat production of the GSHP system during the representing 3-day period.
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 The heat production of the GSHP system during the representing 3-day period.
Figure 16 of 28
Figure 18.
Figure 18. The
The heat
heat production
production of
of the
the Geo-PVT
Geo-PVT system
system during
during the
the representing
representing3-day
3-dayperiod.
period.
Figures 19 and 20 show the power production and consumption of two systems on the
Figures 19 and 20 show the power production and consumption of two systems on the
representative days. The Geo-PVT system reduced the power consumption by about 6.5% compared
representative days. The Geo-PVT system reduced the power consumption by about 6.5% compared
to the existing system by reducing the operation time of the heat pump. The three-day power
to the existing system by reducing the operation time of the heat pump. The three-day power
consumption of the GSHP system was 78 kWh and 73 kWh in the hybrid system. Plus, the hybrid
consumption of the GSHP system was 78 kWh and 73 kWh in the hybrid system. Plus, the hybrid
system produced electric power of 35 kWh for 3 days through power generation of the PVT system.
system produced electric power of 35 kWh for 3 days through power generation of the PVT system.
The performance coefficient of the system was calculated by using the thermal energy
The performance coefficient of the system was calculated by using the thermal energy production,
production, power consumption and production. As a result of calculation of the coefficient of
power consumption and production. As a result of calculation of the coefficient of performance for
performance for three days during heating period, the GSHP system was confirmed to be 2.76, and
three days during heating period, the GSHP system was confirmed to be 2.76, and the Geo-PVT system
the Geo-PVT system was confirmed to be 6.26. In this regard, it was confirmed that the operation
was confirmed to be 6.26. In this regard, it was confirmed that the operation time and the power
time and the power consumption of the heat pump can be reduced through the use of the solar heat
consumption of the heat pump can be reduced through the use of the solar heat source. In addition,
source. In addition, the performance coefficient of the system can be improved by using the
the performance coefficient of the system can be improved by using the production power of the
production power of the photovoltaic module.
photovoltaic module.
source. In addition, the performance coefficient of the system can be improved by using the
source.2017,
Energies In 10,
addition,
1243 the performance coefficient of the system can be improved by using 17 ofthe
29
Figure 19. The electric energy of the Geo-PVT system in representing day.
Figure 19.
Figure The electric
19. The electric energy
energy of
of the
the Geo-PVT
Geo-PVT system
system in
in representing
representing day.
day.
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 Figure 20. The electric energy of the GSHP system in representing day. 17 of 28
Figure 20. The electric energy of the GSHP system in representing day.
Figure 20. The electric energy of the GSHP system in representing day.
Figures 2123 show the seasonal-performance factors of the GSHP and Geo-PVT system in each
heating-operation
Figures 2123 time,
show respectively. During the entire
the seasonal-performance factorscalculation period,
of the GSHP the performance
and Geo-PVT system inofeach
the
Geo-PVT system was higher than that of the GSHP system. The SPF HP of the Geo-PVT system
heating-operation time, respectively. During the entire calculation period, the performance of the
increasedsystem
Geo-PVT by 4.6% forhigher
was the daytime operation,
than that 3.7%system.
of the GSHP for theThe
night-time
SPFHP ofoperation, andsystem
the Geo-PVT 1.9% for the 24-
increased
h operation. It was figured out that the performance of the heat pump increased as the hybrid
by 4.6% for the daytime operation, 3.7% for the night-time operation, and 1.9% for the 24-h operation. system
utilized
It the solar
was figured outheat
that source instead ofof
the performance the
theheat-storage
heat pump mode decreased
increased in the daytime
as the hybrid operation.
system utilized the
The SPF HP values were 3.84 for the heating operation and 3.69 for the heat-storage operation,
solar heat source instead of the heat-storage mode decreased in the daytime operation. The SPFHP
respectively.
values were 3.84 for the heating operation and 3.69 for the heat-storage operation, respectively.
Figure
Figure 21.
21. The
The result
result of
of SPF
SPF during
during daytime operation in
daytime operation in heating
heating season.
season. (a)
(a) Heat pump; (b)
Heat pump; (b) system.
system.
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 18 of 29
Figure 21. The result of SPF during daytime operation in heating season. (a) Heat pump; (b) system.
Figure 21. The result of SPF during daytime operation in heating season. (a) Heat pump; (b) system.
Figure 22. The

