energies

Article
Simulation Study on the Effect of Fracturing
Technology on the Production Efficiency of Natural
Gas Hydrate
Chen Chen 1,2 , Lin Yang 1,2, *, Rui Jia 1,2, *, Youhong Sun 1,2 , Wei Guo 1,2 , Yong Chen 1,2 and
Xitong Li 1,2
1 Engineering College, Jilin University, Changchun 130026, China; chenchen@jlu.edu.cn (C.C.);
syh@jlu.edu.cn (Y.S.); guowei6981@jlu.edu.cn (W.G.); chenyong15@mails.jlu.edu.cn (Y.C.);
lixt15@mails.jlu.edu.cn (X.L.)
2 Key Laboratory of Drilling and Exploitation Technology in Complex Conditions, Ministry of Land and
Resources, Changchun 130026, China
* Correspondence: yanglin14@mails.jlu.edu.cn (L.Y.); jiarui@jlu.edu.cn (R.J.); Tel.: +86-0431-88502678 (L.Y.);
+86-0431-88502678 (R.J.)

Received: 14 July 2017; Accepted: 16 August 2017; Published: 21 August 2017

Abstract: Natural gas hydrate (NGH) concentrations hold large reserves of relatively pure
unconventional natural gases, consisting mainly of methane. Depressurization is emerging as
the optimum conversion technology for converting NGH in its reservoir to its constituent water and
natural gas. NGH concentrations commonly have a pore fill of over 80%, which means that NGH is a
low-permeability reservoir, as NGH has displaced water in terms of porosity. Fracturing technology
(fracking) is a technology employed for increasing permeability-dependent production, and has
been proven in conventional and tight oil and gas reservoirs. In this work, we carried out numerical
simulations to investigate the effects on depressurization efficiency of a variably-fractured NGH
reservoir, to make a first order assessment of fracking efficiency. We performed calculations for the
variations in original NGH saturation, pressure distribution, CH4 gas production rate, and cumulative
production under different fracturing conditions. Our results show that the rate of the pressure drop
within the NGH-saturated host strata increases with increased fracturing. The CH4 gas production
rate and cumulative production are greatly improved with fracturing. Crack quantity and spacing per
volume have a significant effect on the improvement of NGH conversion efficiencies. Possibly most
important, we identified an optimum fracking value beyond which further fracking is not required.

Keywords: natural gas hydrate; fracturing technology; numerical simulation; production efficiency

1. Introduction
Natural gas hydrates (NGH) are white, solid, crystalline compounds, composed of light
hydrocarbons, CO2 , H2 S, and water, under certain temperature and pressure conditions. Among them,
methane hydrate is the most widely-distributed in nature [15]. Marine gas hydrate is mainly
developed in hydrate stability zones (HSZ) below a 500-m water depth in the open ocean, where
temperatures and pressures are suitable for its spontaneous formation. About 90% of the worlds
oceans present temperature and pressure conditions that are suitable for the formation of HSZ, which
provide a good environmental basis for NGH development [6,7]. When there is enough methane, and
water enters the pores of undercompacted seabed sediments, it is possible to form NGH [7].
NGH has a low environmental risk, and exhibits the efficient sequestration of natural gas
from both biogenic and thermogenic sources. Very clean natural gas can be produced from NGH
concentrations, especially from sandy turbidites, from which it is already known in the industry how

Energies 2017, 10, 1241; doi:10.3390/en10081241 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

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to produce conventional hydrocarbons. It is estimated that reserves are approximately 2 1016 m3,
to produce conventional
equivalent to double thehydrocarbons.
world's proven, It is estimated that
conventional, reserves
total carbon.areWorld
approximately
estimates 2for 1016from
gas m3 ,
equivalent
NGH reserves to double
of NGHthe world's
in sands proven, conventional,
are >40,000 Tcf (1 Tcftotal
= 1carbon.
1013 World estimates
ft3 = 283.17 109for
mgas from NGH
3) [813]. NGH
reserves of converted
NGH in sands areto>40,000 Tcf (1 Tcfgas
= 1and 13
10water. 3
ft =A283.17 10 9 3
m ) [813].methods
NGH should
should be in situ its constituent number of conversion exist,
be
butconverted in situ totesting
early production its constituent gas andindicate
and modeling water. Athatnumber of conversion
depressurization methods
will exist,method
be the ideal but early to
production
use [1418]. testing and modeling indicate that depressurization will be the ideal method to use [1418].
In
In2007,
2007,samples
samplesfrom from the SH2,
the SH3,
SH2, andand
SH3, SH7SH7sitessites
were successfully
were drilled
successfully fromfrom
drilled the Shenhu area
the Shenhu
in the northern South China Sea (Figure 1) [1921]. Taking the SH7 site as
area in the northern South China Sea (Figure 1) [1921]. Taking the SH7 site as an example, the an example, the hydrate
layers
hydratewere 1834
layers m thick,
were 1834 and the sediment
m thick, porosity, porosity,
and the sediment permeability, and NGHand
permeability, pore fill were
NGH pore 3348%,
fill were
7.5 107.5
3348%,
14 m2 , and
1014 m2044%, respectively
2, and 2044%, [19,21]. [19,21].
respectively

Figure Locationof
Figure1.1. Location ofthe
theresearch
researcharea
area and
and drilling
drilling sites
sites in the
in the Shenhu
Shenhu area,area,
northnorth
slopeslope
of theofSouth
the
South China
China Sea. Sea.

