E s s e n t i a l C h e m i s t r y f o r C a m b r i d g e I G C S E 2 nd E d i t i o n

Expert Tips for Practical Work 1:

Using a burette
A burette is used to deliver a volume of liquid with an accuracy of at least 0.1 cm3.
It is used either:
in a titration, e.g. to find the volume of acid which neutralises a fixed volume
of alkali
to deliver an accurate volume of liquid into a container such as a test-tube or
small beaker.

Tips for setting up a burette

Before filling the burette you should rinse it with some of the liquid to be used
in it, then allow some of the solution to drain through the tip of the burette.
This removes any other substances if the burette is not completely dry.
Make sure that the burette is clamped vertically. If it is clamped at even a slight
angle, the readings will be incorrect. Burette
Use a funnel to add the solution to the burette. This prevents the liquid running tap open
down the side of the burette and getting trapped as drips on the side of the tap.
When you first pour liquid into the burette, leave the tap open with a small
empty beaker below to make sure that there are no air bubbles in the tip of
the burette. Then close the tap when there are no more air bubbles. You may
be able to remove air bubbles by tapping the end of the burette gently.
Mouth
Make sure that you remove the funnel from the burette when you have filled of flask
it, otherwise drops of liquid in the funnel may fall into the burette during the
titration. The correct position for the tip of the burette

Tips for using the burette

Arrange the titration flask so that the burette tip is just inside the mouth of
the flask.
Turn the burette tap with your left hand (or right hand if you are left-handed).
This leaves the other hand free to shake the titration flask. If you are using a
burette where the tap is easily removed, remember not to pull at the tap in
case it comes loose.
Run in the solution from the burette while shaking the flask (with indicator in
it) from side to side or with a gentle swirling movement. The flask should not
be shaken up and down because drops of the solution may stick to the side of
the flask.
When doing the accurate titration (rather than the rough titration), add the
solution from the burette one drop at a time when you are 1 cm3 from the end
point. This stops you from overshooting the end point and getting too high a
value for the titre.

Tips for taking burette readings

When taking the initial burette reading, adjust the level to a definite
graduation mark.
Take the reading from the bottom of the meniscus.
The meniscus is seen more clearly if a piece of white card is placed behind it. Reading a burette. Your eye should be level with
the bottom of the meniscus.

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Expert Tips for Practical Work 2:

Using pipettes and measuring cylinders:
making accurate measurements
A volumetric pipette is used to deliver a fixed volume of liquid accurately.
A graduated pipette is rather like a burette in that different volumes of liquid
Graduation mark
can be delivered. for 25.0 cm3

Tips for using a volumetric pipette

Pour some of the solution to be used into a beaker or a flask.
Using a pipette filler, suck some of solution then let it drain out into the sink
(unless you have only a limited amount of solution to use).
When sucking up the solution, keep the tip of the pipette below the surface of
the solution to stop air bubbles getting into the pipette.
Fill the pipette so that the liquid level is just above the graduation mark, then
remove the pipette tip from the beaker. (a) a volumetric pipette for measuring one fixed
Slowly let a little of the liquid out of the pipette until the meniscus of the volume of liquid, e.g. 25.0 cm3
liquid is level with the graduation mark.
Run the liquid in the pipette into a clean flask. Allow the liquid to drain
completely by keeping the tip of the pipette in contact with the flask.
Dont blow out the tiny amount of solution remaining in the tip of the pipette.

20
Accuracy in measuring volumes of liquids 15

Think about the accuracy needed in your measurements. A volumetric pipette 12.4 cm3
10

or a burette is very accurate. The scale divisions on a burette or a graduated 5

pipette may be read to the nearest 0.1 cm3. 0

Measuring cylinders are less accurate. They can usually be read only to the
nearest 1 cm3 or 2 cm3. The larger the measuring cylinder, the less accurate
it is. So you use them only when approximate volumes of liquids are being
measured.

(b) a graduated pipette can deliver variable

Making accurate measurements volumes accurately, e.g. 12.4 cm3
Accurate measurements are very close to the true value. You are most likely to
get accurate results if you:
use apparatus with small scale divisions
use the apparatus carefully
repeat your measurements in the same way each time.

Precision and accuracy

If your repeated measurements are closely grouped together, e.g. the results
of a titration are 20.4, 20.3, 20.3 and 20.4, the data is said to be precise it is
reliable.
If your repeated measurements are far apart, e.g. the results of a titration are
20.4, 20.8, 20.0 and 20.3, the data is less precise.