The result of
of SPF during
during night time
time operation in
in heating season.
season. (a) Heat
Heat pump; (b)
(b) system.
Figure 22. The result
Figure 22. result of SPF
SPF during night
night time operation
operation in heating
heating season. (a)
(a) Heat pump;
pump; (b) system.
system.
Figure 23. The result of SPF during 24 h operation in heating season. (a) Heat pump; (b) system.
Figure 23.
Figure 23. The
The result
result of
of SPF
SPF during
during 24
24 hh operation
operation in
in heating
heating season.
season. (a)
(a) Heat
Heat pump;
pump; (b)
(b) system.
system.
For the daytime and 24-h operations, the solar heat was provided directly to the building load
For the daytime and 24-h operations, the solar heat was provided directly to the building load
or heat
Forstorage. The amount
the daytime and 24-h ofoperations,
solar thermal theenergy produced
solar heat was similar
was provided in both
directly operation
to the building modes
load
or heat storage. The amount of solar thermal energy produced was similar in both operation modes
though the ratio of the supplied amount of solar thermal energy to total supplied
or heat storage. The amount of solar thermal energy produced was similar in both operation modes thermal energy was
though the ratio of the supplied amount of solar thermal energy to total supplied thermal energy was
about 17.18%
though the ratioduring
of thedaytime
suppliedoperation
amount ofand 6.05%
solar in 24-h
thermal energyoperation. For the efficient
to total supplied thermal use of solar
energy was
about 17.18% during daytime operation and 6.05% in 24-h operation. For the efficient use of solar
heat in
about the 24-h
17.18% duringoperation,
daytimethe capacity
operation of6.05%
and the PVT system
in 24-h needs For
operation. to be
thelarger due
efficient usetoofthe energy
solar heat
heat in the 24-h operation, the capacity of the PVT system needs to be larger due to the energy
requirements
in of the the
the 24-h operation, building.
capacityDuring the night
of the PVT systemtime operation,
needs solar
to be larger dueheat was
to the usedrequirements
energy for the heat
requirements of the building. During the night time operation, solar heat was used for the heat
storage
of and the During
the building. underground heat
the night storage,
time and itsolar
operation, washeat
confirmed
was usedthatforthe
theratio
heatof the produced
storage and the
storage and the underground heat storage, and it was confirmed that the ratio of the produced
thermal energy
underground using
heat solarand
storage, heatittowas
theconfirmed
total produced thermal
that the energy
ratio of was about
the produced 4.8%. energy using
thermal
thermal energy using solar heat to the total produced thermal energy was about 4.8%.
solar The
heatSPF of total
to the the total system
produced increased
thermal by the
energy waspower production of the PVT module. The total
about 4.8%.
The SPF of the total system increased by the power production of the PVT module. The total
SPFSystem
The was
SPF of102% higher
the total than increased
system that of the byGSHP and production
the power the ratio ofofthetheelectricity
PVT module. production to
The total
SPFSystem was 102% higher than that of the GSHP and the ratio of the electricity production to
SPFSystem was 102% higher than that of the GSHP and the ratio of the electricity production to
consumption was 38.27% during the daytime operation, which had low electricity consumption due to
relatively high ambient temperature. The performance factor of the system was calculated as 3.50 for
the night-time operation and 3.48 for the 24-h operation. The SPF of the hybrid system was 31% greater
than that of the GSHP system. The ratio of the electricity production to consumption was 24.64% for
the night-time operation and 20.45% for the 24-h operation, respectively, which were lower than those
of the daytime operation.
Figures 2426 represent the performance factors of GSHP and Geo-PVT systems from May to
September, respectively. In cooling operation, the average SPFHP was 3.82 in both the systems. The
differences between the SPFHP of the two systems were minor because of sole operation of heat pump
for cooling operation. On the other hand, the SPF of total system in cooling season was observed to be
high due to solar heat and electric power production of PVT system.
greater than that of the GSHP system. The ratio of the electricity production to consumption was
24.64%
than for of
those thethenight-time operation
daytimeoperation and 20.45% for the 24-h operation, respectively, which were lower
operation.and
24.64% for the night-time 20.45% for the 24-h operation, respectively, which were lower
thanFigures
those of2426
the daytime operation.
represent the performance factors of GSHP and Geo-PVT systems from May to
than those of the daytime operation.
Figures 2426 represent
September, the performance factors of GSHP and Geo-PVT systems from May to
Figuresrespectively. In cooling
2426 represent operation, the
the performance average
factors SPFHPand
of GSHP wasGeo-PVT
3.82 in both the systems.
systems from May The
to
September,
differences respectively. In cooling operation, the average SPFHP was 3.82 in both the systems. The
September,between the SPF
respectively. In HP of the operation,
cooling two systems were
the minorSPF
average because
HP wasof soleinoperation
3.82 both the of heat pump
systems. The
differences
for cooling between the
operation. OnSPF HP of the two systems were minor because of sole operation of heat pump
the other hand, the SPF of total system in cooling season was observed
Energies 2017, 10, 1243
differences between the SPFHP of the two systems were minor because of sole operation of heat pump 19to
of 29
forhigh
be cooling
due operation.
to solar Onand
heat the electric
other hand,
powerthe SPF of total
production of system
PVT in cooling season was observed to
system.
for cooling operation. On the other hand, the SPF of total system in cooling season was observed to
be high due to solar heat and electric power production of PVT system.
be high due to solar heat and electric power production of PVT system.
Figure 24. The result of SPF during daytime operation in cooling season. (a) Heat pump; (b) system.
Figure The
24.24.
Figure result
The resultofofSPF
SPFduring
duringdaytime
daytime operation in cooling
operation in coolingseason.
season.(a)
(a)Heat
Heatpump;
pump;(b)(b) system.
system.
Figure 24. The result of SPF during daytime operation in cooling season. (a) Heat pump; (b) system.
Figure 25. The result of SPF during night time operation in cooling season. (a) Heat pump; (b) system.
Figure 25.
TheThe result of SPFduring
result during nighttime
time operation in cooling season. (a) Heat pump; (b) system.
Figure 25.25.
Figure The resultofofSPF
SPF duringnight
night time operation in cooling
operation in coolingseason.
season.(a)
(a)Heat
Heatpump;
pump;(b)(b) system.
system.
Figure 26. The result of SPF during 24 h operation in cooling season. (a) Heat pump; (b) system.
Power 26.
Figure The resultof
production of the
SPFPVT
during 24 h operation
system in cooling season.
in May surpassed (a) Heat
the power pump; (b) system.
consumption of the total
Power
system. production
The production of the PVT
rise in performance system
factors was inin May surpassed
generally the power
higher during May andconsumption
Septemberof of the total
than
Power of the PVT system May surpassed the power consumption theother
total
system. The
PowerThe
months. rise in performance
production
Based factors was generally higher during May and September than other
system. riseoninthe of the of
results
performance PVT
SPF system
factors
Systemwas in
in termsMay
generallysurpassed
of operation the power
times,
higher during May consumption
the Geo-PVT
and system than
September of the
showed total
othera
months.
194% Basedcompared
increase on the results
to of SPF
GSHP System in terms of operation times, the Geo-PVT system showed a
system during day-time operation. Likewise, the SPF in night-
system. The rise in performance factors was generally higher during May and September
months. Based on the results of SPFSystem in terms of operation times, the Geo-PVT system showed a System than other
194% increase compared
time to GSHP system during day-time operation. Likewise, the SPF System in night-
194%operation
months. Based on
increase and
the24results
compared h operation
to GSHP were
Systemincreased
of SPFsystem in terms
during to
of496% and 182%,
operation
day-time times,
operation. respectively.
the Geo-PVT
Likewise, Thesystem
the SPF maininreason
System showed
night-
time
of theoperation and
significantly 24 h operation
increased value were
for increased
night-time to 496%
operation and
was182%,
the respectively.
reduced The
operation main
time reason
of the
a 194% increase compared
time operation to GSHPwere
and 24 h operation system during
increased today-time
496% andoperation. Likewise,
182%, respectively. the
The main SPFreason
System in
of
heatthe significantly
pump compared increased
with value for night-time operation was the reduced operation time of the
of the
night-time significantly
operation and 24other
increased operation
h value
operation modes.
for night-time
were operation
increased was the
to 496% andreduced operation timeThe
182%, respectively. of the
main
heat pump compared with other operation modes.
heat pump compared with other operation modes.
reason of the significantly increased value for night-time operation was the reduced operation time of
the heat pump compared with other operation modes.
4.2. Performance Analysis According to the Presence of Storage-Tank Heating