In2013,
In 2013,aalarge
largenumber
numberof ofgas
gashydrate
hydratesamples
sampleswere wereobtained
obtainedfrom fromthe thenortheastern
northeasterncontinental
continental
slope of the South China Sea. The NGH host sediments in this area
slope of the South China Sea. The NGH host sediments in this area comprised sandy layers of turbiditecomprised sandy layers of
turbidite sediments.
sediments. Natural gas Natural
hydrategas hydrate
saturationsaturation of porosity
of porosity rangedranged
from 45% fromto 45% to 100%;
100%; the amount
the amount of
of gas seemed to be very large. The NGH was massive, layered, tumor-like
gas seemed to be very large. The NGH was massive, layered, tumor-like veins, dispersed in all veins, dispersed in all
combinations of
combinations of silty
silty clay
clay and
andclastic
clasticlimestone
limestone[22]. In 2013,
[22]. In 2013, Nippon
Nippon andandMie Mie
Prefecture NGHNGH
Prefecture were
produced using depressurization. The trial production achieved good
were produced using depressurization. The trial production achieved good results [2326]; however, results [2326]; however,
commercialexploitation
commercial exploitation lacks
lacks depth
depth of study
of study [23,26].
[23,26]. In recent
In recent years, TOUGH+HYDRATE
years, TOUGH+HYDRATE v1.0
v1.0 models
models
have beenhave beenused
widely widely usedhydrate
in gas in gas hydrate simulations.
simulations. Taking Taking
the Shenhuthe Shenhu area, China
area, South South Sea,
ChinaasSea,
an
as an example, Li [19] used this model to evaluate gas production potential
example, Li [19] used this model to evaluate gas production potential by depressurization and thermal by depressurization and
thermal stimulation
stimulation from the SH7 fromsite.
the Hu
SH7[27]site.
andHuJin[27]
[28]and
usedJinthis
[28] used to
model this modelsensitive
analyze to analyze sensitive
parameters
parameters
(porosity, (porosity, permeability,
permeability, NGH pore fill,NGH pore fill,pressure,
bottom-hole bottom-hole pressure,stimulation
and thermal and thermal stimulation
intensity) via
intensity) via depressurization and thermal stimulation from the SH2 site.
depressurization and thermal stimulation from the SH2 site. Su [29] used this model to evaluate the Su [29] used this model to
evaluate
effects the effects
of thermal of thermal stimulations
stimulations on gas productionon gas from
production
the SH2 from
site.the SH2 site.
Zhang [30]Zhang [30]model
used this used this
to
model to preliminarily estimate gas production potential by depressurization
preliminarily estimate gas production potential by depressurization and thermal stimulation from the and thermal
stimulation
SH2 site. Thefrom theshowed
results SH2 site.thatThe results showed
cumulative CH4 volumethat cumulative
in the Shenhu CHarea
4 volume
was not in large,
the Shenhu
and NGHarea
was not large,
exploitation was and NGH exploitation
seriously was seriously
inhibited, mainly becauseinhibited,
of the lowmainly
porosity because of the
and poor low porosity and
permeability.
poorThepermeability.
primary repository of NGH is in sandy and silty marine turbidites. Clay and clastic limestone
The primary
and secondary repository
permeability of NGH
related is in sandy
to structure andNGH
also host siltyinmarine
some areasturbidites. Clay and
of the South Chinaclastic
Sea,
limestone
but and secondary
their viability permeability
as producible related is
gas resources to unlikely
structureinalso host
their NGH state.
natural in some Theareas of the South
NGH-enriched
China Sea, but their viability as producible gas resources is unlikely in their natural state. The NGH-
Energies 2017, 10, 1241 3 of 16
Energies 2017, 10, 1241 3 of 16

enriched stratum encountered

stratum encountered in thewhich
in the well, well, which we model
we model in this
in this paper,
paper, hashas a lowporosity
a low porosityandand poor
permeability, which
which hinder
hinderthe
thetransfer
transferofofheat and
heat andpressure
pressure between
between thethe
production
productionwells andand
wells the
stratum, and reduces the production efficiency of the decomposition of
the stratum, and reduces the production efficiency of the decomposition of gas and the gas and the continuous
dissociation of NGH. The problem of how to efficiently and economically exploit natural gas hydrate
in low-permeability
low-permeability marine
marine sediment
sediment reservoirs
reservoirs is an important issue. BeingBeing able to produce NGH
from marine sediments, in which the grain size distribution hosting NGH is less producible than
enlarge the
well-sorted sand, will greatly enlarge the potential
potential use
use of
of NGH
NGH as as aa gas
gas resource.
resource.
In 1947, the world's first successful fracturing well was built in the state of Kansas, the United
States [31,32]. Since the 1970s, the technology has expanded to include low-permeability oil and gas
shale, as
as well
well as
astight
tightsand
sandreservoirs
reservoirs[33].
[33].Multi-stage
Multi-stagefracturing
fracturing was
wasperfected and
perfected andhas been
has used
been to
used
produce gas and oil from shale reservoirs since about 2003 in
to produce gas and oil from shale reservoirs since about 2003 in the Unitedthe United States [34]. Fracturing
technology can be divided into vertical and horizontal
horizontal fracturing (Figure 2), according
according to the different
different
characteristics of the formations [35].

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Vertical
Vertical versus
versus horizontal
horizontal fracture stimulation.
fracture stimulation.

Increasing the permeability of the hydrate layer can improve heat and mass transfer efficiency,
Increasing the permeability of the hydrate layer can improve heat and mass transfer efficiency,
increase the gas migration channels in the hydrate layer, accelerate the hydrate dissociation and
increase the gas migration channels in the hydrate layer, accelerate the hydrate dissociation and
discharge, and increase the gas production rate and the cumulative production of CH4 [4,13,28,30,36].
discharge, and increase the gas production rate and the cumulative production of CH4 [4,13,28,30,36].
The application of fracturing technology to the exploitation of gas hydrate can effectively
The application of fracturing technology to the exploitation of gas hydrate can effectively increase
increase reservoir permeability and enhance the efficiency of gas hydrate production. The
reservoir permeability and enhance the efficiency of gas hydrate production. The combination of
combination of fracturing technology and existing methods to exploit natural gas hydrates would
fracturing technology and existing methods to exploit natural gas hydrates would solve some of the
solve some of the problems of existing methods [17,27,37,38]. Fracturing technology is the primary
problems of existing methods [17,27,37,38]. Fracturing technology is the primary mechanical solution
mechanical solution for increasing porosity, interconnecting artificial cracks and natural cracks, and
for increasing porosity, interconnecting artificial cracks and natural cracks, and forming a mutual
forming a mutual interconnected crack network in NGH concentrations, in order to enhance the
interconnected crack network in NGH concentrations, in order to enhance the conductivity of NGH
conductivity of NGH concentrations. Depressurization and fracturing combine to exploit NGH
concentrations. Depressurization and fracturing combine to exploit NGH [27,37,38], which increases
[27,37,38], which increases the rate of the pressure drop within the NGH-saturated host strata and
the rate of the pressure drop within the NGH-saturated host strata and promotes NGH decomposition
promotes NGH decomposition in cracked areas, in addition to being conducive to the discharge of
in cracked areas, in addition to being conducive to the discharge of methane. Thermal stimulation
methane. Thermal stimulation and fracturing combine to exploit NGH [27,37], as hot fluid enters
and fracturing combine to exploit NGH [27,37], as hot fluid enters NGH concentrations through the
NGH concentrations through the crack network and directly heats NGH to increase the mining
crack network and directly heats NGH to increase the mining radius and reduce heat loss. For CO2
radius and reduce heat loss. For CO2 replacement [17], CO2 enters NGH concentrations through the
replacement [17], CO2 enters NGH concentrations through the crack networks. The large contact area
crack networks. The large contact area between CO2 and NGH increases replacement efficiency by
between CO2 and NGH increases replacement efficiency by CO2 .
CO2.
Of course, fracturing is also inadequate in NGH exploitation. The fracturing effect is not easy to
Of course, fracturing is also inadequate in NGH exploitation. The fracturing effect is not easy to
control, sometimes resulting in a failure in fracturing. In addition, there is a certain risk that fracturing
control, sometimes resulting in a failure in fracturing. In addition, there is a certain risk that fracturing
can cause formation instability [39,40].
can cause formation instability [39,40].
Oceanic NGH mining may exacerbate global greenhouse effects and worsen the marine
ecological environment, resulting in a series of environmental effects, and also probably lead to
submarine landslides, seabed collapse, and other geological disasters [39,40]. There is a certain
Energies 2017, 10, 1241 4 of 16