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 E s s e n t i a l C h e m i s t r y f o r C a m b r i d g e I G C S E 2 nd E d i t i o n

Expert Tips for Practical Work 3:

Rates of reaction; Measuring time,
temperature and volumes
Gas volumes can be measured using either a gas syringe or an upturned measuring cylinder full of water.

General tips for using stop-clocks and stopwatches

For most experiments in chemistry you will need to measure time only to the nearest second.
The main source of error using a stop-clock is the random error when you start or stop the clock.
Practice starting and stopping the stop-clock before carrying out any experiment.
Make sure that you can take readings from apparatus quickly and accurately.
When working in groups, make sure that one person operates the stop-clock and someone else
takes readings, e.g. of gas volumes, temperature or mass.

Tips for timing gas volumes

Know how fast your reaction is going. If it is a very fast reaction, you will need to take readings of
gas volumes and times very rapidly, e.g. every 20 seconds. If the reaction is slow, you may need to
take readings of volume and time only once every minute.
Unless it is in an examination, you can slow down a reaction by diluting a solution or lowering the
temperature (using a water bath or large beaker of water at fixed temperature). This lowers the
errors in both timing and reading the volume of gas.
Practice reading volumes from the gas syringe or measuring cylinder inverted under water. It is
more likely that there will be errors in measuring volumes rather than in measuring time.
When measuring volumes and times at the same moment, it is better to arrange that fixed volumes
are selected, e.g. 10 cm3, 20 cm3, 30 cm3 because it is more accurate to press the stop-clock off
when a particular volume has been reached than to take the time and then spend a few seconds
trying to read the volume of gas.

Tips for measuring temperature

Practice reading the scale of the thermometer before carrying out any experiment.
When measuring the temperature of a liquid, make sure that the liquid is stirred so that there are
no hot spots in the liquid where the temperature is higher or lower.
If you are asked to use the thermometer to stir a liquid before taking the temperature, make sure
that you keep the thermometer away from the sides of the container.
When measuring the temperature of a liquid, make sure that you keep the bulb of the
thermometer immersed in the liquid. Do not remove it to take the temperature.
You need to read the scale of the thermometer in practical work only to the nearest whole degree
Celsius. For example: 23 C.
For Paper 6 you may occasionally be given thermometer diagrams which require reading to the
nearest 0.5 C.

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 E s s e n t i a l C h e m i s t r y f o r C a m b r i d g e I G C S E 2 nd E d i t i o n

Expert Tips for Practical Work 4:

Presenting data
Drawing tables of results
Design your table before you start your experiment. Use the number of columns which will
accommodate all of your results, including repeat readings.
Each column in the table should be headed with the data to be collected as well as the correct
units, e.g. time / seconds; temperature / C.
The variable which you are fixing (independent variable) is usually put first in the table, and the one
which is dependent on these values is put second. For example, if you are measuring the volume of
gas given off in a reaction every 20 seconds, the table might look like this:

time
0 20 40 60 80 100
/s
volume of gas
/ cm3

or this:
time volume of gas
/s / cm3
0
20
40
60
80
100

These tables can be expanded to make room for repeat results:

1st experiment 2nd experiment 3rd experiment

time
volume of gas volume of gas volume of gas
/s
/ cm3 / cm3 / cm3
0
20
40
60
80
100

Dont forget that the number zero for time, volume or other quantity should be included in the table.
When filling in your table of results, check to see if a repeat result is close enough to the others to
be useful, and not an anomalous result.
When filling in your table of results, check to see if the independent variable is changing as you
expect it to.
Make sure that the range of data is enough to draw a sensible graph. For example, if the volumes
of gas in the above example are 3 cm3, 5 cm3, 6 cm3 and 8 cm3, the error in measuring these
volumes would be too great to draw sensible conclusions from the experiment.