This section describes the system performance of the Geo-PVT system estimated according to
the presence of HST. Figure 27 presents the system diagram of the comparison considering heating
from HST. Although the operation with HST can be effective when the production time and supply
time for solar energy do not coincide, the heat loss or additional installation cost of the HST should
be considered. Considering the Geo-PVT system includes a HST, the storage tank should maintain
a temperature above the hot-water-supply temperature. If heat is not gained from the solar energy,
the GSHP system operates instead of the PVT system. However, as the load side temperature increases,
the presence of HST.
This section Figure the
describes 27 presents the system diagram
system performance of the comparison
of the Geo-PVT considering
system estimated heating
according to
from
theHST. Although
presence of HST.the operation
Figure with HST
27 presents can bediagram
the system effectiveofwhen the production
the comparison time and
considering supply
heating
from
time forHST.
solarAlthough
energy do thenot
operation
coincide,with
theHST
heatcan beor
loss effective
additional when the production
installation time
cost of theand
HSTsupply
should
be time for solarConsidering
considered. energy do not coincide,
the Geo-PVT thesystem
heat loss or additional
includes a HST,installation
the storagecost
tankof should
the HSTmaintain
should a
be2017,
considered.
temperature
Energies Considering
above
10, 1243 the Geo-PVTtemperature.
the hot-water-supply system includes a HST,
If heat thegained
is not storagefrom
tank the
should
solarmaintain
energy,a20
the
of 29
temperature above the hot-water-supply temperature. If heat is not gained from
GSHP system operates instead of the PVT system. However, as the load side temperature increases, the solar energy, the
theGSHP system operates
performance of the heatinstead
pump of the PVT system.
decreases. However,
Therefore, it is as the load side to
recommended temperature
use direct increases,
geothermal
theheating
performance
the performance of the
of heat
the pump
heat pump decreases.
without using a heat storage tank. decreases. Therefore,
Therefore, itit
isis recommended
recommended to to
use use direct
direct geothermal
geothermal
heating
heating without
without using
using a heat
a heat storagetank.
storage tank.
Figure
Figure
Figure 27.27.
27. Systemdiagram
System
System diagramof
diagram of comparison
of comparison considering
comparison considering
consideringstorage
storagetank
storage tankheating.
heating.
tank heating.
Figures
Figures 2830present
2830 presentthetheanalysis
analysisresults
results regarding
regarding the theconsideration
considerationofofthe thetank-heating
tank-heating mode.
mode.
Figures
When the2830
HST present
is used the
for analysis
heating, theresults
SPF of regarding
the heat the isconsideration
pump lower during of
the the tank-heating
daytime operation mode.
When the HST is used for heating, the SPF of the heat pump is lower during the daytime operation
Whenandthehigher
HST isduring
used for
theheating,
night-timetheand
SPF 24
of the heat pump
h operations. It is
is lower
judgedduring thewas
that this daytime operation
caused by the and
and higher during the night-time and 24 h operations. It is judged that this was caused by the
temperature
higher during the difference
night-time on and
the load side
24 hside of the heat
operations. It ispump
judgedflowing fromwas
that this the caused
heat storage
by thewhen the
temperature
temperature difference on the load of the heat pump flowing from the heat storage when the
heat
difference pump operates
on operates
the load for for heat-storage
sideheat-storage mode.
of the heatmode.
pumpUnderUnder
flowing the daytime-temperature condition, the heat-
heat pump thefrom the heat storage condition,
daytime-temperature when the the heatheat-
pump
pump
operates load-side
for temperature
heat-storage mode. ofUnder
the heat-storage
the mode was 43.71 C,
daytime-temperature which was
condition, theless than that ofload-side
heat-pump the
pump load-side temperature of the heat-storage mode was 43.71 C, which was less than that of the
heating mode. The heat-pump load-side temperatures was 51.63 C for the night-time and 49.02 C
temperature
heating mode. of the
Theheat-storage mode was
heat-pump load-side 43.71 C, which
temperatures was C
was 51.63 lessforthan that of the and
the night-time heating
49.02mode.
C
for the 24 h operation, respectively, which was higher than that of the heating mode. For
C for C the SPF
The heat-pump
forunder
the 24the load-side
h daytime
operation, temperatures
respectively, was 51.63
which wasoperation
higher than the night-time
that ofmore
the than and
heating 49.02 for the 24 h
condition, the heat-storage increased the mode. For the SPF
building-heating
operation,
under therespectively,
daytime
operation. In the case which
condition, washeat-storage
the higher
of the night-time andthan
24 h that of the
operation
operations, heating
increased
the SPF more mode.
thanby
increased For
the the SPFstorage
under the
building-heating
using the
daytime condition,
operation. In
tank heating.the the
case heat-storage
of the operation
night-time and 24increased
h more
operations, than
the SPFthe building-heating
increased by using operation.
the storage In
thetank
caseheating.
of the night-time and 24 h operations, the SPF increased by using the storage tank heating.
Figure 28. The SPF considering storage tank heating during daytime operation. (a) Heat pump; (b)
total system.
Figure
Figure 28.28.The
TheSPF
SPFconsidering
consideringstorage
storage tank
tank heating
heating during
duringdaytime
daytimeoperation.
operation.(a)(a)
Heat pump;
Heat (b)(b)
pump;
total system.
total 2017,
Energies system.
10, 1243 20 of 28
Figure
Figure The
29.29. SPF
The SPFconsidering
consideringstorage
storage tank
tank heating during
duringnight
nighttime
timeoperation.
operation.(a)(a) Heat
Heat pump;
pump; (b)(b)
total system.
total system.
Figure
Energies 29.1243
2017, 10, The SPF considering storage tank heating during night time operation. (a) Heat pump; (b)
21 of 29
total system.
Figure 30. The SPF considering storage tank heating during 24 h operation. (a) Heat pump; (b) total
Figure 30. The SPF considering storage tank heating during 24 h operation. (a) Heat pump; (b)
system.
total system.
Under the daytime operation, the heating when the HST was used could achieve a heat
production the
Under daytime
of 1050 kWh,operation,
which was the140%
heating when
higher thethat
than HSTwithout
was used could
using theachieve
HST. Thea heat
24 hproduction
operation
of
increased by 18% and the night-time operation shows a small difference compared withincreased
1050 kWh, which was 140% higher than that without using the HST. The 24 h operation the non-useby
18% and the night-time operation shows a small difference compared with the non-use
of the storage tank for heating. The power consumption of the systemic operation that was calculated of the storage
tank for use
for the heating. Thecirculation
of the power consumption
pump in the of the systemic operation
tank-heating that wasdue
mode increased calculated
to the for the use
additional
of the circulation pump in the tank-heating mode increased due to the additional
operation. This increase, which occurred under the daytime operation for the direct use of solar-heat operation. This
increase,
production,which
wasoccurred under
significant. Whenthe the
daytime
system operation for the
did not use directfor
the HST use of solar-heat
building production,
heating, was
the electricity
significant. When the system did not use the HST for building heating, the
consumption reduced by 3.76% for the daytime operation, 9.2% for the night-time operation, andelectricity consumption
reduced
7.88% forby the3.76%
24 h for the daytime
operation. Theseoperation, 9.2% forthat
results suggested thewhen
night-time operation,
storage-tank and was
heating 7.88% notfor the
used,
24
thehSPF
operation. These
of the total results
system suggested
increased forthat
this when storage-tank
operation condition.heating
The SPF was not used,
depends on the
the SPF of the
amount of
total system increased for this operation condition. The SPF depends on the amount
the power consumption, and the rates of increase in the SPF were 24.96% for the daytime operation, of the power
consumption,
13.41% for theand the rates
night-time of increase
operation, andin 10.69%
the SPFforwere
the24.96% for the daytime operation, 13.41% for
24 h operation.
the night-time operation, and 10.69% for the 24 h operation.