Oceanic NGH mining may exacerbate global greenhouse effects and worsen the marine ecological
environment, resulting in a series of environmental effects, and also probably lead to submarine
landslides, seabed collapse, and other geological disasters [39,40]. There is a certain amount of risk in
the application of fracturing technology to oceanic NGH mining, as it will further reduce the stability
of submarine formations. Taking the trial production in China and Japan as an example [23,25], in
order to avoid risks and ensure safety, researchers monitored seabed deformation, reservoir stability,
and in situ methane leakage during the trial production. The results proved that in situ monitoring is
an effective way to reduce the risks of NGH mining. Similarly, if a reasonable implementation and
monitoring plan is adopted, the risk of fracturing oceanic NGH can be reduced.
In this paper, TOUGH+HYDRATE numerical simulation software was used to simulate and
compare NGH reservoirs before and after fracturing. The influence of the fracturing parameters on
gas hydrate production efficiency was studied.

2. Simulation Preparation

2.1. Numerical Model and Simulation Parameters

2.1.1. Numerical Simulation Code

The simulator model used in this work was TOUGH+HYDRATE v1.0 by Moridis from the
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley, CA, USA). The model can simulate the formation
and decomposition of natural gas hydrate, phase equilibrium, seepage, and heat and mass transfer
processes under complex conditions and non-isothermal conditions. In addition, the model can
simulate production from natural CH4 -hydrate deposits in the subsurface (i.e., in permafrost
and deep ocean sediments) as well as laboratory experiments of hydrate dissociation/formation
in porous/fractured media [41]. TOUGH+HYDRATE v1.0 can also simulate the formation and
decomposition of gas hydrate under equilibrium and kinetics. The model includes four phases
(liquid, gas, hydrate, and ice), and four components (water, methane, hydrate, and water-soluble
inhibitors, such as salt, alcohol, etc.). By constructing fractured-porous media, the gas hydrate under
different geological conditions in permafrost regions and from deep-sea reservoirs can be simulated
using the methods of depressurization, heating injection, and injection inhibition. TOUGH+HYDRATE
v1.0 is a numerical simulator developed by Moridis at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory,
USA. It is the first member of TOUGH+, and the successor to TOUGH2.

2.1.2. System Parameters and Initialization of the Model

The geologic system used in this study was according to the SH7 site in the Shenhu area, South
China Sea. The hydrate samples from the SH7 site were almost pure methane hydrate (99.2%) in NGH
concentrations [19,21]. Therefore, only methane hydrate was simulated. The system parameters and
the initial conditions of the simulation are shown in Table 1. The main parameters in the simulation
were derived from previous literature on gas hydrate reservoirs in the region [19,21,27].
The water depth of the simulated gas hydrate reservoir was 1108 m, and the hydrate-bearing
layer (HBL) was located in the area of 155177 m below the seabed, with a thickness of 22 m. The gas
hydrate reserve temperature was T0 = 14.15 C, the pressure was P0 = 13.83 MPa, the saturation was
SH = 44%, the porosity was 38%, and the permeability was 7.5 1014 m2 (75 mD).
Energies 2017, 10, 1241 5 of 16

Table 1. Production trial properties.

Parameter Value
Initial pressure P0 (at base of HBL) 13.83 MPa
Initial temperature T0 (at base of HBL) 14.15 C
Depth of seafloor 1108 m
Thermal gradient 0.0433 C/m
HBL thickness ZH 22 m
Depth of HBL H1 155177 m
Initial saturation in the HBL SH = 0.44; SA = 0.56
Gas composition 100% CH4
Porosity 0.38
Water salinity (mass fraction) Xs 0.0305
Intrinsic permeability kx = ky = kz 7.5 1014 m2
Permeability of fracture fracturing 5.2 1013 m2
Grain density $R 2600 kg/m3
Dry thermal conductivity Kdry 1.0 W/(kg C)
Wet thermal conductivity Kwet 3.1 W/(kg C)
Production pressure P 5 MPa


K= Kdry + SA + SH
Composite thermal conductivity model
Kwet Kdry + SI KI
h i 1
Pcap = P01 (S )1/ 1
Capillary pressure model
S = (SA SirA )/(SmxA SirA ).
SirA 0.29
0.45
P01 105 Pa
KrA = (S )n
KrG = (SG )nG
Relative permeability model SA = (SA SirA )/(1 SirA )
SG = (SG SirG )/(1 SirG )
EPM #2 model
N 3.572
nG 3.572
SirA 0.30
SirG 0.05

2.2. Design of the Production Well and Fracturing Crack

2.2.1. Production Well Design

In this paper, gas-hydrate reservoirs were exploited using a vertical well, and we investigated
the depressurization efficiency effects of a variably-fractured NGH reservoir to make a first order
assessment of fracking efficiency. The simulation system was cylindrical. As shown in Figure 3, the
production well was designed according to Su [29] and Li [42]. The well was located at the center
of the cylindrical simulation system, with a well radius of rw = 0.1 m. The production interval was
located in the middle of gas hydrate reservoir, at a height of 6 m. The production interval was set in
the middle of the hydrate layer; because of pores and cracks in the upper and lower layers, natural gas
is likely to overflow from the cover layer. The upper and lower hydrate layers temporarily seal and
reduce the escape of natural gas through the caprock to a certain extent.
Energies 2017,10,
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Figure 3.
Figure 3. Production well
well design
design and
and schematic
schematic of
of the
the marine
marine hydrate
hydrate deposit
deposit at
at the
the SH7
SH7 site.
site.