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 E s s e n t i a l C h e m i s t r y f o r C a m b r i d g e I G C S E 2 nd E d i t i o n

Expert Tips for Practical Work 5:

Drawing graphs and charts
Drawing graphs
40
The independent variable (the one you fix) should

Rate of reaction (mol /dm3 /s)

be plotted on the horizontal axis and the dependent
variable (the one that is not fixed) should be plotted 30
on the vertical axis.
Make sure that you label each axis, including the
appropriate unit, e.g. volume of gas / cm3. 20

Spread out the figures so that the graph is used as

fully as possible.
10
Make sure that you use sensible ratios for the
numbers. For example, make one large square on the
graph correspond to 2, 5 or 10 units. 0
Mark the points on the graph by a cross (x) where the 0 1.0 2.0 3.0
centre of the cross is the actual point. Avoid using Concentration of reactant
(mol /dm3)
a (+) or a () because these symbols do not always
(a) a straight line of best fit
stand out against the lines on the graph paper.
Use a pencil that is not too hard (so that the line
Anomalous point
cannot be seen easily) or too soft (so that the line
30
becomes too thick).
Volume of gas (cm3)

Each point should be plotted to an accuracy of at

least one half of the smallest square on the grid.
20
When drawing the line of the graph, anomalous
points (those which do not fit the general trend of
the graph line) should be ignored.
10
The line drawn should be of best fit (a single smooth
curve or straight line ignoring any anomalous points).
It is best if there is an even distribution of points
0
either side of the line (see the diagram at the right). 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Time (s)
Bar charts and histograms (b) a curve of best fit

A bar chart should be drawn

when one of the variables is not a
number, e.g. it could be types of 30
Relative amount of fossil

100
fuels used worldwide

acids or petroleum fractions. They

Water used ( km3)

are narrow blocks of equal width 80

which do not touch. 20
60
A histogram should be drawn
when one of the variables is 40
shown as equal groups of 10
continuous numbers, e.g. 09, 20
1019, 2029, 3039. These are 0
drawn as narrow blocks of equal
(estimated)
2000 2049
1800 1849

1900 1949
1850 1899

1950 1999

0
width which touch each other.
n
ia

sh

K
da
Ba lban

U
de
Su
la
A
ng

(a) a bar chart (b) a histogram

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Expert Tips for Practical Work 6:

Evidence from the data
Identifying patterns Try to avoid statements such as the rate of reaction
increases with temperature. A statement like this is too
The data from your table of results should allow you to vague because it does not state whether the temperature
draw a graph or at least see a general trend in the data. is increasing or decreasing.
A straight line graph can show if one variable is directly Your conclusions should not go any further than the
proportional to another. This is shown by a straight line evidence shows. For example, when investigating the
graph going through the origin, as in graph (a). effect of concentration of acid on the rate of reaction of
Graphs (b) and (c) are not directly proportional. The magnesium with sulfuric acid, you should assume that
most that we can say is that there is a positive linear the sulfuric acid reacts in exactly the same way when it is
relationship (b) or a negative linear relationship (c). very concentrated. The results apply only to the range of
concentrations you used.
40 40
Evaluating the evidence and commenting
30 30 on sources of error
20 20 There are several reasons why an experiment may not work as
you expected it to, or the results are not conclusive. You may be
10 10 asked to suggest why the experiment did not work, what the
sources of error were and how you could improve the results.
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Make sure that you know possible errors which may affect
(a) (b) your experiment. For experiments where temperatures
are being measured, it may be that heat is being lost to
the surroundings at different rates in repeat experiments.
40 In temperatures involving the release of carbon dioxide,
the results may not have taken into account that carbon
30 dioxide is quite soluble in aqueous solutions.
20 Try not to give answers to questions about sources of
error which are too vague, e.g. the masses and volumes
10 were not measured correctly.
Remember to repeat the experiment and take averages,
0
discarding any anomalous results.
0 1 2 3 4
(c)
Try to check on the reliability of your experiment by
comparison with other peoples results, or getting someone
(a) a proportional relationship (b) a positive linear relationship else to repeat your investigation. If there is an alternative
(c) a negative linear relationship method, try that to see whether you get the same results,
e.g. use a gas syringe to measure gas volumes instead of an
inverted measuring cylinder full of water.
Some graphs may be curved. In graph (a) to the right,
the reaction rate is increasing more and more as
Mass of reaction mixture

concentration increases. In graph (b) the mass of the

reaction mixture is decreasing with time.
Rate of reaction

Drawing conclusions
The conclusions drawn from your graphs or tables of data
should be written in the form: the higher the ., the
greater the ., or: the lower the ., the lower the .
Concentration of acid Time
For example, the higher the concentration of hydrochloric
(a) Two curved graphs (b)
acid, the greater the rate of reaction.

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