4.3. Performance Analysis According to the Set-Point Temperature of the Photovoltaic/Thermal
4.3. Performance Analysis According to the Set-Point Temperature of the Photovoltaic/Thermal
Figure 31 presents the heat production for the heating and heat-storage according to the set
Figure 31 presents the heat production for the heating and heat-storage according to the set
temperature using solar heat during the heating process is considered. The PVT-heat production is
temperature using solar heat during the heating process is considered. The PVT-heat production is the
the lowest in December and the highest in January and February. It was found that the heat
lowest in December and the highest in January and February. It was found that the heat production of
production of the PVT module was influenced by the heating load and the solar radiation. When the
the PVT module was influenced by the heating load and the solar radiation. When the set temperature
set temperature was 35 C, the case achieved a heat production of 718 kWh for the heating during the
was 35 C, the case achieved a heat production of 718 kWh for the heating during the simulation period,
simulation period, which was higher than those of the case with 40 C (668 kWh) andthe case with
which
Energies
was 10,
higher
2017,kWh)
than those of the case with 40 C (668 kWh) and the case with 45 C (57721
1243cases. The amount of heat stored in the heat storage tank reached 340 kWh and
kWh)
of 28
45 C (577 342
cases. The amount of heat stored in the heat storage tank reached 340 kWh and 342 kWh when the set
kWh when the set temperature was 35 C and 40 C, respectively. As the set temperature increases,
temperature
SPF for the was 35 C and
heat-storage 40 C, respectively.
operation As the
heatset temperature
used. The increases,
SPF of thethe heat production
the heat production for heat storagewhen the solar
decreased. was heat-storage mode
for heat
increased storage
as the decreased.
heating-supply temperature became higher.
Figure 32a shows the SPF under the solar-heating condition. The SPF increased according to the
set temperature of the PVT, and this is due to the increased temperature gap between the heat source
and the building return air of the FCU. In the case of the set temperature 45 C using solar heat, the
calculated SPF was 22.79, which was 5.5% more than that of the case of 35 C. Figure 32b shows the
Figure 31.
Figure 31. Heat
Heat production
production in
in PVT
PVT module
module (a)
(a) for
for building
building heating
heating (b)
(b) for
for heat
heat storage
storage according
according to
to
Change of solar heating temperature.
increased as the heating-supply temperature became higher.
increased as the heating-supply temperature became higher.
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 22 of 29
Figure 32a shows the SPF under the solar-heating condition. The SPF increased according to the
set temperature of the PVT, and this is due to the increased temperature gap between the heat source
and the building return air of the FCU. In the case of the set temperature 45 C using solar heat, the
calculated SPF was 22.79, which was 5.5% more than that of the case of 35 C. Figure 32b shows the
SPF for the 31.
Figure heat-storage operation
Heat production in PVTwhen the (a)
module solar
for heat washeating
building used. The SPF
(b) for of storage
heat the heat-storage mode
according to
Figure
increased 31.
as of
Change Heat
thesolar production
heating-supply in PVT module (a) for building
temperature became higher.
heating temperature. heating (b) for heat storage according to
Figure 32.
Figure 32. The
The SPF
SPFofofPVT
PVTaccording
accordingtotothe
theset-point
set-point temperature
temperature of of PVT.
PVT. (a) (a)
ForFor building
building heating;
heating; (b)
Figure
(b) for 32. The
heat SPF of PVT according to the set-point temperature of PVT. (a) For building heating;
storage.
for heat storage.
(b) for heat storage.
Figure 33a shows the SPFsolar according to the set temperature of the PVT. Regarding the SPF
Figure
Figure 33a
33a shows the
showsmodethe SPF
SPF according to
solar according
solar to the
the set
set temperature
temperature of of the
the PVT.
PVT. Regarding
Regarding the
the SPF
SPF
results for the heating and the heat-storage mode for which solar heat is used, the SPF increased
results
results for
for the
the heating
heating mode
mode and
and the
the heat-storage
heat-storage mode
mode for
for which
which solar
solar heat
heat is
is used,
used, the
the SPF
SPF increased
increased
according to the increasing of the inlet-water temperature. The SPF of the case 45 C was 16.78, which
according
according to
to the increasing
the result,
increasing of the inlet-water temperature. The SPF
SPFofof the case 45 C was 16.78, which
which
was the highest and of the
this inlet-water
increased by temperature.
2.3% more than Thethat ofthe
thecase
case4045CC wasby
and
C and
16.78,
2.7% more
was
was the highest result, and this increased by 2.3% more than that
that of the case 40 C and by 2.7% more
of the case 40 by 2.7%
thanthe
thathighest result,
of the case 35and
C.
this increased
Figure by 2.3%the
33b represents moreSPFthan
System according to the set temperature using
more
than
than that
that of
of the
the case
case 35
35 C.
C. Figure
Figure 33b
33b represents
represents the
theSPF
SPF according to
System according
System to the
the set
set temperature
temperature using
using
solar heat. According to the calculated results, the SPFSystem of the case 35 C was the highest as 3.45,
solar
solar heat. According to
to the calculated
calculatedtoresults, the
theSPF ofthe
the case
case 35
35 C C was
was the
the highest as
as 3.45,
and itheat. According
decreased graduallytheaccording results,
the increasingSPFSystem
System of
of the set temperature. The SPFhighest
values for3.45,
the
and
and it
it decreased
decreased gradually
gradually according
according to
to the
the increasing
increasing of
of the
the set
set temperature.
temperature. The
The SPF
SPF values
values for
for the
the
30 C and 45 C cases are 5.41 and 5.35, respectively. The difference between the conditions of the
30
30 C and
C 45 C cases
cases are
and temperature
45 C are 5.41 and
and 5.35,
5.35, respectively.
respectively. TheThe difference
difference between
between the the conditions
conditions ofof the
solar-heat was5.41
1.8%. the
solar-heat
solar-heat temperature
temperature was was 1.8%.
1.8%.
Figure 33. The SPF of total system according to the set-point temperature of PVT. (a) PVT; (b) total
Figure
systems.33. The SPF of total system according to the set-point temperature of PVT. (a) PVT; (b) total
Figure 33. The SPF of total system according to the set-point temperature of PVT. (a) PVT; (b)
systems.
total systems.
4.4. Performance Analysis According Operation Method of the Photovoltaic/Thermal
4.4. Performance Analysis According Operation Method of the Photovoltaic/Thermal
4.4. Performance Analysis
In this section, According
the system Operation Method
performance of the
according to Photovoltaic/Thermal
the usage of heat from PVT was analyzed.
FigureIn this section, the system performance according to the usagemethod
of heatof
from
heatPVT
fromwas
PVTanalyzed.
In 34 shows
this the the
section, conceptional design considering
system performance thetooperation
according the usage of heat from PVT was module.
analyzed.
Figure 34 shows the conceptional design considering the operation method of heat from PVT module.
Figure 34 shows the conceptional design considering the operation method of heat from PVT module.
In operation (a), it provides heat from PVT to underground heat storage without heating and hot
water. In operation (b), heat from PVT is not used in heating, but hot water. In addition, operation (c)
provides the produced heat from PVT module to only space heating.
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 22 of 28
In operation (a), it provides heat from PVT to underground heat storage without heating and
hot water. In operation (b), heat from PVT is not used in heating, but hot water. In addition, operation
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 23 of 29
(c) provides the produced heat from PVT module to only space heating.
Figure 34. Conceptional designs considering connection method of PVT module. (a) Heat production
to underground heat storage; (b) to hot water; (c) to space heating.
Figure 35a shows the heat production according to the connection method between the PVT and
GSHP systems. The heat production was the highest in the underground heat storage at 949.29 kWh,