2.2.2. Fracturing
2.2.2. Fracturing Crack
Crack Design
Design
The formation
The formationofof NGHNGH in host
in host sediment
sediment pore pore
spacespace
resultsresults in abulk
in a higher higher bulk modulus
modulus and increasedand
increased mechanical
mechanical strength. In strength.
an idealIn case,
an ideal
wherecase, where adeposit
a hydrate hydratehad deposit had a brittle
a sufficient sufficient brittle
response
to hydraulic fracturing, our model would provide a base case with which actual testing can can
response to hydraulic fracturing, our model would provide a base case with which actual testing be
be compared
compared in to
in order order tothe
assess assess the likelihood
likelihood of artificial of artificialof fracturing
fracturing of inducing
inducing additional additional
permeability in
permeability in semi-consolidated marine sediments, which, without NGH,
semi-consolidated marine sediments, which, without NGH, would be expected to respond in a more would be expected to
respond in a more mechanically-ductile
mechanically-ductile manner. manner.
This paper
This paper addresses
addresses vertical
verticalwell
wellfracturing
fracturingcracks.
cracks.WhenWhen fracturing
fracturinga target formation,
a target formation,the key
the
parameters of cracks are not only affected by the stress distribution of the formation,
key parameters of cracks are not only affected by the stress distribution of the formation, but are also but are also
closelyrelated
closely relatedtoto thethe physical
physical and and mechanical
mechanical properties
properties of the
of the rock androck and jet parameters
jet parameters [43].
[43]. Therefore,
Therefore,
in in athis
this paper, paper, a simplification
reasonable reasonable simplification of crackwas
of crack fracturing fracturing was performed:
performed:
1. To consider the influence of the main fracture, secondary cracks after fracturing were ignored;
1. To consider the influence of the main fracture, secondary cracks after fracturing were ignored;
2. Cracks only formed in the horizontal direction;
2. Cracks only formed in the horizontal direction;
3. There was only water in the cracks, without hydrate or broken rock particles.
3. There was only water in the cracks, without hydrate or broken rock particles.
As shown in Figure 4, the crack length was Lf = 40 m. The cracks were divided into spacing
As shown
categories, l = in Figure
1 m, 2 m, 34,m,
theand
crack
5 m,length was height,
and crack Lf = 40 hm. The
= 10 cracks
mm, were divided
respectively, into
for one, spacing
three, and
five cracks.l = 1 m, 2 m, 3 m, and 5 m, and crack height, h = 10 mm, respectively, for one, three, and
categories,
five cracks.
Energies 2017, 10, 1241 7 of 16
Energies 2017, 10, 1241 7 of 16

Figure 4. Fracturing cracks diagram.

Figure 4. Fracturing cracks diagram.

The
Thepermeability
permeability ofofthe
theporous
porousmedium
mediumvaried
variedaccording
accordingtotothe
theporosity.
porosity. The
Theporosity
porosityand
and
permeability
permeabilityhave
havethe
thefollowing
followingrelationships
relationships[4446]:
[4446]:
 n
k = = (1)
= FS =
(1)
k0 0

c n
 
k
==
FS== (2)
(2)
k0 0
c
wherekk0 0isisthe
where theformation
formationpermeability,
permeability,kkisisthe theformation
formationpermeability
permeabilityafter afterthe
theporosity change,0
porositychange,
isisthe
theformation
formationporosity,
porosity,
isisthe
theporosity
porosityof ofthe
theformation
formation after
after the
the change, and c isisaanon-zero
change, and non-zero
criticalporosity.
critical porosity.In InEquation
Equation(1),
(1),nnisis22or or3;3;ininEquation
Equation(2),
(2),nnisis10
10orormore.
more.After
Aftercalculations,
calculations,the
the
permeabilityofofthe
permeability thecracks
crackswas
was5.2 101313m
5.2 10 m22when
whenhh==1010mm.
mm.Table
Table22shows
showsthethecracks
cracksparameters.
parameters.

Table2.2.Parameters
Table Parametersofofcracks
cracksand
andoriginal
originalformations.
formations.

Parameter
Parameter Value
Value of of Cracks
Cracks Value
Value of of Original
Original Formation
Formation
Crack quantity 1, 3, 5 0
Crack quantity 1, 3, 5 0
Crack spacing
Crack spacing 1 m, 2 m,m,
1 m, 2 3 m,3 m,
5 m5 m 0 0
Crack permeability
Crack permeability 5.25.2 10 mm(10
10 13
13 2 2 (10 mm)
mm) 7.51010
7.5 m2m2
14 14

3.3.Simulation
SimulationResults
Resultsand
andDiscussion
Discussion
Asshown
As showninin Table
Table 2, carried
2, we we carried out numerical
out numerical simulations
simulations using
using two twoparameters
group group parameters
to analyze to
analyze the effects on the depressurization efficiency of crack quantity and other parameters.
the effects on the depressurization efficiency of crack quantity and other parameters. A crack quantity A crack
quantity
of of 0toreferred
0 referred to the
the hydrate hydrate
layer beforelayer before fracturing.
fracturing. Whenquantity
When the crack the crackwas
quantity was
equal to equalwas
1, there to 1,
there was one crack in the hydrate layer. When the crack quantity was equal to 3,
one crack in the hydrate layer. When the crack quantity was equal to 3, there were three cracks in the there were three
cracks in
hydrate the hydrate
layers. When layers.
the crack When the crack
quantity was quantity waswas
1, the crack 1, the crackin
located was
thelocated
center in
of the
the center of the
production
production interval. When the crack quantities were 3 and 5, the middle crack
interval. When the crack quantities were 3 and 5, the middle crack was located in the center of the was located in the
center of the production interval. The distributions of the remaining
production interval. The distributions of the remaining cracks are shown in Table 3. cracks are shown in Table 3.
Energies 2017, 10, 1241 8 of 16

Table 3. Simulation number and crack variable settings.