and it was lowest in the heat storage at 437.50 kWh. In the solar-heating case, the heat production
depended on the change of the heating load. The underground heat storage was influenced by solar
radiation.
The electricity production is shown in Figure 35b. The electric power production was large in
Figure 34.
the condition
Figure 34. Conceptional
Conceptional designs
of high heatdesigns considering
production, connection
and connection
considering it was 629.93 method
kWh
method of PVT
of PVT
in themodule. (a) Heat
Heat production
underground
module. (a) production
heat storage
to underground
operation and 608.10
to underground heat
kWh
heat storage; (b) to
in the(b)heat
storage; hot water;
storage
to hot (c)
water;tank to space
(c) toheat heating.
spacestorage
heating.operation. The figure shows the SPF
of the PVT module according to the variety of solar-heat-usage methods. The SPFSolar values of the
Figure
method when 35a showssolar
the heat production according to the connection method between the PVT and
Figure 35ausing
shows the heatheatproduction
were 21.41,according
11.33, and 19.32
to the when only
connection heating,
method heat storage,
between the PVT andand
GSHP systems.
underground Thestorage,
heat heat production
respectively.was the highest
Figure 36 in the underground
shows the SPF heat storage at 949.29 kWh,
System according to the method of
GSHP systems. The heat production was the highest in the underground heat storage at 949.29 kWh,
and it was lowest
using in SPF
the System
heat of
storage at 437.50 kWh. Inwas
the solar-heating case, the heat production
and it solar heat. The
was lowest in the the solar-heating
heat storage at 437.50 kWh. caseIn the5.35 higher than
solar-heating those
case, theofheat
the production
other cases
depended
because on
solar the change
energy of the
wasofused heating load.
as the direct The underground heat storage was influenced by solar
depended on the change the heating load. energy and the supply
The underground heat temperatures, which were
storage was influenced by
radiation.
calculated as 4.42 in the heat-storage case and 4.58 in the underground heat-storage case.
solar radiation.
The electricity production is shown in Figure 35b. The electric power production was large in
the condition of high heat production, and it was 629.93 kWh in the underground heat storage
operation and 608.10 kWh in the heat storage tank heat storage operation. The figure shows the SPF
of the PVT module according to the variety of solar-heat-usage methods. The SPFSolar values of the
method when using solar heat were 21.41, 11.33, and 19.32 when only heating, heat storage, and
underground heat storage, respectively. Figure 36 shows the SPFSystem according to the method of
using solar heat. The SPFSystem of the solar-heating case was 5.35 higher than those of the other cases
because solar energy was used as the direct energy and the supply temperatures, which were
calculated as 4.42 in the heat-storage case and 4.58 in the underground heat-storage case.
(a) Heat
Figure 35. (a)
Figure Heat production;
production; (b) electricity production of PVT system.
The electricity production is shown in Figure 35b. The electric power production was large in the
condition of high heat production, and it was 629.93 kWh in the underground heat storage operation
and 608.10 kWh in the heat storage tank heat storage operation. The figure shows the SPF of the
PVT module according to the variety of solar-heat-usage methods. The SPFSolar values of the method
when using solar heat were 21.41, 11.33, and 19.32 when only heating, heat storage, and underground
heat storage, respectively. Figure 36 shows the SPFSystem according to the method of using solar heat.
The SPFSystem of the solar-heating case was 5.35 higher than those of the other cases because solar
Figure 35. (a) Heat production; (b) electricity production of PVT system.
energy was used as the direct energy and the supply temperatures, which were calculated as 4.42 in
the heat-storage case and 4.58 in the underground heat-storage case.
Compared with that for the solar-heating operation, the performance for the heat-storage
operation decreased by 17.6%, and that for the underground heat-storage operation decreased by 6.0%.
The heat production of the heat storage for the solar-heat condition was the lowest because the supply
was the highest. The SPF value was low because the temperature difference between the heat source
and the building temperature was reduced. In the case of underground heat storage operation, high
heat production and efficiency were shown due to the supply temperature that can utilize the solar
thermal energy efficiently. However, because of the characteristics of the operation of the underground
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 24 of 29
heat storage, the stored thermal energy was scattered to the ground, so that the ratio of the utilization
was low. As a result, the performance of the PVT module was high but it did not affect the efficiency of
the total system. In order to use this mode efficiently, a method of storing the stored heat was required
Figure 36. The result of SPF considering change method of using solar heat. (a) PVT; (b) total systems.
to theEnergies
operation of the heat pump.
2017, 10, 1243 23 of 28
operation decreased by 17.6%, and that for the underground heat-storage operation decreased by
6.0%. The heat production of the heat storage for the solar-heat condition was the lowest because the
supply was the highest. The SPF value was low because the temperature difference between the heat
source and the building temperature was reduced. In the case of underground heat storage operation,
high heat production and efficiency were shown due to the supply temperature that can utilize the
solar thermal energy efficiently. However, because of the characteristics of the operation of the
underground heat storage, the stored thermal energy was scattered to the ground, so that the ratio of
the utilization was low. As a result, the performance of the PVT module was high but it did not affect
the efficiency of the total system. In order to use this mode efficiently, a method of storing the stored
was Figure
heat Figure 36. The
required result
to the
36. The result
of SPF considering
ofoperation
change
of thechange
SPF considering heat method of using solar heat. (a) PVT; (b) total systems.
pump.
method of using solar heat. (a) PVT; (b) total systems.
4.5. Economic
4.5. Economic Evaluation
Evaluation of Geo-Photovoltaic/Thermal
Geo-Photovoltaic/Thermal System System
operation decreased of by 17.6%, and that for the underground heat-storage operation decreased by
6.0%.
In The
this heat in
study, production
order to of the heat
develop storage for
Geo-PVT the solar-heat
system, condition
feasibility studywaswasthe lowest because
evaluated, and thetheresult
the
In this study, in order to develop Geo-PVT system, feasibility study was evaluated, and result
was supply was with
compared the highest.
the The SPF
GSHP value was
system. In low because
addition, thethe temperature
present work difference
illustratesbetween
optimal thedesign
heat by
was compared with the GSHP system. In addition, the present work illustrates optimal design by
return source and the building
on investment
investment (ROI) temperature was reduced.
analysis according
according to In the case
floor areasof of
underground heat storage
building model,
model, whichoperation,
were 9999 m
m22,,
return highon heat production (ROI)
and analysis
efficiency were shown to floor
due to areas
the of building
supply temperature thatwhich
can were
utilize the
165 m
165 m22,, and
and 231
231 m
22. The capacity of ground source heat pump system was calculated as 10 kW for 99
menergy
. The efficiently.
capacity ofHowever,
ground source
solar thermal becauseheat pump
of the system was
characteristics calculated
of the operationas of
10the
kW for
m 2 , 13.5
2 kW
99 m underground for 165
, 13.5 kW forheat m 2 and
2
165storage,
m andthe17 kW for
17stored
kW for 231 m building
2 2
231 menergy
thermal building areas, respectively.
areas, respectively.
was scattered
Figure
to the ground,Figure 37 represents
37the
so that represents the
ratio of the
initial
initialthecosts
costs of Geo-PVT
of Geo-PVT
utilization was low. system
system and GSHP
and GSHP
As a result, system.
system. of the PVT module was high but it did not affect
the performance
the efficiency of the total system. In order to use this mode efficiently, a method of storing the stored
heat was required to the operation of the heat pump.
4.5. Economic Evaluation of Geo-Photovoltaic/Thermal System

In this study, in order to develop Geo-PVT system, feasibility study was evaluated, and the result
was compared with the GSHP system. In addition, the present work illustrates optimal design by
return on investment (ROI) analysis according to floor areas of building model, which were 99 m2,
165 m2, and 231 m2. The capacity of ground source heat pump system was calculated as 10 kW for 99
m2, 13.5 kW for 165 m2 and 17 kW for 231 m2 building areas, respectively. Figure 37 represents the
initial costs of Geo-PVT system and GSHP system.
Figure 37. Heat production of PVT system considering change method of using solar heat. (a) 99 m22
Figure 37. Heat production of PVT system considering change method of using solar heat. (a) 99 m
building area; (b) 165 m2 building area; (c) 231 m2 building area.
building area; (b) 165 m2 building area; (c) 231 m2 building area.
As the building area increases, the design capacity of the GSHP system was set as 3RT (10.5 kW),
As the
4RT (14 kW)building
and 5RTarea(17.5increases,
kW) based theondesign capacity
the heating andofcooling
the GSHP system
loads of thewas set as model.
housing 3RT (10.5 kW),
In Geo-
4RT (14 kW) and 5RT (17.5 kW) based on the heating and cooling loads
PVT systems for each total capacity, the GSHP systems were designed as 7 kW, 10 kW and 13.5 kW of the housing model.
In Geo-PVT
including systems
a 20 m2 PVTfor each total
system. capacity,
Figures 3840theshowGSHP systems
the power were designed
consumption and as 7 kW, 10 kW
production and
through
13.5 kW including 2
a 20cooling
m PVT system. Figures 3840 show the power consumption and production
building heating and operations in Seoul.
through building heating and cooling operations in Seoul.
FigureFigure 37. Heat production
41 presents the resultofof
PVTLCCsystem considering
analysis whenchange
extramethod of power
electric using solar
was heat. (a) 99to
resold m2the Korea
building area; (b) 165 m building area; (c) 231 m building area.
2 2
Electric Power Corporation. Since the selling prices were higher than the electrical price, selling electric
power was more economical than using the produced electricity. Compared with GSHP system,
As the building area increases, the design capacity of the GSHP system was set as 3RT (10.5 kW),
the payback period
4RT (14 kW) and of
5RTGeo-PVT
(17.5 kW)system
based onwas 7 yearsand
the heating in the caseloads
cooling of building area as
of the housing 99 mIn2 ,Geo-
model. 10 years
in thePVT
case of building area as 165 m 2 and 11 years in the case of building area as 231 m 2 building
systems for each total capacity, the GSHP systems were designed as 7 kW, 10 kW and 13.5 kW
areas,including
respectively.
a 20 m2 PVT system. Figures 3840 show the power consumption and production through
building heating and cooling operations in Seoul.
Energies 2017,
Energies 10, 1243
2017, 10, 1243 25 of
24 of 28
29
Energies
Energies 2017, 10,
2017, 10, 1243
1243 24
24 of 28
of 28
Figure 38.
Figure 38. Power
Power consumption
consumption and
and production
production of
of system
system in
in 99
99 m
m2222.. (a)
(a) GSHP;
GSHP; (b)
(b) Geo-PVT.
Geo-PVT.
Figure 38.
Figure Powerconsumption
38. Power consumption and
and production
production of
of system
system in
in 99
99 m
m ..(a) (a)GSHP;
GSHP;(b)
(b)Geo-PVT.
Geo-PVT.
Figure 39.
Figure 39.
Figure Power consumption
Powerconsumption
39. Power and
consumption and production
and production of
production of system
of system in
system in 165
in 165 m
m2222...(a)
165 m (a) GSHP;
(a)GSHP; (b)
GSHP;(b) Geo-PVT.
(b)Geo-PVT.
Geo-PVT.
Figure 39. Power consumption and production of system in 165 m . (a) GSHP; (b) Geo-PVT.
Figure 40.
Figure Power consumption
40. Power consumption and
and production
production of
of system
system in
in 231 m222..(a)
231 m (a)GSHP;
GSHP;(b)
(b)Geo-PVT.
Geo-PVT.
Figure
Figure 40. Power consumption and production of system in 231 m . (a) GSHP; (b) Geo-PVT.
40. Power consumption and production of system in 231 m2. (a) GSHP; (b) Geo-PVT.
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 25 of 28
Figure 41
Figure 41 presents
presents the
the result
result of
of LCC
LCC analysis
analysis when
when extra
extra electric
electric power
power was
was resold
resold to
to the
the Korea
Korea
Figure 41 presents the result of LCC analysis when extra electric power was resold to the Korea
Electric Power
Electric Power Corporation.
Power Corporation. Since
Corporation. Since the
Since the selling
the selling prices
selling prices were
prices were higher
were higher than
higher than the
than the electrical
the electrical price,
electrical price, selling
price, selling
selling
Electric
electric power
electric power was
was more
more economical
economical than
than using
using the
the produced
produced electricity.
electricity. Compared
Compared withwith GSHP
GSHP
electric power was more economical than using the produced electricity. Compared with GSHP
system, the
system, the payback
payback period
period of
of Geo-PVT
Geo-PVT system
system was
was 77 years
years in
in the
the case
case of
of building
building area
area as
as 99
99 mm222,, 10
10
system, the payback period of Geo-PVT system was 7 years in the case of building area as 99 m , 10
years in
years in the
in the case
the case of
case of building
of building area
building area as
area as 165
as 165
165 mm 2 and 11 years in the case of building area as 231 m2 building
m2 and
2 and 11
11 years
years in
in the
the case
case of
of building
building area
area as
as 231
231 m
m2 building
2 building
years
Figure 41.
Figure 41. The
The result
result of
of life
life cycle
cycle cost.
cost.
5. Conclusions
In this paper, a performance prediction model of a hybrid system combining a photovoltaic-
thermal system and a ground source heat pump system was established for the purpose of