Energies 2017, 10, 1241 8 of 16
Group Simulation Number Crack Quantity Crack Height/mm Crack Spacing/m
1-1 0 0 0
Table 3. Simulation number and crack variable settings.
1-2 1 10 0
1
1-3 3 10 2
Group Simulation Number Crack Quantity Crack Height/mm Crack Spacing/m
1-4 5 10 1
1-1 0 0 0
2-1 3 10 1
1-2 1 10 0
1 2-2 1-3 3 3 1010 22
2
2-3 1-4 3 5 1010 13
2-4 2-1 3 3 1010 15
2-2 3 10 2
2
2-3 3 10 3
3.1. Effect of Crack Quantity on2-4
the Efficiency of Natural
3
Gas Hydrate Exploited
10
by Depressurization
5
To study the effect of crack quantity on depressurization efficiency, four kinds of crack
3.1. Effect ofwere
parameters Crackused
Quantity onfirst
in the the Efficiency
group. Theof Natural
spatial Gas Hydrate Exploited
distributions of SH, P,byand
Depressurization
CH4 gas production
rates To
andstudy
cumulative
the effect of crack quantity on depressurization efficiency, four under
volumes of the natural gas hydrate layer were compared kinds different
of crack
fracturing conditions.
parameters were used in the first group. The spatial distributions of S , P, and CH gas production
H 4
rates and cumulative volumes of the natural gas hydrate layer were compared under different
3.1.1. Spatial Distributions of SH
fracturing conditions.
Figure 5 shows the distribution of SH after one month and one year of depressurization under
3.1.1.conditions.
four Spatial Distributions
Figure 5A of SH the SH distribution after one month of exploitation. As the crack
shows
quantity increased,
Figure 5 showsNGH dissociationofarea
the distribution increased
SH after and NGH
one month dissociated
and one faster in the fracturing
year of depressurization under
area. In the earlyFigure
four conditions. stage of5Adissociation,
shows the StheH fracturing
distribution cracks
after (cracks)
one month promoted
of NGH
exploitation. dissociation;
As the crack
Figure 5B represents S distribution after one year of exploitation. According to
quantity increased, NGH dissociation area increased and NGH dissociated faster in the fracturing area.
H Figure 5B, the
disadvantages
In the early stage of of
depressurization
dissociation, theare obvious;cracks
fracturing NGH(cracks)
dissociation was NGH
promoted seriously inhibited,Figure
dissociation; mainly 5B
due to insufficient energy supply, low heat efficiency and mass transfer property, and
represents SH distribution after one year of exploitation. According to Figure 5B, the disadvantages of gas migration
channels. Figure are
depressurization 5B obvious;
1-1 andNGH 1-2 dissociation
show that secondary
was seriouslynatural gas mainly
inhibited, hydrates dueappear at the
to insufficient
decomposition
energy supply, low front. Because
heat of the
efficiency andlarge
massamount
transferof CH4 in and
property, the gas
production
migration wells, as well
channels. as the
Figure 5B
endothermic reaction of hydrate decomposition, the decomposition front increases
1-1 and 1-2 show that secondary natural gas hydrates appear at the decomposition front. Because in pressure,
decreases
of the large in amount
temperature,
of CHand forms secondary natural gas hydrates. Figure 5B demonstrates that,
4 in the production wells, as well as the endothermic reaction of hydrate
when the NGH layer
decomposition, contains three or
the decomposition fiveincreases
front cracks, the hydrate decomposition
in pressure, rate was promoted.
decreases in temperature, and forms In
comparison with Figure 5B 1-3 and 1-4, the rate of NGH dissociation increased
secondary natural gas hydrates. Figure 5B demonstrates that, when the NGH layer contains three orwith increasing the
crack quantity
five cracks, theand decreasing
hydrate the crackrate
decomposition spacings. Therefore,Inthe
was promoted. spacings ofwith
comparison the Figure
cracks have
5B 1-3a and
certain
1-4,
effect on hydrate efficiency.
the rate of NGH dissociation increased with increasing the crack quantity and decreasing the crack
spacings. Therefore, the spacings of the cracks have a certain effect on hydrate efficiency.

Figure 5. Cont.
 Energies 2017, 10, 1241 9 of 16
Energies 2017, 10, 1241 9 of 16
Energies 2017, 10, 1241 9 of 16

Figure 5. (A) Hydrate distribution at one month; (B) Hydrate distribution at one year.
Figure
Figure5.5.(A)
(A)Hydrate
Hydratedistribution
distributionat
atone
onemonth;
month;(B)
(B)Hydrate
Hydratedistribution
distributionat
atone
oneyear.
year.
3.1.2. Spatial Distributions of P
3.1.2.
3.1.2.Spatial
Spatial6Distributions
Figure Distributions of
ofPP
shows the distribution of P after one month and one year by depressurization under
fourFigure
conditions. When the temperature was 14 one C, the equilibrium pressure of methane hydrate was
Figure 66 shows
shows the the distribution
distribution of of PP after
after one month
month andand one
one year
year byby depressurization
depressurization under under
approximately 11
four MPa [47]. When the pressure was lower than thepressure
equilibriummethane
pressure, the hydrate
fourconditions.
conditions. When Whenthethetemperature
temperaturewas was14 14C, C,the
theequilibrium
equilibrium pressureof of methanehydrate
hydratewas was
began to decompose.
approximately Figure 6A shows that the ratelower of the pressure drop within the NGH-saturated
approximately 11 11 MPa
MPa [47].
[47].When
Whenthe thepressure
pressurewas was lowerthan thanthe
theequilibrium
equilibriumpressure,
pressure,thethehydrate
hydrate
host strata
began increased upon increasing the fracturing cracks in the initial stage. Figure 6B shows that
beganto to decompose.
decompose.Figure Figure6A 6Ashows
showsthat thatthe therate
rateof
of the
the pressure
pressure drop
drop within
within the
the NGH-saturated
NGH-saturated
the rate ofincreased
host the pressure drop within the NGH-saturated crackshost strata decreased gradually. Moreover,
host strata
strata increased upon upon increasing
increasing thefracturing
the fracturingcracks inin the
the initial
initial stage.
stage. Figure
Figure 6B 6B shows
shows thatthat
the
the
the rate of the pressure drop within the NGH-saturated host strata, with fracturing cracks, was higher
raterate of pressure
of the the pressuredropdrop
within within the NGH-saturated
the NGH-saturated host strata
host strata decreased
decreased gradually.
gradually. Moreover,Moreover,
the rate
than
the the
rate oforiginal NGHdrop
the pressure strata. Comparing
within the radius ofhost
the NGH-saturated the pressure drop under the fourwas
conditions,
of the pressure drop within the NGH-saturated host strata,strata, with fracturing
with fracturing cracks,cracks,
was higher higher
than
the
than rate of the
the original pressure
NGH drop
strata. and the
Comparing CH 4 collection within the NGH-saturated host strata increased
the radius of the pressure drop under
the original NGH strata. Comparing the radius of the pressure drop under the the
fourfour conditions,
conditions, the
with
the ratefracturing
of the cracks,
pressure dropandand the thecracks
CH avoided within
collection the formation
the of secondary
NGH-saturated host hydrates
strata at the
increased
rate of the pressure drop and the CH4 collection within the NGH-saturated host strata increased with
4
decomposition
with fracturing front. In and
the undecomposed regionthe of natural gas hydrate, the transfer rateatofthe
the
fracturing cracks,cracks,
and the cracks theavoided
cracks the avoided
formation formation
of secondaryofhydrates
secondary hydrates
at the decomposition
pressure
decompositiondrop first increased in the
front. In the undecomposed presence of fracturing cracks, and then decreased with increasing
front. In the undecomposed region of naturalregion of natural
gas hydrate, gas hydrate,
the transfer rate ofthe
thetransfer
pressure rate of first
drop the
crack quantities.
pressure drop first increased in the presence of fracturing cracks, and then decreased with increasing
increased in the presence of fracturing cracks, and then decreased with increasing crack quantities.
crack quantities.