developing a renewable energy convergence system that produces reliable energy for building
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 26 of 29
5. Conclusions
In this paper, a performance prediction model of a hybrid system combining a
photovoltaic-thermal system and a ground source heat pump system was established for the purpose of
developing a renewable energy convergence system that produces reliable energy for building energy
independence. A residential building in Seoul, Korea was modeled, and a performance analysis was
performed using the simulation. Based on the results, a comparative analysis with the existing system
was conducted. In order to improve the performance of the system, a case study was conducted. In the
feasibility analysis of the introduction, the life cycle analysis of the system was performed considering
the size of the building area. The results of this study can be summarized as follows:
A PVT module (1.63 m2 ) was assumed to have a heat capacity of 0.3 kW, so that 20 m2 of PVT
system has the same capacity as 1RT (3.5 kW) of GSHP system. In this paper, a 106 m2 housing
model located in Seoul, Korea was studied and the building system consists of a 10 kW GSHP
(74% of the peak load), a 3.5 kW PVT system (26% of the peak load) and a 0.3 ton heat storage tank.
The control logic was constructed by using the two heat sources and heat storage tanks of
the hybrid system, and annual power consumption and heat quantity were analyzed through
simulation analysis. As a result of 3 days of simulation, the PVT part of the hybrid system
produced about 19% of total heat energy supply, reduced energy production using the GSHP
system, and decreased operating time by 12%.
According to the performance analysis of the hybrid system, it was confirmed that the SPFsystem
was increased due to the power production of the solar photovoltaic system. The average SPFsystem
during the heating period was 5.33 and increased by 102% compared with the existing system
during the daytime of the building.
The results of the performance analysis of the hybrid system according to the presence of the heat
storage tank showed that SPFsystem increased when the heat storage tank was used in the daytime
operation, and when it did not operate in nighttime and 24 h.
The SPFPVT according to the set supply temperature was the highest at 5.45 at 35 C, which
was the lowest temperature of the heating set point, and the performance decreased as the set
temperature increased. The SPFsystem at 40 C and 45 C were 5.41 and 5.35, respectively, and the
performance difference according to the supply temperature was found to be 1.8%.
Considering usage method of the solar heat source, the SPFsystem was the highest at 5.35 in the
heating operation using solar heat. It was 4.42 under the condition that the solar heat was used
for the heat storage and 4.58 in the case of the heat storage in the ground.
As a result of the feasibility assessment, it was confirmed that the initial investment cost of the
hybrid system was higher than that of the existing GSHP system, but the annual operating cost
was reduced and the investment cost could be recovered after about 7~11 years.
The performance of the hybrid system has been verified through dynamic and transient
performance analysis using the energy simulation, and the best performance was demonstrated
according to the heat storage tank, the supply temperature and the operation method. This study
provides a quantitative analysis of a hybrid system for a specific area and building type. In the
future, an optimal sizing for the Geo-PVT system will be analyzed considering building scale, purpose,
location and load pattern, which will provide basic data that can suggest optimal design guidelines for
hybrid systems.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the New & Renewable Energy Core Technology Program of
the Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP), granted financial resource from the
Ministry of Trade, Industry & Energy, Korea. (No. 20133030110900).
Author Contributions: All authors contributed equally to this work. All authors designed the simulations,
discussed the results and implications and commented on the manuscript at all stages.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 27 of 29
Nomenclature
Symbols
A Area m2
C Specific heat kJ/kg C
I AM Incidence angle modifier -
COP Coefficient of performance -
FR Heat removal factor of the collector -
G Radiation kW/m2
h Heat transfer coefficient W/m2 C
L Pipe length M
LCC Life Cycle Cost -
m Mass flow rate kg/s
P Power consumption W
Pm Rated power of photovoltaic module kW/m2
PA Non-recurring cost -
PF Recurring cost -
Qu Rate at which energy is added to the flow stream by the collector W
r reflectance -
S Net absorbed solar radiation W
SPF Seasonal performance factor -
T temperature C
I Inflation rate -
UT Overall loss coefficient of the collector W/m2 C
V Volume flow rate m3 /s
Greek letters
Tau(T) Transmittance -
Alpha(A) Absorptance -
rho(P) Density m3 /kg
eta(H) Efficiency -
Damping factor of ground heat
Beta(B) -
exchanger
Subscripts
C Solar collector
GHE Ground heat exchanger
Balance of a unit volume in the storage
b Beam radiation
d Diffue radiation
n Normal incidence
f Circulating fluid
p Heat balance per unit length of pipe
L Overall
PV Photovoltaic
abs Absorber plate
T Total (beam + diffuse)
amb ambient
Energies 2017, 10, 1243 28 of 29
In Inlet
Out Outlet
Ground ground
HPB The heat flow from heat pump to FCU
HPST The heat flow from heat pump to storage
PVTG The heat flow from PVT to ground
PVTST The heat flow from PVT to storage
PVTB The heat flow from PVT to FCU
HPB The heat flow from heat pump to FCU
STB The heat flow from storage to FCU
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Received: 8 June 2017; Accepted: 17 August 2017; Published: 21 August 2017