Figure 6. (A) Pressure distribution at one month; (B) Hydrate distribution at one year.
Figure 6. (A) Pressure distribution at one month; (B) Hydrate distribution at one year.
Figure 6. (A) Pressure distribution at one month; (B) Hydrate distribution at one year.
Energies 2017, 10, 1241 10 of 16
Energies 2017, 10, 1241 10 of 16

3.1.3. Production Rate and Cumulative Volume of CH4

3.1.3.Figure
Production Ratethe
7 shows andCHCumulative Volume
4 production of CH
rate and the
4 cumulative volume curve after one year of
depressurization under the four conditions. The CH4 production rate first increased and then
Figure 7 shows the CH4 production rate and the cumulative volume curve after one year of
decreased, reaching its maximum in 40 days. At that time, the CH4 gas production rates of 1-3 and 1-
depressurization under the four conditions. The CH4 production rate first increased and then decreased,
4 were significantly greater than that of 1-1. This is because, in the initial stage of hydrate dissolution,
reaching its maximum in 40 days. At that time, the CH4 gas production rates of 1-3 and 1-4 were
the porosity and permeability of the NGH-saturated host strata with fracturing cracks was higher
significantly greater than that of 1-1. This is because, in the initial stage of hydrate dissolution, the
than that of the original NGH strata, so the NGH could be decomposed faster. Thus, CH4 was rapidly
porosity and permeability of the NGH-saturated host strata with fracturing cracks was higher than that
discharged.
of the original NGH strata, so the NGH could be decomposed faster. Thus, CH4 was rapidly discharged.

Figure 7. Production rate and cumulative volume of CH4.

Figure 7. Production rate and cumulative volume of CH4 .

In the early stages of exploitation, the CH4 gas production rate of 1-2 was higher than that of
In thedissociation
1-1. NGH early stageswas of exploitation,
faster from athe CH4fracture,
single gas production
and the rate
CH4of 1-2 was higher
migration rate was than thatAt
small. ofthis
1-1.
NGH dissociation was faster from a single fracture,
time, one crack did not promote hydrate decomposition. Comparing and the CH 4 migration rate was small.
the CH4 gas production rates of At this
1-3, 1-4, and 1-1 showed that the rate of CH4 production increased with CH
time, one crack did not promote hydrate decomposition. Comparing the 4 gas production
increasing rates of
crack quantities.
1-3, 1-4, and 1-1 showed that the rate of CH production increased with increasing
As the crack quantities increased, the porosity and permeability of the fractured area increased, which
4 crack quantities.
As the crack
enlarged the quantities
diameter of increased, the porosity
the gas migration and permeability
channels of the fractured
for CH4 migration area increased,
into the production which
wells, and
enlarged the diameter of the gas migration channels for CH migration
promoted NGH decomposition. However, compared with the CH4 production rates of 1-3 and 1-4,
4 into the production wells, anda
promoted NGH decomposition. However, compared
crack quantity of greater than three weakened the hydrate dissociation with the CH 4 production rates
efficiency rate. of 1-3 and 1-4, a
crackAs quantity of greater than three weakened the hydrate dissociation efficiency
exploitation progressed (after 190 days), the 1-2 fracturing effect became apparent and the rate.
CH4 gas productionprogressed
As exploitation (afterand
rate increased 190 days), the 1-2
exceeded thatfracturing effect
of 1-1. This becamewas
finding apparent and because
observed the CH4
gas production rate increased and exceeded that of 1-1. This finding was
fracturing can promote a pressure drop in the internal hydrate layer and promote the decomposition observed because fracturing
canthe
of promote
hydrate a pressure drop in the
as exploitation internal hydrate
progressed. layer and
At the same time,promote
one crackthe decomposition
can effectively of the hydrate
transport the
as exploitation progressed. At the same time, one crack can effectively
decomposed CH4 into the production well because of the lower rate of natural gas hydrate4 transport the decomposed CH
into the production
dissociation, thereby well because the
reducing of the lower rate
pressure of of
thenatural gas hydratefront
decomposition dissociation, thereby reducing
and increasing the CH4
the pressure of the decomposition front and increasing the CH production
production rate. After 300 days, the CH4 production rate tended to stabilize, and the effects on
4 rate. After 300 days,
the
the CH production
depressurization
4 rate tended to stabilize, and the effects on the depressurization
efficiency of the fractured NGH reservoir was obvious. At the same time, the CH efficiency of the4
fractured NGH
production ratesreservoir
increasedwas obvious.
by 10.48%, At theand
19.85%, same time,respectively,
25.62%, the CH4 production rates increased
and the cumulative volume by
10.48%, 19.85%, and 25.62%, respectively, and the cumulative volume of
of CH4 increased by 0.67%, 19.07%, and 25.87%, respectively, in comparison with 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, and 1- CH 4 increased by 0.67%,
19.07%, and 25.87%,
1. Increasing the number respectively, in comparison
of cracks greatly improved with
the 1-2, 1-3, gas
natural 1-4,hydrate
and 1-1.decomposition
Increasing theefficiency
number
of cracks
by greatly improved
depressurization. Comparing the natural
the three gas hydrate of
quantities decomposition
cracks, the 1-3efficiency
CH4 production by depressurization.
rate increased
Comparing the three quantities of cracks, the 1-3 CH production
by 8.51%, and the cumulative volume of CH4 increased by 18.27% over 1-2. When comparing 1-4
4 rate increased by 8.51%, andwith
the
cumulative volume
1-3, the CH4 production rateof CH increased by 18.27% over 1-2. When comparing
4 increased by 4.81% and the cumulative volume of CH4 increased by 1-4 with 1-3, the CH 4
production rate increased by 4.81% and the cumulative volume of CH increased
5.71%. Overall, as the number of fractured cracks increased from one to three to five, the efficiency of
4 by 5.71%. Overall, as
the number
NGH of fractured
dissociation cracks increased
first increased and thenfrom one to three to five, the efficiency of NGH dissociation
decreased.
first increased and then decreased.
Energies 2017, 10, 1241 11 of 16
Energies 2017, 10, 1241 11 of 16