Keywords: hybrid system; photovoltaic/thermal; ground source heat pump system;

Energies 2017, 10, 1243; doi:10.3390/en10081243 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

modes. Accordingly, the heat-pump performance, solar-collection performance, and borehole-wall

2.1. System Summary

Figure 1. System concept of Geo- photovoltaic/thermal system.

Figure 2. Operation modes of Geo-PVT system.

TGHE,out = TGHE,in + (1 ) Tground (1)

S = ()n I AMGT (1 PV ) (5)

Under off-normal conditions, the transmittance-absorptance product at normal incidence is

Under off-normal conditions, the transmittance-absorptance product at normal incidence is

Figure 6. Heating catalog data of heat pump.

Figure 7. Cooling catalog data of heat pump.

2.5. Case Study

model is based onmodel

Figure 10. Weather data in Seoul.

Table 1. Basic simulation design parameter.

Contents Value Units

Figure 12. The

Table 2. The parameters of Geo-PVT system in rated condition.

Component Description Value

Table 2. The parameters of Geo-PVT system in rated condition.

Rated total cooling/heating capacity 12 kW

In this study, in order to verifyContinues

Table 4. Photovoltaic module electrical characteristic.

Electrical Characteristics Value Units

Table 5. Experiment results of the PVT performance experiment [24].

Energies 2017, 10, 1243 15 of 28

Figure 15. Conceptional design of GSHP system and Geo-PVT system.

Figure 16. Ambient temperature and solar radiation in January.

Figure 22. The

4.2. Performance Analysis According to the Presence of Storage-Tank Heating

Energies 2017, 10, 1243 22 of 29

4.5. Economic Evaluation of Geo-Photovoltaic/Thermal System

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