3.2. Effect of Crack Spacing on the Efficiency of Natural Gas Hydrate Exploited by Depressurization
Depressurization
From the distribution of SH H in Figure 5, the cracks promoted NGH dissociation by

depressurization,and
depressurization, andthethe dissociation
dissociation ratesrates varied
varied according
according to the
to the crack crackconditions.
spacing spacing conditions.
Therefore,
Therefore,
when whenspacing
the crack the crackwasspacing was the appropriate
the appropriate value,
value, the rate of the
NGH rate of NGH dissociation
dissociation was the
was the highest in
highest
that in that fracturing
fracturing region. region.

3.2.1. CH44 Production

Production Rate
Rate and
and Cumulative
Cumulative Volume
Volume

Figure 88 shows
shows the the CHCH4 production rate and cumulative volume after five years years ofof
depressurization exploitation under four crack spacing conditions. The CH
depressurization exploitation under four crack spacing conditions. The CH4 production rate did not
4 production rate did
not
havehave a large
a large disparity
disparity at the
at the initial
initial stage
stage ofofexploitation,
exploitation,and
andCHCH4 4gasgasproduction
production rates
rates gradually
decreased with the progression of exploitation.
exploitation. The CH4 production
production rate of the hydrate layer, l
rate of l =3
=3
m, was considerably greater than those of the other three conditions at the same time. By observing
the cumulative volume curve of CH44,, under under the
the conditions
conditions of l == 11 m, l
of l l == 2 m, and l l = 5 m, the
cumulative volume of CH4 was similar. However, the cumulative volume of CH4 was higher under
the condition of l l = 3 m, and the cumulative volume of CH4 was increased by 21.14%, 26.19%, and
17.78% for the conditions of l l = 1 m, l l = 2 m and l respectively. Comparing l
l = 5 m, respectively. l = 3 m and
the original NGH layer in Figure 7, the cumulative volume volume of CH44 increased
increased by by 43.49%
43.49%in in one
one year.
year.
The results show that the fracturing effect has the most obvious influence on the
results show that the fracturing effect has the most obvious influence on the NGH productionNGH production and
the
andproduction efficiency
the production is theis highest
efficiency when
the highest the crack
when spacing
the crack is lis=l
spacing 3 m.
= 3 To
m.determine
To determinewhywhythe
CH production rates and cumulative volumes were considerably greater than those
the 4CH4 production rates and cumulative volumes were considerably greater than those of the other of the other three
conditions, the SHthe
three conditions, distributions of these
SH distributions four conditions
of these were analyzed.
four conditions were analyzed.

Figure 8. The production rate and the cumulative volume curve of CH in the gas hydrate layer with
Figure 8. The production rate and the cumulative volume curve of CH44 in the gas hydrate layer with
three cracks under different crack spacings (l = 1 m, 2 m, 3 m, 5 m) were exploited by 5 MPa in
three cracks under different crack spacings (l = 1 m, 2 m, 3 m, 5 m) were exploited by 5 MPa in five
five years.
years.

3.2.2. Spatial Distribution

3.2.2. Spatial Distribution of
of S
SHH
Figure 99 shows
Figure showsthethedistribution
distributionofofSHSHafter one
after year
one andand
year fivefive
years of depressurization
years of depressurizationunder four
under
crack
four crack spacing conditions. One year after the exploitation, the smaller crack spacing of 2-1 ledthe
spacing conditions. One year after the exploitation, the smaller crack spacing of 2-1 led to to
complete dissociation
the complete of NGH
dissociation of NGHaround the crack
around areas;
the crack NGH
areas; dissociation
NGH in a non-fracturing
dissociation in a non-fracturingarea area
was
slower. WithWith
was slower. 2-2, 2-2,
we wecancan
seesee
thatthat
thethe
crack
crackspacing
spacingwaswasmoderate
moderateand andNGH
NGHaround
aroundthe the fracturing
fracturing
area
area dissociated faster. The distances among the three cracks in 2-4 were larger, and the upper and
dissociated faster. The distances among the three cracks in 2-4 were larger, and the upper and
lower cracks were
lower cracks were closer
closer to
to the
the upper
upper and
and lower boundaries of
lower boundaries of the
the NGH
NGH layer,
layer, which
which promoted
promoted the the
dissociation of the upper and lower NGH. Because of the large distance between adjacent
dissociation of the upper and lower NGH. Because of the large distance between adjacent cracks, the cracks, the
NGH dissociation between cracks had no obvious effect. In 2-3, the NGH dissociation among the
Energies 2017, 10, 1241 12 of 16

NGH dissociation between cracks had no obvious effect. In 2-3, the NGH dissociation among the
Energies 2017, 10, 1241 12 of 16
cracks was promoted by the interactions between two adjacent cracks. Since the upper and lower
cracks in 2-3
cracks wasarepromoted
closer toby thetheupper and lower
interactions boundaries
between of the
two adjacent hydrate
cracks. layer
Since than those
the upper in 2-2, the
and lower
cracks
cracks in 2-3
in this areaareappear
closer to the upper
larger and lower
and their role inboundaries of the hydrateislayer
NGH decomposition more than those inIt2-2,
obvious. canthebe seen
fromcracks
Figurein9B this areaafter
that, appear
fivelarger
yearsand their role in NGH
of exploitation, the decomposition
cracks in 2-1 and is more obvious.
2-2 are more It can be seen and
concentrated,
fromofFigure
the rate NGH9B that, after five
dissociation years ofin
is greater exploitation, the cracks
the fracturing area. in 2-1 and
NGH in the2-2fracturing
are more concentrated,
area was limited
and the rate of NGH dissociation is greater in the fracturing area. NGH in the fracturing area was
by the heat compensation mechanism; the temperature of the cracking area gradually reduced and
limited by the heat compensation mechanism; the temperature of the cracking area gradually reduced
formed secondary hydrates, which inhibited NGH dissociation to a certain extent. When l = 3 m, the
and formed secondary hydrates, which inhibited NGH dissociation to a certain extent. When l = 3
threem,cracks were distributed in the upper, middle, and lower regions of the NGH layer, respectively.
the three cracks were distributed in the upper, middle, and lower regions of the NGH layer,
The cracks
respectively.only
not The promoted NGH
cracks not only dissociation
promoted NGHaround fracturing
dissociation aroundregions,
fracturingbut also promoted
regions, but also the
dissociation
promotedofthe the upper and
dissociation oflower NGH
the upper andlayers. The NGH
lower NGH layers.dissociation range could
The NGH dissociation rangeincrease
could and
the concentration
increase and the of concentration
the NGH dissociation
of the NGHregion could region
dissociation be avoided,
could be which would
avoided, prevent
which would a local
prevent adecrease
temperature local temperature decrease
and a pressure and a pressure
increase, increase,
which reduces which
the reduces
inhibition of the
theinhibition of the
hydrate dissociation
hydrate
via the thermaldissociation via the thermal
compensation compensation
mechanism. mechanism.
Meanwhile, Meanwhile,
the cracks the cracks
in 2-4 were in 2-4and
far apart werethe
far NGH
apart and the NGH dissociation rate was small. This also revealed that the CH
dissociation rate was small. This also revealed that the CH4 production rate and cumulative volume 4 production rate and

cumulative volume were much higher than those of the other three cases, where the crack spacing
were much higher than those of the other three cases, where the crack spacing was l = 3 m.
was l = 3 m.

Figure 9. The hydrate distribution in the gas hydrate layer with three cracks under different crack
Figure 9. The hydrate distribution in the gas hydrate layer with three cracks under different crack
spacings (l = 1 m, 2 m, 3 m, 5 m) exploited by 5 MPa. (A) Hydrate distribution at one year; (B)
spacings (l = 1 m, 2 m, 3 m, 5 m) exploited by 5 MPa. (A) Hydrate distribution at one year; (B) Hydrate
Hydrate distribution at five years.
distribution at five years.
Energies 2017, 10, 1241 13 of 16

4. Conclusions
In this paper, an NGH reservoir was simulated using TOUGH+HYDRATE v1.0 via the
depressurization method, and the effects on production efficiency of a variably-fractured NGH
reservoir were compared. Analyses on the change in distribution of SH , P, as well as the CH4 production
rate and the cumulative volume under different crack quantities, crack heights, and crack spacings are
as follows:

1. The exploitation of a fractured NGH reservoir using the depressurization method increased
the transfer rate of the pressure drop to the interior NGH layer, and adjacent cracks promoted
hydrate decomposition.
2. The exploitation of a fractured NGH reservoir using the depressurization method increased CH4
production rates by a maximum of 25.62%, and CH4 production rates increased with increasing
crack quantity, although the growth range was reduced.
3. The exploitation of NGH reservoirs with different crack spacings (l = 1 m, 2 m, 3 m and 5 m)
using the depressurization method initially increased, and then decreased the CH4 production
rate and cumulative volume, which indicated that l = 3 m was the most favorable crack spacing
for NGH exploitation, and the cumulative volume of CH4 increased by 43.49%.

In addition, the increase in productivity in points 2 and 3 was suggested by the numerical
simulation, but has not been validated in the field.
In conclusion, the fracturing effect can effectively improve the exploitation efficiency of natural
gas hydrate reservoirs. When the crack quantity was three and the crack spacing was l = 3 m, the
natural gas hydrate exploitation efficiency was the most obvious.

Acknowledgments: This study has been supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China
(Grant No.41672361, Grant No. 41502343 and Grant No. 51474112).
Author Contributions: Lin Yang analyzed the data and wrote the manuscript. Lin Yang, Yong Chen and Xitong Li
performed the simulations. Rui Jia, Lin Yang and Chen Chen conceived the original ideas. All authors discussed
the results and commented on the manuscript. Chen Chen, Youhong Sun and Wei Guo directed the overall project.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Notation
z position of HBL below ocean surface (m)
ZH HBL thickness (m)
H1 Depth of HBL below seafloor (m)
H2 Depth of seafloor (m)
G Thermal gradient below seafloor ( C/m)
P0 Initial pressure (at base of HBL) (MPa)
P Production pressure (MPa)
Pcap Capillary pressure (MPa)
P01 Atmosphere pressure (Pa)
T0 Initial temperature (at base of HBL) ( C)
kx, ky, kz Intrinsic permeability (m2 )
kc Permeability of fracturing cracks (h2 = 10 mm) (m2 )
krA Aqueous relative permeability (m2 )
krG Gas relative permeability (m2 )
Kdry Dry thermal conductivity (W/(kg C))
Kwet Wet thermal conductivity (W/(kg C))
K Thermal conductivity (W/(kg C))
Porosity
$R Grain density (kg/m3 )
SH Saturation of natural gas hydrate
SA Saturation of aqueous
Energies 2017, 10, 1241 14 of 16

r Radius (m)
Xs Salinity
Van Genuchten exponentTable 1
h Crack height (mm)
Lf Crack length (m)
l Crack spacing (m)

Subscripts and Superscripts

A Aqueous phase
B Base of HBL
cap Capillary
G Gas phase
HBL Hydrate-bear layer
irA Irreducible aqueous phase
irG Irreducible gas
n Permeability reduction exponentTable 1
nG Gas permeability reduction exponentTable 1
OB Overburden
UB Underburden

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